Physiology 001
Introduction to Human
Physiology Lab
By Professor Sara Huang
Physiology 1 Lab Requirements and Information
1. Follow the class policies listed in class syllabus and Schedule of Class of Los
Angeles Valley College.
2. Please do not eat or drink in the classroom.
3. Do not wear open- toe shoes to lab.
4. Read your lab manuals before coming to the lab.
5. Clean after yourself after each lab.
6. Work as a group. However, finish your write up individually. Otherwise you
will get zero.
7. Lab answer sheet will be collected at the end of each lab.
8. Each wrong answer will be deducted 0.25 point.
9. Each bad lab practice such as not to clean after yourself will be deducted 0.25
point.
II
Table Content
Lab
1
Title
Diffusion of molecules through a selective membrane
Page
1
2
The eyes and vision
5
3
The ears: Hearing and equilibrium
11
4
Cutaneous Sensation
15
5
Reflex Physiology
21
6
Endocrine system
27
7
Metabolism and nutrients
37
8
Muscle physiology (Physio. Ex Lab 10)
44
9
Electromyography I (Biopac)
46
10
Electrocardiography (Biopac)
57
11
Pulse and blood pressure
71
12
Hematocrit and blood type
75
13
Physiology of respiratory system
81
14
Urinalysis
100
15
Acid –Base Balance (Physio. Ex Lab 10)
107
16
Digestion
108
III
Lab 1 Diffusion of Molecules through a Selective Membrane
Name______________________________ Section __________________ (Turn in pages 1-4)
Prelab Reading
Cindy Stanfield 2013. Principle of Human Physiology Chapter 4.
I. Diffusion
Introductions
The plasma (cell) membrane is a selective permeable membrane that regulates the movement of
materials in and out of a cell or organelles. The plasma membrane is permeable to non polar
molecules such as oxygen gas and steroid hormones. It also allows small polar (uncharged)
molecules such as carbon dioxide, ethanol, urea and small amount of water to travel across the
membrane freely. The plasma membrane is not permeable to macromolecules, charged ions and
molecules; or other large polar molecules.
The random movement of molecules is called diffusion. The driving forces behind diffusion
are gradients such as concentration gradient, pressure gradient and electrical gradient. Molecules
move from high concentration region to low concentration region until the equilibrium is
reached.
In this exercise, we use two types of molecules: iodine (I2- KI) and starch to demonstrate
diffusion and the selective permeability of an artificial membrane. Lugol's iodine (I2 KI) is a
solution of made of 5% I2 and 10% KI. It is named after the French physician J.G.A. Lugol.
Lugol's iodine solution is often used as an antiseptic and disinfectant. In this lab, it is used as a
starch indicator. Iodine turns dark blue or black in the presence of starch. Starch is a
polysaccharide (macromolecule) frequently stored by plants and consumed by humans.
Dialysis membrane is a porous artificial selective membrane. We will place iodine and
starch on the opposite sides of a dialysis membrane to create a concentration gradient. We will
determine which molecule is able to travel across the membrane by observing the color change in
iodine and starch solution.
Predication and Hypothesis
Based on your knowledge about the sizes of the iodine and starch molecules, which type of
molecule is able to travel across the dialysis membrane? _________________
Materials
Two 100 ml beakers
Two dialysis membrane tubes
0.5% starch solution
0.5% diluted iodine solution
Rubber bands
Procedure
A. Set up A
1. Label one clean beaker as “A” and pour in one-third of diluted iodine solution
(light brown color).
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2. Take one dialysis membrane tube from the water. Twist and tie one end. Make sure
the length of the dialysis tube is smaller than the diameter of your 100 ml beaker.
Pour in about 5-6 ml of 1% starch solution from the open end. Twist and tie the
other end. Make sure that both ends are securely fastened and are not leaking.
3. Immerse the dialysis tube horizontally inside the diluted iodine solution (Figure
1a).
4. Swirl the beaker gently.
B. Set up B
1. Take another clean beaker and label it as “B” and pour in one-third of (1%) starch
solution into the beaker.
2. Take one dialysis membrane tube from the water. Twist and tie one end. Make
sure the length of the dialysis tube is smaller than the diameter of your 100 ml
beaker. Pour in about 5-6 ml of diluted iodine solution from the open end. Twist
and tie the other end. Make sure that both ends are securely fastened and are not
leaking.
3. Immerse the dialysis tube B into the starch in beaker “B” (Figure 1 B).
4. Swirl the beaker occasionally.
5. Stop both experiments when you observe the color change.
I2 KI beaker
Starch in tube
Figure 1 a. Experiment setup beaker A
Figure 1b. Experiment setup beaker B
C. Record your results in Table 1.
Table 1. Color change
Dialysis Tube A
Original
Contents Color
of Original Final Color
(Figures 1a and 1b)
Contents
Starch
Beaker A
Iodine
Dialysis Tube B
Iodine
Beaker B
Starch
Around the tube
1. For set up A:
a. Which one has the higher concentration of iodine? tube or beaker _________
b. Which one has the higher concentration of starch? tube or beaker __________
c. Which molecule traveled across the membrane? _____________
2. For setup B:
a. Which one has the higher concentration of iodine? tube or beaker _______
2
b. Which one has the higher concentration of starch? tube or beaker _______
c. Which molecule traveled across the membrane? __________________
3. Overall, the dialysis membrane is permeable to which molecule in this lab?
_______
•
•
•
Discard the dialysis tubes in a trash can.
Wash the beakers with warm soap, and rinse them with water.
Dry your beaker with a paper towel and place the clean beakers on the bench.
II. Filtration
Filtration is the movement of molecules across a selective membrane from a higher pressure
region to a lower pressure region. The net movement is driven by both osmotic and hydrostatic
pressure in a human body. Osmotic pressure is related to osmosis. It is an indirect measure of
solute concentration. Hydrostatic pressure refers to the pressure that any fluid in a confined space
exerts on its surroundings. For example, water in a bottle will exert pressure on the bottom and
the sides of the bottle. Hydrostatic pressure is an important force that drives fluid movement in
the cardiovascular system and the renal system.
In this experiment, we will examine the filtration of materials through a filter paper. The
porous filter paper allows small molecules such as salt and water to pass through. It will not let
larger materials to travel through. The presence of chloride ion is tested by using silver nitrate.
The silver nitrate will turn a solution into a milky color when it meets with chloride ions.
Materials
funnel, filter paper, ring stand, beaker, filtration mixture
Procedure
A. Fold your filter paper into a cone and fit it in a funnel.
B. Set the funnel in a ring stand (If there are no extra ring
stands, you may set the funnel right on the top of the
flask).
C. Pour 15 ml filtration mixture (small pieces of egg white,
NaCl and water) through the funnel.
D. Test the solution collected inside of the flask by using a
few drops of silver nitrate solution.
E. Examine the filter paper and record the materials did not
pass through the funnel ____________.
http://www.chemistry.mcmaster.ca/~chem2o6/labmanu
F. Clean all glass wares and place the filter paper into a al/exptl/exp1-f3.gif
trash can.
G. List the materials that passed through the filter paper _________ __________
III. Osmotic Activities of Red Blood Cells
Cells take up and eliminate water using internal regulatory systems. The movement of
water is driven by the concentration gradients. Water traveling from a high concentration region
to a lower concentration region through a plasma membrane is called osmosis.
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Red blood cells maintain their normal shape when they are placed in an isotonic solution.
An isotonic solution has the same solute concentration, osmolality and osmotic pressure as its
environment such as plasma or a solution. Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) and Lactated Ringer's
solution and dextrose 5% in water (D5W) are examples of such isotonic solutions. They are used
intravenously to replace fluid loss.
When distilled water, a hypotonic solution is given intravenously directly, it causes the red
blood cells to undergo hemolysis (the rapture of red blood cell). A hypotonic solution has less
solute concentration, osmolality and osmotic pressure than another solution with which it is
compared.
A hypertonic solution has higher solute concentration, osmolality and osmotic pressure
than plasma or another solution with which it is compared. A sea water solution is a hypertonic
solution that makes water to leave the cells therefore to make them shrink. A hypertonic causes
crenation (the formation of scalloped edges of a cell) of the cells. This is why humans can not
drink sea water to sustain our lives. Hypertonic solution dehydrates us. In medical field, carefully
calculated and controlled hypertonic and hypotonic solutions are also used to save lives.
In this exercise, we will investigate the characteristics of osmotic activities of blood cells and
have an understanding of hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic solutions.
Predictions
1. A cell will expand when it is placed in _________ solution.
2. A cell will shrink when it is placed in ____________ solution.
3. A cell will not change its shape when it is placed in _____________ solution.
4. Label the following diagrams by using the following words to describe
Slides
Cell Shape (no change/
crenation / hemolysis)
Tonicity of Solution (isotonic/
hypertonic/ hypotonic)
References
http://www.rcs.rome.ga.us/hargett/biology/osmosis/osmotut.htm
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/cmb/cells/pmemb/osmosis_eg.html
4
Lab 2 The Eyes and Vision
Name_________________ Section ________________ (Turn in pages 5-10)
Prelab Reading
C. Stanfield 2013. Principle of Human Physiology Chapter 10 pp 270-284
Light enters the eyes through pupils. The eyes refract the entering light to focus the image on the
retina. Photoreceptors inside retina convert light stimuli into neural signals by phototransduction.
The visual information is then transmitted to the visual cortex for perceptual processing.
Materials
Snellen chart
Index cards with a red square,
a blue square and a yellow square.
ruler
field of vision disk
A. Visual Acuity Test
Visual acuity refers to the sharpness of vision and the resolving power. The visual acuity is
tested by using a Snellen eye chart. It is expressed by using a fraction. In the Snellen fraction
20/20, the first number represents the test distance, 20 feet (the standard length of an eye
exam room). The second number represents the distance that the eye can see the letters on a
certain line of the Snellen eye chart. Although 20/20 is considered normal. Some people can
have better vision than that. 20/50 indicates that the line you correctly read at 20 feet can be
read by a person with normal vision from 50 feet away. Individuals have abnormalities
related to improper refraction such as nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness (hyperopia)
and astigmatism can be corrected by using different types of correction lenses. Refraction
errors are written differently in a doctor’s prescription. To understand your eye prescription,
go to: http://www.usaeyes.org/lasik/faq/read-eyeglasses-contacts-prescription.htm.
Procedure
1. Stand 20 ft from the Snellen chart.
2. Remove correction glasses and cover one eye with an index card.
3. Start from the top of the chart and read the letters randomly.
4. Record the number of the last line that can be read successfully.
5. Test the other eye with the same procedure.
6. The visual acuity of my left eye is 20/___; right eye is 20/____.
B. Astigmatism Test
Astigmatism occurs when light rays do not focus as a result of
irregular curvature of the lens or cornea. This condition can cause
the blurred of vision. Astigmatism is determined by genes. Ask
your subject to remove any corrective lenses that can correct
astigmatism.
Figure 1 Astigmatism
5
Procedure
1. Look at the center of the astigmatism test chart with one eye, then with the other eye.
2. If all lines are equally sharp and black, there is no astigmatism. Figure 1 illustrates an
example of astigmatism.
3. My left eye is normal/abnormal_______________.
4. My right eye is normal/abnormal___________________.
C. Blind Spot Test
The blind spot occurs where the optic nerves exit the retina. The absence of rods and cones
results in no vision in this area. Use Figure 2 to test your blind spot.
Procedure
1. Hold Figure 2 in front of you about 30 cm away from you or pin it down on the
display board.
2. Position your body so that the cross is in front of your left eye directly. Stare only
at the cross. Close your right eye. You should also see the circle.
3. Very slowly move the figures toward you until the circle disappears. Keep your left
eye focused on the cross only. Do not use peripheral vision.
4. Ask your partner record the distance from your eye to the figures for both eyes.
5. The blind spot of my left eye is _______ cm.
6. Repeat steps 1-4 to test your right eye. The blind spot of my right eye is _____ cm.
Figure 2 Testing for the blind spot
D. Macular Degeneration
In macular degeneration, neurons within the macular lutea begin to die off. The mechanism
of macular degeneration is not well understood. However, it is known that aging, smoking
and diabetes increase the chance of muscular degeneration. The Amsler grid is used to test
individuals for macular degeneration. This test is normally included for people who are over
50 year’s old.
Procedure
1. Ask the tester to hold this paper at about one foot away
from you.
2. Cover your left eye.
3. Look at the black center of Figure 3 with your right eye.
4. Repeat the test with the left eye.
5. If your answers are no, your eyes are normal.
Table 1 My Macular Degeneration Test
Test
Presence of wavy lines (Yes/No)
Presence of any blank spots
(yes/no)
Normal/Abnormal
Left Eye
Right Eye
Figure 3 Amsler grid
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E. Accommodation Test
The lens of the eye has the ability to change its focusing power by changing its curvature.
This is called accommodation. Accommodation is accomplished by contraction of the
ciliary muscle with the presence of parasympathetic activity for near vision. Far vision of
distance does not have parasympathetic stimulation, the ciliary muscle relaxes. The
relaxation of ciliary muscle puts tension on the zonular fibers. Zonular fibers flatten the
lens. The test below determines the near-point accommodation.
Procedure
1. Have your subject sit upright and close left eye. Ask your subject to focus on
one letter in this page. Record the distance your subject can see clearly by using
a ruler or meter stick measure the distance from eye to this page: _________
cm. This is the farthest distance your subject can see.
2. Now slowly move the page toward the subject as close as possible to your
subject’s open eye until she/he loses the focus of the letter.
3. Measure and record the distance between the page and the subject’s eye. This is
the near-point accommodation of your subject’s left eye.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 with the left eye.
5. Based on this test, the near-point accommodation of
a my right eye is _____ cm.
b my left eye is _____ cm.
6. Now look at the correlation of age and near–point accommodation in Table 1.
How do you readings compare to your own age group? ___________________
Table 2 Correlation of age and near-point accommodation (From Amitrano and Tortora Anatomy
and Physiology Laboratory manual)
Age
Centimeter
10
20
30
40
50
60
7.5
9.0
11.5
17.2
52.5
83.3
F. Test Afterimages
If photoreceptors are stimulated by staring at a bright object for a
long period of time, they will keep firing after the stimulus is
removed (positive afterimage). After prolonged firing, these
photoreceptors will become fatigue, therefore no longer activate,
resulting negative afterimage. So the color will appear as the
complement color (Figure 4), for example yellow green appears as
violet.
Figure 4 Color wheeler
http://www.athensacademy.net/teachers/as
Procedure
weetapple/apenglish/colorwheel1.jpg
1. Bright light test
a. Place an index card with a white square and black dot on your table.
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b. Now stare at a pen light for 30 seconds.
c. Close your eyes briefly.
d. Open your eyes and focus on the black dot in the white square.
e. What do you see? ______________________
2. Red Test
a. Get the index card with a red square on it.
b. Look at the image at a distance of 12 inches or 30 centimeters from the chart.
c. Stare at the black dot in the middle of the red rectangle for 30 seconds.
d. Keep your focus on the black dot or the test will not work.
e. After 30 seconds, shift your focus to the black dot in the middle of the white
rectangle. Once again, you must focus on the black dot in the middle of the
white square or this will not work. If you do not see a change, use a penlight to
shine on the red square.
f. What do you see? _____________
3. Blue Test
a. Get the index card with a blue square.
b. Look at the image at a distance of 12 inches or 30 centimeters from the chart.
c. Stare at the black dot in the middle of the blue rectangle for 30 seconds.
d. Keep your focus on the black dot or the test will not work.
e. After 30 seconds, shift your focus to the black dot in the middle of the white
rectangle.
f. Once again, you must focus on the black dot in the middle of the white square
or this will not work. If you do not see a change, use the pen light to shine on
the blue square.
g. What do you see? _________________
4. Yellow Test
a. Get the index card with a yellow square.
b. Look at the image at a distance of 12 inches or 30 centimeters from the chart.
c. Stare at the black dot in the middle of the yellow rectangle for 30 seconds.
d. Keep your focus on the black dot or the test will not work.
e. After 30 seconds, shift your focus to the black dot in the middle of the white
rectangle.
f. Once again, you must focus on the black dot in the middle of the white square
or this will not work If you do not see a change, use the pen light to shine on
the blue square.
g. What do you see? _____________________
G. Color Blindness Test
Color version is formed by the stimulation of three types of cones, designed blue (S cones for
short wavelength), green (M cones, medium wavelength) and red (L cones, for long
wavelength). In human the red and green color blindness gene is located on sex chromosome
X. Therefore its inheritance is called sex-linked inheritance.
Procedure
1. Use the Ishihara test to test the color blindness.
8
2. Your eyes are normal or abnormal_________________.
H. Field of Vision Test
A person’s peripheral vision and reading vision is measured by using the Field of Vision
Disk. The maximum peripheral visual field is when you can detect the card. The reading
range is when you can see things sharply.
Procedure
1. Follow the procedure described by the instruction sheet attached to the field version
test disk.
2. Test each other’s right and left side of maximum peripheral vision and reading
range. Record your results in Table 2.
Table 3 My field of vision
My Left eye
My Right eye
Maximum peripheral field of
vision (degree)
Reading Range
(degree)
I. Neural Pathway for Vision.
1. Complete the labels for Figure 5.
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
2. Explain how vision is formed (including the following terms: light, pupil, lens,
retina, photoreceptors, phototransduction,
receptor potentials, ganglion cells, bipolar cells,
optical nerve, visual cortex
Figure 5 Neural pathway for vision
9
J. Eye dominance Test
(Modified after the archery web www.archeryweb.com/archery/eyedom.htm)
General speaking, you do use one of your eye more than the other. This is called dominance
of eye.
Procedure
1. Extend both hands forward of your body and place the hands together making a small
triangle (approximately 1/2 to 3/4 inch per side) between your thumbs and the first
knuckle.
2. With both eyes open, look through the triangle and center on one power outlet in the
triangle.
3. Close your left eye. If the object remains in
view, you are right eye dominant. If your hands
appear to move off the object and move to the
left, then you are left eye dominant.
4. My dominant eye is _________
Figure 6 Determination of a dominant eye
10
Lab 3 The Ears: Hearing and Equilibrium
Prelab Reading:
C. Stanfield 2013. Principle of Human Physiology Chapter 10 pp 284 - 295
Objectives
1. Describe the structure of ear and its relationship with sound conduction.
2. Describe the method of hearing test.
3. Describe the function of ear and balance.
Note: All tests on done on yourself. You and your partner will test each other.
I. Hearing
Introduction
Sound wave is gathered by the outer ear. The vibration is conducted to the tympanic membrane
and three ossicles of middle ear. The middle ears amplify sound. Sound wave travels to the oval
window. The vibration reaches the cochlea fluid and depolarizes the sensory hair cells in the
basilar membrane with in the organ of Corti. The resulting actions potentials travel along the
vestibulocochlear (VIII cranial) nerve to reach the brain. Each region of the basilar membrane
vibrates most vigorously at a particular frequency and leads to the excitation of a specific
auditory area of the cerebral cortex. Therefore the different sound pitch is perceived by the brain.
Conduction deafness is caused by the interference with the sound wave reaching the inner ear;
sensory (sensorineual) deafness results from the impairment of hair cells or the damages to the
vestibulocochlear nerve.
A. My Weber’s Test
Weber’s test is the diagnostic tool for both types of deafness.
Materials
512 frequency tuning fork, rubber mallets
Figure 1 Conduction test
Procedure
Conduct this test in a quiet room.
1. Strike a turning fork (frequency 512) with the rubber mallet and place the tip of the
handle on the midline of the subject’s forehead (Figure 1).
2. Is the tone equally loud in both ears? _________
3. If sound is heard in the center of the head and equally loud in both ears,
hearing is normal or a person has symmetrical hearing loss.
4. Stimulation of conductive deafness:
a. Repeat step 1 with left ear plugged (occluded) with your finger. Describe your
results._____________________________
b. Repeat step 1 with right ear plugged with your finger. Describe your results.
____________________________________
c. If the sound is louder in the plugged ear, hearing is normal. This is because that
in conductive deafness, ambient sound is prevented from getting to the cochlea
on the blocked side. This causes the nervous system to amplify sounds on that
side by sensitizing cochlear transduction.
11
5. For a person has unilateral conductive hearing loss, the sound will be louder in the
affected ear (airborne sounds mask bone conduction in the normal ear; conductive
loss prevents masking in affected ear. Sound is perceived to be louder in affected
ear).
6. In a subject with unilateral sensorineural hearing loss, the sound is louder in the
normal ear (no signal is transduced by the cochlea on the affected side, therefore the
sound is louder on the normal side and is perceived to be coming from that side)
B. My Rinne’s Test
When the turning fork is strike the sound is conducted via air and skull. The Rinne’s test
compares both air and bone conductions. Vibrations perceived through air are heard twice as
long as those perceived through bone with normal individual, because the sound wave is not
absorbed by tissue. If there is conductive deafness, bony conduction is either normal or
slightly enhanced, whereas air conduction is decreased. If there is sensory deafness, both
bone conduction and air conduction are equally suppressed.
Procedure
1. Place the handle of the vibrating tuning fork (frequency: 512mHz) against the mastoid
process of the temporal bone (the bone
prominence behind the ear) of the left
ear. Ask the subject to tell you the sound
is not longer audible.
2. Move the vibrating tuning fork close to
the external auditory canal (Figure 2).
Ask the subject if sound is still audible.
If the subject hears the tuning fork again,
hearing is not impaired.
3. Repeat the test by striking the turning Figure 2 Rinne test
fork and place it in front of the external auditory canal first until the subject informs you
the sound is no longer audile.
4. Move it and place the handle on the mastoid process and ask the subject if the sound is
audible. If the answer is yes, this indicates some degree of conductive deafness.
5. Repeat steps 1-4 with the right ear.
6. Record the results on the answer sheet.
II. Balance
Introduction
The vestibular apparatus is located in the inner ear above the cochlea. It provides a sense of
balance and equilibrium. Movement of the head causes the position changes of the sensory hair
cells of the semicircular canals, thus changing the frequency of action potentials. The action
potnetial is conducted along the VIII cranial nerve to the brain. The information is sent to the
eyes and other motor activities that help to orient the body.
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A. My Balance Test
1. Have the subject stand in front the white board in front of the classroom. Mark the edge
of the shoulders.
2. Ask the subject to stand still with the arms at the sides and close his or her eyes.
3. Stand by the subject side to observe the sway. Prepare to catch the subject should he or
she falls. The balance is considered as good, if one can stand on one leg with eyes close
for more than 15 seconds.
B. My Group’s Barany Test
1. The semicircular canals can be stimulated by rating a subject in a chair. When the rotation
stops, the momentum causes the endolymph in the horizontal canal to continue spinning.
The spinning bends the cupula in the direction of rotation. Other sensory input informs us
that we are no longer spinning. Nystagmus, the rapid involuntary movement of the eye
balls, tries to compensate for the loss of balance by fixation on an object. Absence of
nystagmus may indicate the labyrinth is not functioning.
2. When the subject is moved to the left, the cupula will be bent to the right due to lag of
endolymph. This will cause the eye moves move to the right following by a quick move
to the left. When the rotation of subject is stopped suddenly, nystagmus will show a slow
drift phase to the left (follows the original rotating direction) and followed by fast phase
to the right.
Procedure
Do not perform this test if the subject has motion sickness or vertigo. This test is done by
a group.
1. Have a subject sit on a swivel chair with the eyes open and the chin almost touch the
chest.
2. Rotate the chair quickly (not too fast to make your subject fall) to the right for 10
revolutions.
3. Abruptly stop the chair. Record the subject’s nystagmus (eye movement, right to left or
left to right). Ask if the subject still feel the rotating sensation. If the subject feels the
chair is still rotating, the subject’s semicircular canals are function properly.
4. Have the subject tilt his or her head to one shoulder.
5. Rotate the chair quickly for 10 revolutions.
6. Stop the chair suddenly.
7. Observe the eye movement.
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Lab 3 Answer Sheet
Turn in this page only.
Name _____________________________ Section ________________
Tests results are done on you not your partners.
A. Explain how hearing is perceived (Start with sound wave from air till perception).
B. My Weber’s Test:
1. For conductive deafness test, if sound is heard in the center of the head and equally loud
in both ears, hearing is ________ or a person has symmetrical hearing loss.
2. For unilateral conductive deafness, the hearing will be louder in the __________ ear. For
unilateral sensorineural hearing loss, the sound is louder in the ____________ear.
3. Results of your subject (normal or abnormal)
Conductive deafness
Sensorineural Deafness
Right Ear
Left Ear
C. My Rinne’s Test
1. If there is conductive deafness, _______ conduction is either normal or slightly
enhanced, whereas __________ conduction is decreased.
2. If there is sensorineural sensory deafness, both bone conduction and air conduction are
equally ______________.
3. Results of your test (normal or abnormal)
Air Conduction
Bone Conduction
Right Ear
Left Ear
D. My Balance Test
1. Describe the response of your balance test.
E. My Group’s Barany Test
Observed Eye Movement
Semicircular Canals Function
(Normal/Abnormal)
Chin almost
touch chest
Head tilt to
one shoulder
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Lab 4 Cutaneous Sensation
Prelab Reading
Cindy Stanfield 2013 Principle of Human Physiology Chapter 10 pp. 253-269; 293-299
Sensory receptors sense environmental stimuli such as color, smell, tastes and sound. These
receptors turn the energy stored in these stimuli into action potentials. Action potentials are
conducted to our central nervous system by sensory neurons.
There are different types of sensory receptors (Table 10.1). In this exercise, we will
investigate the general sensory receptors such as mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors and
thermoreceptors.
Work in a group of three. Take turns to play the roles of the test subject, the tester and the
recorder.
A. Olfaction
Smell is detected by the olfactory (olfac =smell)
receptors high up in our nasal passages. These receptors
synapse with neurons in the olfactory bulb glomeruli of
the cerebral cortex. There are about 5 million olfactory
receptors and 1000 types. The sensitivity of smell
decreases as it adapts to the environment. There are
variations in human smelling ability depending on age,
gender, mental ability and physical health. This test
below detects the smell discrimination
Procedure
1. Complete the labels of in Figure 1. And explain
the neural pathway for olfaction.
2. Test Smell
1) Close your eyes (you are the subject).
2) Have your partner (tester) place a bottle
with the sample in front of your nostrils.
3) Test any three samples in random order.
Figure 1 Olfaction
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4) Have the recorder record your response for you in Table 1 on your lab answer
sheet.
5) Change roles until all three of you have been tested.
6) Repeat the tests with your eyes open. Record the answers in table
B. Gustation
Gustation (gust = taste) receptors are located in the taste buds. There are five types of taste:
sweet, salty, sour, umami (delicious) and bitter. The stimuli for sour are hydrogen ions. The
stimuli for salt are sodium ions. Sweet tastes are triggered by the presence of sucrose and
molecules similar to sucrose. Bitterness is sensed by the presence of nitrogen-containing
compounds such as quinine. Flavor enhancers such as monosodium glutamates and other
amino acids cause the sensation of the fifth sensation umami. Each taste receptor cell can
bind with all four types of stimulus. However it is optimal for one type stimulus. The taster
cells synapse with taste afferents. Taste sensations are passed by the labeled –line pathway to
the medulla oblongata and then to the cerebral gustatory cortex. Smell also affects one’s
ability to taste.
1. Taste discrimination
Procedure
1) Cover your nose; have your partner dip a clean cotton swab in solution “A”.
2) Use the swab to touch your tongue, and raise your hand when you detect a taste.
Save the cotton swab. Test it again this time by smelling it first. Record your
responses in Table 2.
3) Repeat the test with Solution “B”, “C”, and “D”.
4) Discard the used cotton swabs into the waste bin.
2. Taste and Inheritance
1) Taster of PTC
Taste for certain substance is inherited. One chemical is consistently used for
genetic demonstration, phenylthiocarbamide (PTC). About 70% of human
population inherits a dominant taster gene. These people can taste this chemical.
This particular genetic trait does not have any health indication.
Procedure
i. Place a piece of PTC on your tongue (do not swallow). If it tastes from
sour to bitter, you are a taster of PTC. If it tastes just like a piece of paper,
you are a non taster of PTC. Record your results here _____________.
ii. Place used PTC paper in a trash can.
2) Super-taster
Scientific evidence suggests food preferences are influenced by the taste buds.
Each of us is born with a certain number of taste buds. Dr. Linda Bartoshuk ,
professor of surgery and taste researcher at Yale University School of Medicine
discovered that 25% of the population are super-tasters (25% of the population),
50% population are medium tasters (50%) and 25% population are non -tasters.
16
Super-tasters are distinguished by their increased density of fungiform papillae
and their extreme sensitivity to the chemical n-propylthiouracil (PROP).If you
are a super-taster; you may find that some fruits and vegetables are too strong to
eat. You may also be able to distinguish non fat milk from regular milk. Her
study also shows that women (35% of Caucasian females) are more likely to be
super-tasters than men (15% of Caucasian males). Asians are more likely to be
super tasters than Caucasians. Currently there are not enough data to draw
conclusions for other races.
Procedure
i. Place a drop of blue food dye to a sterilized cotton swab.
ii. Use the cotton color the tip of your tongue.
iii. Place a plastic ring disc on the tip of your colored tongue.
iv. If you have more than 35 taste buds per circle at the tip of your tongue, then
you are a super- taster.
v. If you have less than 15 taste buds per circle at the tip of the tongue, then
you are a non taster.
vi. How many taste buds do you have? _________
Figure 2 Super taster
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/articles/senses/tongue_experiment.shtml)
C. Thermoreceptors and Sensory Adaptation
Thermoreceptors test the warmth and cold. There are normally located in our skin. The have
small receptive field and adapt rapidly.
Procedure
1. Take three beakers. Fill beaker #1 with warm water, beaker # 2 with cold water and
beaker # 3 with tap water.
2. Place these three beakers next to each other.
3. Have your partner ready to time you.
4. Place the index finger of left hand in a breaker containing warm water. Place the index
finger of the right hand in a beaker of cold water.
5. Hold your index fingers in their respective beakers for 60 seconds.
6. At the end of 60 seconds, place both index fingers in a beaker containing water at room
temperature for 15 seconds.
7. Record the sensation in your answer sheet.
D. Mapping the Temperature and Touch Receptors of the Skin
There are four types of cutaneous sensations: warmth, cold, touch and pain. These receptors
are not evenly distributed throughout the skin.
17
Procedure
1. Ink the grid stamp on the inkpad. Stamp one grid on a hairless side (ventral side) of
your forearm.
2. Have your partner obtain a steel probe from the ice, one steel probe from warm water
bath.
3. Use two color pen or pencils, red for warm; and blue for cold
4. Close your eyes. Have your partner use the two probes touch the different points in
the grid on you arm randomly one probe at a time.
5. Indicate (with your eye closed) if you feel warm or cold with each touch.
6. Ask you partner to mark the square with a red “+ “for the presence of warm
sensation, blue “+“ for the presence of cold sensation in Table 3.
7. Change roles until all of you are tested for cold and warm.
8. Return the probes to the holding tray.
E. The Two –Point Discrimination Threshold in Touch Perception
The density of touch receptors is measured by the two-point threshold test. The two points of a
pair adjustable caliper are simultaneously placed on the subject’s skin with equal pressure, and
the subject is asked if the two points are felt. If the answer is yes, the distance between the points
of the calipers is shortened. The test is repeated until one point is felt. The minimum distance at
which two points of contact are detected is the two-point discrimination threshold.
Figure 3 Two- point
discrimination threshold
Procedure
1. Close your eyes.
2. Have the tester start with the clipper wide apart, and then reduce the distance by bring in
the clipper together.
18
3. Determine the two-point threshold on the back of the hand (randomly alternate the two
point touch with one point touch, so the subject can not anticipate you).
4. Try on palm of hand and finger tips back of the neck.
5. Record the two –point threshold in mm in Table 4.
Lab 4 Answer Sheet
(Turn in answer sheets only)
Name____________________________
A. My Smell Test Results
Table 1 My Own Smell Test
Sample Name
Response with eyes closed
(Correct: +; incorrect: -)
Response with eyes open
(Enhanced: decreases: )
1
2
3
1. What receptors detect smell? ___________ (be specific)
2.
The sensitivity of smell __________ as it adapts to the environment.
3. Based on the results, did visual affect your sense of smell? ______
a
c
e
b
4.
d
f
Complete the olfactory labels (Figure 1).
B. My Taste Test Results
Table 2 My Own Taste Test (from 0 to +++; 0 absent, faint +, strong ++, very strong +++)
Solution
Sensitivity of my taste
with my nose covered
Sensitivity of my taste
After I smell it first
Sweet/ Salty/
Umami/ Sour/ Bitter
A
B
C
D
1. Based on Table 2, did the smell affect you taste ability? _____________
2. ___________ receptors (be specific) are located in the taste buds.
3. Taste cells for salty are depolarized by the presence of ___________
4. Taste cells for sour are depolarized by the presence of ___________
19
5. Taste cells for sweet are depolarized by the presence of ___________
6. Taste cells for umami are depolarized by the presence of ___________
7. Taste cells for bitter are depolarized by the presence of ___________
8. The ability to taste PTC is determined by_____________. Are you a taste of PTC?
_____________
9. Are you a super taster? _________
C. My Thermoreceptor AdaptationTest
1. What sensation (warm, cold, or room temperature) do you feel with your left finger
after placing it in the room temperature water? ________________
2. What sensation (warm, cold, or room temperature) do you feel with your right finger
after placing it in the room temperature water? ________________
D. Mapping the Temperature and Touch Receptors of the Skin
Table 3 My Thermoreceptor map Red = warm; correct: +; incorrect: -. Blue =cold, correct:+, incorrect -).
Use all squares.
E. My Two-point Discrimination Threshold Test
1. Define two- point discrimination threshold.
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Which instrument was used to test the two-point threshold? ________ ___________
3. According to Table 4 below, which of your body locations has the greatest acuity?
______
Table 4 My Two- point Discrimination Threshold
Location
Two-point Threshold in mm
Back of hand
Palm of hand
Fingertip
Back of the neck
20
Lab 5 Reflex Physiology
Prelab Reading:
Cindy Stanfield 2013 Principle of Human Physiology Chapter 9 pp. 236 -239
A reflex is an involuntary response to a given stimulus. Reflexes can be grouped into four
categories based on the level of neural processing; efferent division controlling effectors;
development pattern and number of synapses in the pathway (Table 1).
Table 1 Categories of reflexes
Category
Level of neural processing
Classes
Spinal
Cranial
Efferent division controlling Somatic
effector
Autonomic
Development pattern
Innate
Conditioned
Number of synapses in the Mono-synaptic
pathway
Poly-synaptic
Example
Muscle spinal stretch reflex
Papillary reflex
Muscle spindle stretch reflex
Baroreceptor reflex to control blood pressure
Muscle spindle stretch reflex
Salivation reflex of Pavlov’s dogs
Muscle spindle stretch reflex
All other reflexes
A reflex arc is the special nerve impulse pathway. It has five components: sensory receptor,
afferent neuron, integration center, efferent neurons(s), and effector organ. Reflexes help to
maintain homeostasis by permitting the body to make exceedingly rapid adjustments to
homeostatic imbalances. Reflex testing incorporates an assessment of the function and interplay
of both sensory and motor pathways. It is simple yet informative and can give important insights
into the integrity of the nervous system at many different
levels.
In this lab, we will test the integrity of spinal nerves and
cranial reflexes. Some cranial nerves were tested in previous
labs (eye and sensation).
Materials
Taylor percussion hammer, penlight, reaction time ruler
A. Tests for Spinal Nerve Stretch Reflexes: Biceps –Jerk
Reflex (Cervical (C)5, C6 - Musculocutaneous nerve)
Procedure
1. Have the Subject seated.
2. Have the Subject roll up his or her sleeve and flex at
the elbow while the Tester observes and palpates the
antecubital fossa. The tendon will look and feel like a
thick cord (not a bone).
3. Allow the Subject’s arm relax and forming an angle
of more 90◦ on his or her lap.
4. Place index or middle fingers firmly against the
tendon and strike them with the hammer.
Figure 1 Bicep reflex test
21
5. Test the other arm.
6. A normal reaction will cause the biceps to contract, moving the lower arm upwards.
a. Patella reflex is also called knee jerk reflex. It is also called a monosynaptic
reflex because there is only one synapse in the circuit needed to complete the
reflex. It operates as a feedback mechanism to control muscle length by causing
muscle contraction. It prevents injury from over stretching because muscle
contracts when it is stretched. It only takes about 50 milliseconds between the tap
and the start of the leg kick. A successful reflex indicates that the normal functions
of lumbar (L) 3, L4, and femoral nerve.
Procedure
1) Have your subject seated,
feet dangling over the edge
the lab bench.
2) Identify the patellar tendon, a
thick, broad band of tissue
extending down from the
lower aspect of the patella
(knee cap). If you are not
certain where it’s located, ask
the subject to extend the Figure 2 Patella reflex test
knee. This causes the
quadriceps
(thigh
muscles) to contract and
makes
the
attached
tendon more apparent.
3) Make sure the Subject is
relaxed.
4) Tap the patella ligament
with the reflex hammer.
5) In the normal reflex, the
lower leg will extend
(move forward) at the
knee and the quadriceps
muscles will contract.
6) Test the other leg and record the responses.
b. Achilles (Sacral (S)1, S2 – Sciatic Nerve) Reflex
Procedure
1) Have the Subject seated, feet dangling over the
edge of the table.
2) Take off shoes and socks (keep them off for B).
3) Identify the Achilles tendon, a taut, discrete, cordlike structure running from the heel to the muscles
of the calf.
Figure 3 Achilles reflex test
22
4) If you are unsure, ask the Subject to plantar flex (i.e. “step on the gas”), which
will cause the calf to contract and the Achilles to become taut.
5) Make sure that the Subject’s calf is exposed so the Tester can see the muscle
contraction.
6) Position the foot so that it forms a right angle with the rest of the lower leg.
The tester will probably need to support the bottom of the foot with your hand.
7) Strike the Achilles tendon directly with your reflex hammer.
8) A normal reflex will cause the foot to plantar flex (i.e. move into your
supporting hand).
9) Test the other foot and record the responses.
B. A Cutaneous Reflex: The Plantar reflex and Babinski Response
The plantar reflex is elicited by cutaneous (skin) receptor. The nerve impulse is conducted
along pyramidal motor tracts. It is a polysynaptic superficial reflex. It is used to measure
the up motor neurons functions. In normal person, the stimulation of the skin in the sole of
the foot results in the downward movement of the great toe. The abnormal response is called
1.
Babinski sign and consists of extension of the great toe and fanning of the rest of the
toes. An infant usually exhibit a positive Babinski response. It will disappear after age
2.
Procedure
a. Ask your Subject to take off
shoes and socks.
b. Have your Subject sit on the
bench.
c. Use the handle end of the
reflex hammer, which is solid
and comes to a point.
d. Start at the lateral aspect of
the foot, near the heel.
Apply steady pressure with Figure 4 The plantar reflex test
the end of the hammer as
you move up towards the ball (area of the metatarsal heads) of the foot.
e. When you reach the ball of the foot, move medially, stroking across this area.
f. Then test the other foot.
g. In the normal patient, the first movement of the great toe should be downwards (i.e.
plantar flexion). If there is an upper motor neuron injury (e.g. spinal cord injury,
stroke), then the great toe will dorsiflex and the remainder of the other toes will fan
out.
23
C. Pupillary reflex involves an autonomic cranial reflex in which the light entering the eye and
activate the photoreceptors. The photoreceptors activate afferent neurons that transmit signals
to areas in the midbrain of the brain stem that functions as the integration center. The midbrain
area will then activate autonomic efferents that innervate the smooth muscle surrounding the
pupils of eyes via a polysynaptic pathway.
Procedure
1.Use a penlight shine into one of your Subject’s eye. Observe the pupils for constriction
or dilation
2.After the light is off, observe the pupils for constriction or dilation.
D. Visual Reaction Time
This activity is designed to measure your response time to something that you see. This
reaction time experiment required visual information (the movement of the ruler) to travel
to your brain. Then your brain sent a motor command ("grab that falling ruler") to the
muscles of your arm and hand. Reaction time is affected by age, biorhythms caffeine and
prescription drugs. Your reaction time is the sum of the following processes:
1. Transduction of the environmental stimulus into a nervous impulse (rods and cones)
2. Processing in the neurons of the retina (bipolar and ganglion cells)
3. Transmission of the impulse to the thalamus
4. Relaying of impulse to the visual cortex via optic radiations
5. Visual association region recognizes the meaning of the visual impulses
6. Transmission of impulse from visual association region to precentral gyrus
7. Transmission of the motor impulse from precentral gyrus to muscles of hand
8. Effecting the movement through the contraction of muscles.
Procedure
1. The Releaser gets a reaction time ruler.
2. The Subject sits in the chair.
3. The Releaser stands facing the Subject and holds the “Release” end of the Reaction
Time Ruler at eye level, between the thumb and the first finger. The Releaser may
have to stand on the lab bench.
4. The Subject positions the thumb and first finger of left hand over the “thumb line”.
The position between the Subject’s thumb and finger should be about 1 inch.
5. The Releaser drops the reaction time ruler without telling the Subject, and as soon as
the Subject sees it dropping, the Subject has to catch it.
6. The numbers on the Reaction Time Ruler represents milliseconds. There are 1,000
milliseconds in 1 second.
7. Record the reaction time in the table below.
References
1. Pupil evaluation: http://www.aao.org/aaoesite/promo/techniques_200604.cfm
2. A Practical Guide to Clinical Medicine http://medicine.ucsd.edu/clinicalmed/neuro3.htm
3. Reaction Time Kit Instruction Ward’s Natural Science Inc.
24
4. Diagrams:
http://www.waybuilder.net/sweethaven/MedTech/Neurology/Neurology01.asp?mode=1&
iNum=0204
Lab 5 Answer Sheet
Name ___________________________ (Turn in answer sheet only)
Note: Each person is tested individually. The test result is the test performed on you, not
your group as a whole.
A. My Reflex Tests Results
1) Normal Response: Fill in the blanks
Reflex Test
Describe Normal Responses
Biceps Reflex
Patellar Reflex
Achilles Reflex
Plantar reflex
2) My Test Results (normal or abnormal)
Side
Biceps Reflex
Patella Reflex
Achilles Reflex
Plantar Reflex
Left
Right
3) What instrument was used to test these reflexes? ______________
4) Fill in the blanks
Reflex Test
Biceps Reflex
Nerve ( Tract) Tested
Patellar Reflex
Achilles Reflex
Plantar reflex
B. My Pupillary Reflex Test
1) What instrument was used to test pupillary reflex? ______________
2) Results
Test
Pupil Constriction or Dilation
Left Eye
Light on
Light off
25
Right Eye
Light on
Light off
C. My Visual Reaction Time
1) What was used to test your visual reaction time? _______________
2) Results
Table 2 My Reaction Time
Trial Number
1
Left Hand (m.s.)
Right Hand (m.s.)
2
3
4
5
Average
3) How would you expect your reaction time to change if you had alcohol? Explain why you
think so at the ion level (Page 211 Clinic Connection).
4)
To most people, caffeine in coffee is a stimulant that makes a person more alert. If you
had strong coffee, your reaction time will be _____________ (shorter/longer).
26
Lab 6 Endocrine System
Turn in pages 27-33.
Name __________________________
Prelab Reading
Cindy Stanfield 2013 Principle of Human Physiology Chapter 6.
Objectives
A) To introduce the relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland;
B) To introduce various hormones and explain their effects;
C) To encourage small group discussion and enhance analytic thinking;
D) To have the student apply what he or she has learned to an experimental situation by
identifying an unknown hormone.
Part I Functions of Endocrine System and Hormones (Day One)
Introductions
The nervous and endocrine systems coordinate the activities of different organs. The nervous
system uses neurotransmitters and neurons to convey information to and from the brain. In
contrast, the endocrine system uses hormones to transmit information. These hormones are
chemical messengers produced by specific tissues in the body and transported travel through the
bloodstream to exert their effects on distant target organs. Although many organs and tissues
encounter these molecules, hormone can only affect cells with receptors for that specific
hormone. Hormones are a slower method of communication, but their effects last longer and are
wide spread.
A. Hypertrophy and Atrophy
The glands and tissues of our body enlarge (increase in size) if they are continuously activated;
this is called hypertrophy. For example, a person who lifts weights will continually stimulate
the activated muscles, resulting in hypertrophy. This can be easily observed when comparing a
bodybuilder to an average person; the bodybuilder’s muscles appear larger in comparison. In
contrast, if a gland or tissue is continuously inhibited, it will shrink in size or atrophy. For
example, if a cast is placed on a person’s arm for 6 weeks and then it is removed, a drastic
reduction in muscle mass can be seen. The cast prevented any movement (stimulation) of the
limb, allowing atrophy to occur.
There are many diseases that may result from a deficiency or excess of hormones. These
hormonal imbalances may lead to changes in organ or gland size (hypertrophy or atrophy).
1. Describe the difference between hypertrophy and atrophy.
B. Hypothalamus and Pituitary Glands
The command center for the endocrine system is the hypothalamus, a small, penny-sized portion
of the brain. The hypothalamus acts as an endocrine organ that synthesizes oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as vasopressin). These hormones travel down the pituitary
27
stalk to the posterior pituitary gland where they are released directly into the bloodstream. In
addition, the hypothalamus also regulates anterior pituitary gland function through the secretion
of tropic hormones. These hormones travel through the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system that
connects the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland. From here, they stimulate or inhibit the
synthesis and secretion of anterior pituitary hormones. The posterior pituitary hormones are
synthesized by the hypothalamus and travel down neurons to be released from the posterior
pituitary gland. Because the anterior pituitary gland secretes multiple hormones, it is frequently
referred to as the “master gland.’’
Target
Figure 1 Hypothalamic and anterior pituitary gland
For this experiment, we will focus on the hypothalamus only as a regulator of the anterior
pituitary gland.
The pathways of three hormones are examined in this experiment: thyroid hormone, cortisol,
and testosterone. The hormonal pathways are similar in all three cases. It is important to realize
that the hypothalamus secretes a releasing hormone to regulate each of the hormones secreted
from the anterior pituitary gland. In this way, the hypothalamus is like a command center. If the
hypothalamus is not stimulated, the hypothalamic releasing hormones (TRH, CRH, and GnRH)
will not stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete its hormones.
In the endocrine system, negative feedback is used to inhibit further hormone secretion.
When a sufficient amount of hormone has been released, it communicates or ‘‘feeds back’’ to
suppress the releasing organ. Negative feedback not only inhibits the releasing organ, but can
also inhibit the pituitary gland and/or hypothalamus. By using a negative feedback system, the
body produces only the amount of hormone it needs without wasting its resources. Conversely, in
positive feedback, the end product further stimulates the releasing organ. This form of feedback
is less common.
28
2. Two hormones synthesized by hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary gland are
called________________ _____________________
3. Describe the relationship between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland.
4. Why the anterior pituitary is called the master gland?
C. Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion
The hypothalamus releases TRH, which travels to the anterior pituitary gland via the bloodstream
to stimulate production of TSH. TSH travels to the thyroid gland (located by the trachea) to
stimulate the production and release of thyroid hormone. Through the negative feed back loop,
an excess of thyroid hormone inhibits the activity of hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland and
thyroid glands.
1. For Figure 2.a, use the information describe ( )
Hy______________
above and denote + for stimulate, - for inhibiting to
fill in the blanks in ( ). Use the words hypothalamus,
TRH, TSH, pituitary, thyroid to complete the
T_____
underlined blanks.
( )
Thyroid hormone influences the growth rate of
( )
many body tissues and is necessary for proper central
Anterior ________
nervous system development. Its main function is to
increase a person’s basal metabolic rate (BMR) and to
increase heat production.
T___
Hyperthyroidism is the excessive production of
( )
thyroid hormone. The most common cause of
hyperthyroidism is Grave’s disease; the symptoms
( )
T_______ Gland
include increased BMR, a constant feeling of warmth,
nervousness, and an enlarged thyroid gland (known as
goiter). In contrast, hypothyroidism is the result of
T________ Hormone
decreased levels of thyroid hormone. A patient with
hypothyroidism will present symptoms of low BMR, a
decreased appetite, abnormal central nervous system
development, and intolerance to cold.
Figure 2.a Hypothalamus and the
thyroid hormone
2. Describe the effects of thyroid hormone
3. Consider the differences between hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism.
29
4. Look at Figure 2.a, if a rat is injected with TRH repeatedly, how does thyroid hormone
affect the weight of the following glands? If a rat is injected with TSH repeatedly, how
does it affect the weight of the following glands? Remember that rats get a cup of food
every day. Fill in the blanks below with + (hypertrophy), - (atrophy) or NC (no change).
Body weight gain :+, loss:Table 1 The Effects of TRH and TSH on Glands and Body Weight
Pituitary Gland
Thyroid Gland
Body Weight*
TRH
TSH
*When a hormone stimulates the metabolic activity, a rat tends to loose weight since it is fed with the same amount
of food daily.
D. Regulation of Cortisol
ACTH is released from the anterior pituitary gland in response to CRH secreted from the
hypothalamus. ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands (located on top of the kidneys) to secrete
cortisol. The release of CRH is regulated by negative feedback, circadian rhythms, and stress.
Under normal conditions, excess cortisol in the bloodstream will negatively feed back to the
hypothalamus (to inhibit CRH release), anterior pituitary gland (to inhibit ACTH secretion),
and/or to the adrenal gland (to inhibit further cortisol
( )
release).
Hy____________
Cortisol promotes the breakdown of proteins and fats and
helps the body adapt to stress; functions to provide the body
with fuel by breaking down (catabolism) the materials of the
C_____
body. Cortisol can also act as an immunosuppressive and
( )
anti-inflammatory agent. If cortisol is administered in large
( )
doses, its immunosuppressive properties will cause the organs
Anterior ________
of the immune system to shrink. In this experiment, the
thymus gland will represent the organs of the immune
system.
ACTH
1. For Figure 2.b, use the information describe above,
( )
and denote + for stimulate, - for inhibiting to fill in the
blanks in ( ). Use the words: hypothalamus, CRH, ACTH,
( )
_________Gland
pituitary, adrenal, and cortisol to complete the underlined
blanks.
2. Describe the effects of cortisol.
C__________
Figure 2.b Hypothalamus and
3. What is the function of thymus?
4. Look at Figure 2.b if a rat is injected with ACTH repeatedly, how does it affect weight of the
following glands? If a rat is injected with cotisol repeatedly, how does it affect the weight of
the following glands? Again the rats are fed with a cup of food per day. Fill in the blanks
below with + (hypertrophy), - (atrophy) or NC (no change). Body weight gain :+, loss:Table 2 The Effects of ACTH and Cortisol on glands and body weight
30
Table 2 The Effects of ACTH and Cortisol on Gland and Body Weight
Pituitary Gland Adrenal Gland
Thymus Gland
Body Weight
ACTH
Cortisol
Cushing’s syndrome is the result of excess secretion of cortisol (hypercortisolism). The
symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome include personality changes, hypertension (high blood
pressure), osteoporosis (weakening of bones due to loss of calcium), and weight loss. If an
excess level of cortisol remains in the body, protein degradation will occur leading to a
‘‘wasting’’ effect. Hyposecretion (decreased secretion) of cortisol is characterized by
symptoms such as defective metabolism, mental confusion, and a decreased ability to adapt
to stress.
5. What causes Cushing’s syndrome?
6. What are some of symptoms of hypocortisolism?
E. Regulation of LH and Testosterone
LH is released from the anterior pituitary gland in response to
GnRH secreted from the stimulation of hypothalamus. LH is
seen in both males and females but has different functions. In
the male, LH travels to the Leydig cells that are located in the
connective tissue between the seminiferous tubules of the
testes. The Leydig cells release testosterone. The excess
amount of testosterone will inhibit the activity of
hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland and testes, thereby to
reduce the secretion of testosterone.
Testosterone is responsible for the male sex drive and
secondary sex characteristics, such as increased body hair and
a deeper voice. Testosterone is also responsible for the growth
and maintenance of prostate and seminal vesicles. Men who do
not have testosterone tend have very small prostates. In both
male and female, testosterone can cause an increase (anabolic)
in muscle mass, increase sex drive and build bone. Negative
effects of testosterone are male pattern baldness and increased
secretion of the sebaceous glands, which can lead to acne.
( )
Hy____________
G_____
(
( )
Anterior ________
__H
( )
)
(
)
T_________
T__________
Castration involved removal of the testes to eliminate Figure 2.c Hypothalamus and testosterone
testosterone production. Decreased amounts of
testosterone in the body primarily affect the sexual organs. If testosterone levels are low, males
will not develop normally and will have sperm counts too low to fertilize an egg. The condition
31
of excess levels of testosterone is rare but causes premature sexual development. Notes: LH and
testosterone also plays important roles in females (This will be discussed in chapter 20).
1. For Figure 2.c, use the information describe above, and denote + for stimulate, - for
inhibiting to fill in the blanks in ( ). Use the words: hypothalamus, GnRH, LH, pituitary,
testes and testosterone to complete the underlined blanks.
2.
Describe the functions of LH in males
3. Describe the functions of testosterone in males.
4. Describe the functions of testosterone in both males and females.
5. Castration is the removal of _____________
6. How does castration affect the function of LH in males?
7. Look at Figure 2.c if a rat is injected with testosterone (T) repeatedly, how does it affect
weight of the following glands? If a rat is injected with LH repeatedly, how does it affect
the weight of the following glands? The rats are fed a cup of food a day. Fill in the blanks
below with + (hypertrophy), - (atrophy) or NC (no change). Body weight gain :+, loss:Table 3 The Effects of Testosterone and LH on Glands and Body Weight of Regular Rats
Pituitary Gland
Testes
Prostate
Seminal Vesicle
Body Weight
T
LH
8. Look at Figure 2.c if a castrated rat is injected with testosterone (T) repeatedly, how does
it affect weight of the following glands? If a castrated rat is injected with LH repeatedly,
how does it affect the weight of the following glands? The rats are fed a cup of food a
day. Fill in the blanks below with + (hypertrophy), - (atrophy) or NC (no change). Body
weight gain: +, loss: Table 4 Effects of Testosterone and LH on Glands and Body Weight of Castrated Rats
Pituitary Gland
Prostate
Seminal Vesicle Body Weight
T
LH
32
F. Summary of Hormone Interactions
Different hormones have different functions. Table 5 is a summary of the functions of the
hormones from pervious Use the information above (Table 1-4) to complete Table 5 by using
a “+” for hypertrophy; a”-“for atrophy; a NC for no change. Body weight gain: +, loss:Table 5 Summary of Hormones on Glands and Body Weight
TRH TSH
ACTH
Cortisol
Testosterone
Intact
Castrate
LH
Intact
Castrate
NC
NC
NC
NC
Pituitary
Gland
Thyroid
Gland
NC
NC
Adrenal
Gland
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
Thymus
Gland
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
Testes
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
Prostate
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
Seminal
Vesicles
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
Body weight
33
Part II Mystery Hormones (Day Two)
To simplify the relationship between the reproductive and endocrine systems, we will
concentrate only on the male system. The female reproductive system is more difficult to study
than the male reproductive system because it is continuously cycling.
The data for this laboratory were compiled from seven sets of male laboratory rats, two rats
per set; one set was the control group and the remaining six were experimental groups. The rats
were all male to simplify the study of the relationship between the reproductive and endocrine
systems. In each set of rats there was an ‘‘intact’’ rat and a ‘‘castrate’’ rat. The two rats (normal
and castrate) of each group were treated alike in all other ways (food, water, etc.). All rats, except
for those in the control group were injected with a hormone on a daily basis for 2 wk. Autopsies
were performed on the animals at that time.
The group of students performing this exercise were very disorganized and rushed through
the work, making errors in labeling the bottles of hormone. The students obtained the following
results for organ weights after the autopsies were performed. In this short period of time, the
students noted amazing changes in the size of certain organs when they compared the
experimental group of rats with the control group. Using the flowcharts (Fig. 1 a-c), Table 1, and
the autopsy data, match the unknown rat groups with their respective hormones. The bottles on
refrigerator shelf were ACTH, cortisol, LH, TSH, TRH, and testosterone.
To help in determining the identity of the unknown hormones, the student should look for
changes between the control values and the values of the unknown hormone (both the intact and
castrate animal). The changes (absolute value) between the control rats and the rats that were
treated with the unknown hormone should be > 20% if they are to be considered significantly
different. If the change (absolute value) is < 20%, it is attributed to experimental or biological
error. Experimental errors may include small errors in calibration procedures, measurements, or
instrumentation. Any variability that occurs because of the differences between animals is
considered biological error.
Procedure
1. Each person is in charge of one mystery hormone.
2. To calculate the weight difference between a control and experimental group, you need to
use the weight of one organ from experimental group minus the weight of the same organ
from the control group. Use the difference divide by control group and then multiple it by
100%.
3. Try this practice problem: the weight of pituitary gland of the rat from control group is 10
mg, the weight of pituitary gland of the rat after treatment of hormone X is 20 mg. What
is the percentage weight difference?
Pituitary Gland mg
Control
10
Experimental: Hormone X (Intact) 20
% Weight difference
[(20-10)/10]*100% =100%
Since this number is more than 20%, the weight is significant increased.
34
4. My Calculation Processes
My assigned unknown hormone is # _______.
Intact
(Control)
Intact My
Unknown
Castrated
(control)
Castrated
Unknown
Pituitary
gland
(mg)
12.9
Thyroid
gland
(mg)
250
Adrenal
gland
(mg)
40
Thymus
gland
(mg)
475
Testes
(mg)
Prostate
(mg)
3200
12.7
251
41
480
NA
Show my calculation processes:
Intact =
[(Experiment-Control)/Control]*100%
Pituitary
Gland
425
Seminal
vesicles
(mg)
500
Body
weight
(g)
300
387
450
270
NA
Castrated=
[(Experiment-Control)/Control]*100%
Thyroid
Gland
Adrenal
Gland
Thymus
Testes
NA
Prostate
Seminal
vesicles
Body
Weight
35
Lab 6 Answer Sheet
Name ______________________________ (Turn in pages 35-36 with page 36 on top.)
I. Data Summary
1. Use the results from the worksheet and calculation form whole group and fill in the *
blanks by using “+” for increase in weight more than 20%; “-“for decrease of weight for
more than 20% and “NC” for no significant change.
2. Use these data and Table 1 in lab part I to solve the mystery hormones. Write the names
of hormone in the provided space.
Table 2 Summary of Percentage Weight Changes (+/- or NC)
% Weight Pituitary Thyroid Adrenal
difference
gland
gland
gland
Hormone 1 Hormone 1 is _____________
Thymus
gland
Testes
Prostate
Seminal
vesicles
Body
weight
Intact
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Castrated
*
*
*
*
NA
*
*
*
Hormone 2
Hormone 2 is _______________
Intact
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Castrated
*
*
*
*
NA
*
*
*
Hormone 3
Hormone 3 is ______________
Intact
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Castrated
*
*
*
*
NA
*
*
*
Hormone 4
Hormone 4 is ______________
Intact
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Castrated
*
*
*
*
NA
*
*
*
Hormone 5
Hormone 5 is _______________
Intact
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Castrated
*
*
*
*
NA
*
*
*
Hormone 6
Hormone 6 is ______________
Intact
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Castrated
*
*
*
*
NA
*
*
*
36
Lab 7 Metabolism and Nutrients
Prelab Reading
Cindy Stanfield 2013 Principle of Human Physiology Chapter 21.
I. Metabolism
Metabolism is the total chemical reactions and energy transforms that occur in human bodies.
Anabolic reactions use the smaller molecules to build larger ones. Catabolic reactions
hydrolyze larger molecules into smaller molecules and release energy. The balance of these
two reactions is influenced by the intake of food molecules and physical activities; is
regulated by a number of hormones.
II. Nutrients
Our body requires six major types of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals
and water. These nutrients are used to build our own macromolecules and are involved in out
physiological activities.
1.
Carbohydrates are basic energy sources for humans. Chemically carbohydrates are
classified as simple carbohydrates (sugar) and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides).
The newer dietary carbohydrates are classified based on glycemic index (GI). Glycemic
index is a system that shows how fast the carbohydrates can be digested and converted to
blood sugar. It is recommended that humans should consume lower GI readings complex
carbohydrates such as whole–grain (wheat and brown rice), fresh fruits, vegetables, nuts and
legumes.
Fiber is a type of carbohydrates. It cannot be digested by human body. It is present in
all plants including fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes. There are two types of fibers:
water soluble and insoluble fibers. A high water soluble fiber diet may result in an
increased excretion of cholesterol. Therefore it helps us to reduce the chance of getting
cardiovascular disease. Good sources of water soluble fiber include oat meal, oat bran, nuts,
seeds, and fruits. Insoluble fiber binds with water to make stool softer and bulkier. This
helps to reduce constipation, hemorrhoids and diverticulosis (inflammation of the intestine).
Whole grains, seeds and vegetables have high insoluable fiber contents. To the contrary of
common believe; the increased consumption of fiber is not linked to the decreased risk of
colon cancer.
The occurrences of type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, heart diseases and obesity are on the rise in
the past 15 to 20 years. The phenomenon was partially due to the consuming extra
carbohydrates, especially the carbohydrates with high glycemic index. Glycemic index
describes this difference by ranking carbohydrates according to their effect on our blood
glucose levels. Hence a modification of the food pyramid was completed by FDA in 2000.
The glycemic load of a food is calculated by multiplying the glycemic index by the
amount of carbohydrate in grams provided by a food and dividing the total by 100. Dietary
glycemic load is the sum of the glycemic loads for all foods consumed in the diet. The
concept of glycemic load was developed by scientists to simultaneously describe the quality
(glycemic index) and quantity of carbohydrate in a meal or diet. A high glycemic load diet
will cause a spike of blood sugar in human body therefore could cause the decreased
37
sensitivity of human body to insulin. To look up the glycemic index values for other foods,
try the University of Sydney’s GI Web site.
2. Proteins serve as transporters, enzymes, antibodies. They are essential for our survival. A
Protein or polypeptide is made of amino acids. There are about eight essential amino acids
human adults need in order to survive. There are two types of dietary proteins: plant and animal
proteins. Animal proteins are complete proteins that contain all essential amino acids. Plant
proteins tend to be incomplete proteins which are deficient in at least one type of amino acid.
Proteins contribute to seventy five percent of human dry weight. The healthy protein should
contain less saturated fat and contain all amino acid. However, there are limited knowledge
about the relationship of dietary proteins and human health.
Although we do know that some proteins in food trigger food allergies in humans. Food
allergy is a condition that our body mistakes food as harmful materials therefore develops an
immune reaction to these food allergens. Eight foods account for 90% of all food-allergic
reactions. These are: milk, egg, peanut, tree nut (walnut, cashew, etc.), fish, shellfish, soy, and
wheat. To find out if you are allergic to any of these foods, try to eliminate them from your diet
one at a time for a week. Healthy proteins are lean proteins.
3. Lipids are divided into lipids with fatty acid such as triglycerides (fat), phospholipids; and
steroids. Linoleic acid (omega-6 fatty acids) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, omega-3 fatty
acids) are considered essential fatty acids. A fat molecule is composed of three fatty acids
and one glycerol. There are two types of fats: saturated and unsaturated fat. High diet in
saturated fat (animal fat) and cholesterol increases the chances of getting cardiovascular
diseases. Trans fatty acids, also known as trans fats, are produced by a process called partial
hydrogenation. Vegetable shortenings and certain margarine are made of partially
hydrogenated vegetable oil. Partially hydrogenated fats are used in packaged foods because
they have a longer shelf life and flavor stability. Trans fats, like the saturated fat are blamed
for the increased incidences of coronary diseases. Recently palm oil is used as an alternative of
partially hydrogenated fat. However palm oil has very higher content of saturated fat.
Therefore it does not necessarily provide a better alternative for human health. Olive oil,
canola oil, sunflower oil, and other vegetable oils, as well as fish oil contains healthy
unsaturated fats. These healthy fats may help to protect the heart from sudden and potentially
deadly rhythm problems.
4. Water plays many important functions in human body. It dissolves nutrients and helps us to
stabilize our body temperature. Water contributes the most of our total body weight. The
general recommendation of water consumption is a minimum of 1.0 ml water per calorie
per day; although there are debates about exactly how much water one should drink. Many
people drink bottle water. Table 2 explains the meaning of a few types of bottle water. There
is a continued debate about if the bottle water is indeed better for us than the tap water.
Table 2 Types of bottled water
Artesian water comes from a confined, underground water source.
Distilled water is water that has been evaporated and allowed to condense, which removes all minerals and
contaminants.
Drinking water is tap water that has been filtered and disinfected by water treatment plants.
Natural mineral water contains only the minerals present in the water as it flows from the ground.
Mineral water not labeled “natural” may have had minerals added or removed.
38
Sparkling water is any water that contains naturally occurring or added carbon dioxide. Many brands of mineral
water, spring water, and other bottled waters are marketed as sparkling water.
Spring water comes from an underground source from which water flows naturally to the surface.
Well water is brought to the surface by pumps from an aquifer (a water-bearing rock or soil formation located
underground). Manufacturers are allowed to add very small amounts of flavors (lemon, raspberry, etc.) or other
additives to their bottled water products.
From Bottle Water to Drink or not to Drink: http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1813.pdf
5. Vitamins are divided into fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins (Table 19.3). They have
various functions in our body for example, most water-soluble vitamins work as coenzymes
to assist enzymatic reaction during metabolism. A daily multivitamins and mineral
supplement may be helpful. Purchase the one that meets USP (U.S. Pharmacopeia) standards.
However one shall never trade a nutritious diet with pills.
6. Minerals are classified as major minerals and minor minerals (see lecture notes of chapter 2).
They function as cofactors and electrolytes. Deficiency in minerals can caused various
symptoms such as muscle cramp, retarded growth, goiter, and so on.
Food safety is an important issue. Wash hands thoroughly, store and cook food properly
will promote food safety. You may also keep track of food recall from the following web site:
http://www.fda.gov/opacom/7alerts.html. To extent the shelf life, certain food also has additives.
These additives can cause sensitivities in some humans. These sensitivities may develop as
people age.
Procedure
1. Look at the displays in the lab, and provide answers to the questions listed in your answer
sheet.
III. Caloric Intake
The energy contains in food is measured in kilocalories. One kilocalorie equals to 1,000
calories. One calorie is defined as the amount of energy needed to heat one cubic centimeter
water from 14.5 to 15.5 degrees centigrade. The caloric intake is affected by age, gender and
physical activity. The total energy expenditure equals to the resting energy expenditure plus the
activity energy expenditure. To monitor a constant caloric intake, you may want to go to
http://www.choosemyplate.gov/about. Note: Myplate is oversimplified.
Procedure
1. Determine your daily caloric intake use the provided information at the back of the
classroom.
2. Then use MyPyramid Food Intake Patterns to record the daily amount of food from each
group.
IV. Understand Food Label
1. Read the following descriptions.
Label Claim
Definition (per standard serving size)
Fat-free* or sugar-free
Low fat
Reduced fat or reduced
sugar
Less than 0.5 gram (g.) of fat or sugar
3 g. of fat or less
At least 25% less fat or sugar
39
Label Claim
Definition (per standard serving size)
Cholesterol free
Less than 2 milligrams (mg.) cholesterol and 2 g. or less of saturated
fat
At least 25% less cholesterol and 2 g. or less of saturated fat
Less than 5 calories
40 calories or less
Reduced cholesterol
Calorie free
Low calorie
Light or lite
1/3 fewer calories or 50% less fat; if more than half the calories come
from fat, fat content must be reduced by 50% or more
2. Read the sample food label displayed in class and complete the questions listed in your
answer sheet.
V. Body Composition Tests
Body composition is he relative proportion of both the lean body mass and fat tissue.
The lean body mass conducts metabolic activity. Fat tissue stores energy and provide insulation
and other functions. Excess amount of fat especially at the waist may place people at a higher
risk for health problems such as hypertension (high blood pressure), cardiovascular and diabetes.
Waist circumference and body mass index (BMI) are two indirect ways to assess your
body composition. Waist circumference is the distance around your natural waist (just above the
navel). If your BMI is greater than or equal to 25 kg/m2, your goal for waist circumference is less
than 40 inches if you're a man and less than 35 inches if you're a woman. Body mass index
assesses your body weight relative to height. It's a useful, indirect measure of body composition
because it correlates highly with body fat in most people. Weight in kilograms is divided by
height in meters squared (kg/m2). Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30.0 or greater.
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the resting energy expenditure at least 12 hours after the last
meal. It is the minimum amount of calorie that needed to sustain a resting person’s life. The
more lean tissue, the higher the BMR is. The more fat tissue, the lower the BMR is.
Procedure
A. Measure waist circumference
1. Measure the length of your waist just above the navel. ________
B. Measure BMI
1. Weight Measurement
a. Use a weight scale on a hard, flat, uncarpeted surface.
b. Take off heavy shoes.
c. Weigh yourself to the nearest pound.
2. Height Measurement
a. With your eyes facing forward and your heels together, stand very straight against
a wall. Your buttocks, shoulders and the back of your head should be touching the
wall.
b. Mark your height at the highest point of your head. Then measure your height in
feet and inches to the nearest 1/4 inch. Also figure your height in inches only.
3. To calculate your exact BMI value, multiply your weight in pounds by 703, divide by
your height in inches, then divide again by your height in inches. (Adapted from Obesity
Education Initiative: Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment
of Overweight and Obesity in Adults, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung,
40
and Blood Institute, Obesity Research 1998, 6
http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4489
4. Use the chart below to compare your result.
Suppl
2:51S-209S)
Height
Minimal Risk
(BMI under 25)
(lb)
Moderate Risk
High Risk
(BMI 25–29.9) Overweight (BMI 30 and above) Obese
(lb)
(lb)
5'0
127 or less
128–152
153 or more
5'1"
131 or less
132–157
158 or more
5'2'
135 or less
136–163
164 or more
5'3"
140 or less
141–168
169 or more
5'4"
144 or less
145–173
174 or more
5'5"
149 or less
150–179
180 or more
5'6"
154 or less
155–185
186 or more
5'7"
158 or less
159–190
191 or more
5'8"
163 or less
164–196
197 or more
5'9"
168 or less
169–202
203 or more
5'10"
173 or less
174–208
209 or more
5'11"
178 or less
179–214
215 or more
6'0"
183 or less
184–220
221 or more
6'1"
188 or less
189–226
227 or more
6'2"
193 or less
194–232
233 or more
6'3"
199 or less
200–239
240 or more
6'4"
204 or less
205–245
246 or more
C. Calculate BMR
1. Use the following equation to calculate your BMR
The Harris-Benedict Equation:
Males: 660 + (13.7 x W) + (5 x H) - (6.8 x A)
Females: 655 + (9.6 x W) + (1.7 x H) - (4.7 x A)
where W = actual weight in kg (weight in lb: 2.2 lb/ kg)
H = height in cm (height in inches x 2.54 cm/in)
A = age in years
*note: 1 inch = 2.54 cm, 1 kilogram = 2.2 lbs.
Example: You are a 30 year old female. You are 5'6" tall (167.6 cm) and weigh 120 pounds (54.5
kg). Your BMR = 655 + 523 + 285 - 141 = 1322 calories/day.
Now that you know your BMR, you can calculate your total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) by
multiplying you BMR by your activity level.
Activity Multiplier
Sedentary = BMR x 1.2 (little or no exercise, desk job)
Lightly active = BMR x 1.375 (light exercise/ sports 1-3 days/week)
41
Moderately active = BMR x 1.55 (moderate exercise/ sports 6-7 days/week)
Very active = BMR x 1.725 (hard exercise every day, or exercising 2 xs/day)
Extra active = BMR x 1.9 (hard exercise 2 or more times per day, or training for marathon, or
triathlon, etc.
Example: Your BMR is 1339 calories per day and your activity level is moderately active (work
out 3-4 times per week). Your activity factor is 1.55 and your TDEE is 1.55 x 1339 = 2075
calories per day. This is the total calories you could eat everyday if you wanted to maintain your
weight. If you want to lose weight, you would either have to consume fewer calories everyday,
increase you activity level, or do both.
References
Dietary guideline: http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/
Food and Mood: http://huhs.harvard.edu/HealthInformation/ManagingFoodAndMood.htm
Bottle Water to Drink or not to Drink http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1813.pdf
Food label diagram: http://bms.brown.edu/nutrition/labels.html
Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load:
http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/foods/grains/gigl.html#gi
New Food Pyramid
http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/pyramids.html
Linus Pauling Institute: http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/
Lab 7 Answer Sheet
Name __________________________ Section ________________________
I. Nutrients
II. Caloric Intake
a. Determine your daily caloric intake by using the provided table MyPyramid Food
Intake Pattern Calorie Level.________________
b. Use MyPyramid Food Intake Patterns to record the daily
each group.
Table 3 Food Intake
Grains Fruits Vegetables Meat
Oil
Milk
(oz)
(cups) (cups)
and
(teaspoon) 9cup)
Beans
(oz)
Amount
amount of food from
Recommend
Water
Intake
ml
(calculate it based on
calorie intake 1ml/cal)
42
III. Nutrition Facts Label Analysis
1. Use a displayed Nutrition Facts label. Answer the following questions:
1) Name of food product: _________________________
2) Serving size: ___________________
3) Total calories (C; or kilocalories) per serving: _________ C
4) List RDA of 2,000 cal intake in the space provided below
% Daily Value
Total fat
Saturate Fat
Cholesterol
Total Carbohydrates
Dietary fiber
a. List all vitamins: ________ _________
b. List all minerals: _________ ________
c. List two main food additives (see a list provided in lab) _________
____________
d. List the main ingredients ____________ _________
e. List the smallest ingredient ___________
IV. Body Composition Tests
a. List indirect ways to test body composition tests: _______________________
_________
b. Your BMR is _____________.
Show your calculation below:
c. Your TDEE is _______________
Show your calculation below:
43
1
Lab 8 Skeletal Muscle Physiology
1
From PhysioEx9.1
. http://wps.aw.com/bc_stanfield_hp_5_msa/225/57819/14801695.cw/index.html
1. Please bring your Mastering A and P account and password to class to complete this lab.
2. Login to your account, on your left side panel, click on Physioex. 9.1.
3. Complete Exercise 2 Activities 1-3. For each activity finish
a. Introduction
b. Pre-lab quiz,
c. Experiment
d. Post- lab quiz.
e. Save your lab report as PDF files and immediately email it to yourself.
4. Record your results below.
Activity 1
Voltage (v) Length
Active Force Passive Force Total Force
Latent Period
(g)
(g)
(g)
2
3
4
6
8
10
Save Activity 2 data in your PDF file.
44
Lab 8 Answer Sheet
(Provide Answers Individually)
Name _________________________ Section ___________
Activity 1 The Muscle Twitch and the Latent Period
1. What physiological event happens during the latent period?
2. With the increase of voltage from 0 to 10 volts, what happened to the latent period?
Activity 2 The Effect of Stimulus Voltage on Skeletal Muscle Contraction
1. What is the threshold voltage for this experiment? _____ v
2. What is the maximal voltage for this experiment? _____ v
3. With the increase of voltage, what happened to the active force?
Activity 3. The Effect of Stimulus Frequency on Skeletal Muscle Contraction
1. With the increase of stimulus frequency, what happed to the force of contraction?
2. Wave summation is achieved by___________________________________________.
___________________________________________.
Label this tracing with the word: latent period, contraction and relaxation.
45
Lab 9 Electromyography I
II.
EXPERIMENTAL OBJECTIVES
1) To observe and record skeletal muscle tonus as reflected by a basal level of electrical activity
associated with the muscle in a resting state.
2) To record maximum clench strength for right and left hands.
3) To observe, record, and correlate motor unit recruitment with increased power of skeletal muscle
contraction.
4) To listen to EMG “sounds” and correlate sound intensity with motor unit recruitment.
III.
MATERIALS
•
BIOPAC Electrode Lead Set (SS2L)
•
BIOPAC Disposable Electrodes (EL503,) 6 electrodes per Subject
•
BIOPAC Electrode Gel (GEL1) and Abrasive Pad (ELPAD) or Skin cleanser or alcohol prep
•
Optional: BIOPAC Headphones (OUT1/OUT1A for MP3X or 40HP for MP45)
•
Biopac Student Lab System: BSL 4 software, MP36, MP35 or MP45 hardware
•
Computer system (Windows or Mac)
IV. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
A. SETUP
FAST TRACK Setup
Detailed Explanation of Setup Steps
1. Turn the computer ON.
• If using an MP36/35 unit, turn it OFF.
• If using an MP45, make sure USB cable
is connected and “Ready” light is ON.
2. Plug the equipment in as follows:
Electrode Lead Set (SS2L) — CH 1
Headphones (OUT1 or OUT1A*) — back
of unit
*OUT1A is compatible with MP36 only.
3. Turn ON the MP36/35 unit.
Fig. 1.4 MP3X (top) and MP45 (bottom) equipment connections
46
 Windows: If using MP45, the Sound Playback device must be set to
MP45 via Start > Control Panel.
If the skin is oily, clean electrode sites with soap and water or alcohol before
abrading.
If electrode is dry, apply a drop of gel.
Setup continues…
4. Clean and abrade skin.
5. Attach three electrodes to each forearm
(Fig. 1.5).
6. Clip the Electrode Lead Set (SS2L) to
Subject’s dominant arm, following the
color code (Fig. 1.5).
Follow Color Code!
Fig. 1.5 Electrode placement and lead attachment
 If Subject is right-handed, the right forearm is generally dominant; if
Subject is left-handed, the left forearm is generally dominant.
 For optimal electrode adhesion, place electrodes on the skin at least 5
minutes before the start of Calibration.
 The pinch connectors work like a small clothespin and will only latch
onto the nipple of the electrode from one side of the connector.
 The dominant arm should
7. Subject gets in a seated position, facing
the monitor.
rest on thigh to relax the
muscles in the shoulder and
upper arm.
 Optional: Subject may hold
a small object, such as a
rubber ball, while
performing this procedure
Fig. 1.6 Proper Seating Position
47
Fig. 1.7 Positioning
Setup continues…
8.
Start the Biopac Student Lab Program.
9.
Choose lesson “L01 –
Electromyography (EMG) I” and click
OK.
Start Biopac Student Lab by double-clicking the Desktop shortcut.
10. Type in a unique filename and click OK.
No two people can share the same filename, so use a unique identifier,
such as Subject’s nickname or student ID#.
A folder will be created using the filename. This same filename can be
used in other lessons to place the Subject’s data in a common folder.
To change the preference, see next step.
11. Optional: Set Preferences.
• Choose File > Lesson Preferences.
• Select an option.
• Select the desired setting and click
OK.
This lesson has optional Preferences for data and display while recording.
Per your Lab Instructor’s guidelines, you may set:
Grids: Show or hide gridlines
Lesson Recordings: Specific recordings may be omitted based on
instructor preferences.
END OF SETUP
B. CALIBRATION
Calibration establishes the hardware’s internal parameters (such as gain, offset, and scaling) and is critical for
optimal performance. Pay close attention to Calibration. For a video example of proper Calibration procedure,
click the Calibration tab in the Lesson Set Up Journal.
FAST TRACK Calibration
1.
Detailed Explanation of Calibration Steps
Click Calibrate.
48
2.
The program needs a reading
of the maximum clench to
perform an auto-calibration.
Two seconds after Calibration begins,
clench fist as hard as possible for two to
three seconds, then release.
Fig. 1.8 Clench Fist for Calibration
3.
Wait for Calibration to stop.
Calibration lasts eight seconds.
4.
Verify recording resembles the example
data
Data should show a zero
baseline and a clear burst
when Subject clenched.
• If similar, click Continue and
proceed to Data Recording.
• If necessary, click Redo
Calibration.
END OF CALIBRATION
Fig. 1.9 Example Calibration data
If recording does not resemble the Example
Data
 If the data is noisy or flatline, check all
connections to the MP unit.
 Verify electrodes are making good contact
and that leads are clipped to the correct
color position with minimal cable strain.
49
C. DATA RECORDING
FAST TRACK Recording
1.
Prepare for the Dominant arm
recording.
• Electrodes must be attached to
Subject’s dominant arm.
• Subject’s hand must be relaxed.
• Review recording steps.
Detailed Explanation of Recording Steps
Two data recordings* will be acquired in this lesson:
a.
Recording 1 records Dominant arm.
b.
Recording 2 records Nondominant arm.
To work efficiently, read this entire section before recording, or review
onscreen Tasks to preview recording steps in advance.
*IMPORTANT
This procedure assumes that all lesson recordings are enabled in Lesson
Preferences, which may not be the case for your lab. Always match the
recording title to the recording reference in the journal and disregard any
references to excluded recordings.
Dominant arm
2.
3.
Click Record.
Perform a series of four Clench -ReleaseWait cycles.
• Hold clench for two seconds, release
for two seconds.
• Begin with a weak clench, then
increase grip so the fourth clench is at
maximum.
4.
Click Suspend.
5.
Verify recording resembles the example
data.
 Completely relax the grip between clenches.
 Allow at least two seconds between clenches.
 Two channels will be presented during the recording, CH 1 = Raw
EMG, and CH 2 = Integrated EMG (a moving average of the raw
signal).
Data should show four EMG “bursts” of increasing amplitude.
• If similar, click Continue and
proceed to next recording.
• If necessary, click Redo.
• If all required recordings have been
completed, click Stop and proceed to
Step 11.
Fig. 1.10 Example data – Dominant arm
If recording does not resemble the Example Data
 If there is not enough variation between the clenches, repeat recording
and start with a weaker clench.
 If the data is noisy or flatline, check all connections to the MP unit.
 Verify electrodes are making good contact and that leads are clipped
to the correct color position with minimal cable strain.
Click Redo and repeat Steps 2 – 5 if necessary. Note that once Redo is
clicked, the most recent recording will be erased.
Nondominant arm
6.
Prepare for the Nondominant arm
recording.
Disconnect the lead set (SS2L) from the electrodes on the “dominant”
forearm and connect to electrodes on “nondominant” forearm. Refer to Fig.
50
• Clip electrode leads to Subject’s
nondominant arm.
1.5 for proper electrode lead attachment.
• Subject’s hand must be relaxed.
• Review recording steps.
7.
Click Record.
Recording continues…
8.
Perform a series of four Clench-ReleaseWait cycles.
• Hold clench for two seconds, release
for two seconds.
• Begin with a weak clench, and then
increase grip so the fourth clench is at
maximum.
9.
Perform four cycles of Clench-Release-Wait, holding for two seconds and
waiting for two seconds after releasing before beginning the next cycle. Try
to increase the strength in equal increments so that the fourth clench is at
maximum force.
 Completely relax the grip between clenches.
 Allow at least two seconds between clenches.
Click Suspend.
10. Verify recording resembles the example
data.
• If similar, click Continue to proceed
to the optional recording section, or
click Stop to end the recording.
• If necessary, click Redo.
Fig. 1.11 Example data– Nondominant arm
The data description is the same as outlined in Step 4.
Click Redo and repeat Steps 7 – 10 if necessary. Note that once Redo is
clicked, the most recent recording will be erased.
OPTIONAL ACTIVE LEARNING PORTION
With this lesson you may record additional data by clicking Continue
following the last recording. Design an experiment to test or verify a
scientific principle(s) related to topics covered in this lesson. Although
you are limited to this lesson’s channel assignments, the electrodes may be
moved to different locations on the Subject.
Design Your Experiment
Use a separate sheet to detail your experiment design, and be sure to
address these main points:
A. Hypothesis
Describe the scientific principle to be tested or verified.
B. Materials
List the materials you will use to complete your investigation.
C. Method
Describe the experimental procedure—be sure to number each step
to make it easy to follow during recording.
Run Your Experiment
51
D. Set Up
Set up the equipment and prepare the subject for your experiment.
E. Record
Use the Continue, Record, and Suspend buttons to record as much
data as necessary for your experiment.
Click Stop when you have completed all of the recordings required for
your experiment.
Analyze Your Experiment
F. Set measurements relevant to your experiment and record the results
in a Data Report.
Recording continues…
• To listen to the EMG signal, proceed
to Step 11.
• To skip listening to the EMG signal
and end the recording, proceed to
Step 14.
11. Click Listen to record EMG data and hear
it through the headphones.
12. Increase grip force and notice how the
volume increases.
13. Click Stop when finished.
Listening to the EMG is optional.
Listening to the EMG is optional and can be a valuable tool in detecting
muscle abnormalities, and is performed here for general interest. Data on
screen is not saved.
The EMG signal will be audible through the headphones as it is being
displayed on the screen. The screen will display two channels:
CH 1 EMG and CH 40 Integrated EMG
The signal will run until Stop is clicked. If others in lab group would like
to listen to the EMG signal, pass the headphones around before clicking
Stop or click Redo and then Stop when done.
This will end listening to the EMG.
• Click Redo to hear EMG again.
14. Click Done to end the lesson.
15. Choose an option and click OK.
16. Remove the electrodes.
If choosing the Record from another Subject option:
 Repeat Setup Steps 4 – 7 and then proceed to Calibration.
Remove the electrode cable pinch connectors, and peel off all electrodes.
Discard the electrodes (BIOPAC electrodes are not reusable). Wash the
electrode gel residue from the skin, using soap and water. The electrodes
may leave a slight ring on the skin for a few hours, which is quite normal.
END OF RECORDING
52
V.
DATA ANALYSIS
FAST TRACK Data Analysis
1.
Enter the Review Saved Data mode.
• Note Channel Number (CH)
designations:
Channel
Displays
CH 1
EMG
CH 40
Integrated EMG
Detailed Explanation of Data Analysis Steps
If entering Review Saved Data mode from the Startup dialog or Lessons
menu, make sure to choose the correct file.
The data window should resemble Fig. 1.12.
• Note measurement box settings:
Channel
Measurement
CH 40
Mean
Fig. 1.12 Example data
The measurement boxes are above the marker region in the data window.
Each measurement has three sections: channel number, measurement type,
and result. The first two sections are pull-down menus that are activated
when you click them.
Brief definition of measurements:
Mean: Displays the average value in the selected area.
The “selected area” is the area selected by the I-beam tool (including
endpoints).
Record measurement data individually by hand or choose Edit > Journal >
Paste measurements to paste the data to your journal for future reference.
2.
Set up your display window for optimal
viewing of “Dominant arm” recording.
Note:
mark the beginning of each recording. Click
The append event markers
on (activate) the event marker to display its label.
Useful tools for changing view:
Display menu: Autoscale Horizontal, Autoscale Waveforms, Zoom Back,
Zoom Forward
Scroll Bars: Time (Horizontal); Amplitude (Vertical)
Cursor Tools: Zoom Tool
Buttons: Overlap, Split, Show Grid, Hide Grid, -, +
Hide/Show Channel: “Alt + click” (Windows) or “Option + click” (Mac)
the channel number box to toggle channel display.
3.
Use the I-Beam cursor to select an area
on the plateau of the first EMG clench
data
(Fig. 1.13).
Fig. 1.13 below shows an EMG data selection in the first recording.
A
4.
Repeat Step 3 on each successive EMG
cluster.
53
A
Data Analysis continues…
Fig. 1.13 EMG data selection
5.
6.
7.
8.
Scroll to the second recording.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4 for “Nondominant
arm” data.
Scroll to the first recording.
Use the I-Beam cursor to select the area
between the first and second clenches
(Fig. 1.14).
The second recording begins at the append event marker labeled
“Nondominant arm” and includes four clenches from Subject’s
nondominant arm.
Tonus is the resting state, and is represented by the area between clenches
(clusters). Fig. 1.14 below shows the selected area between clenches.
C
9.
Repeat Step 7 between each successive
clench.
10. Scroll to the second recording.
11. Repeat Steps 7 – 8 for “Nondominant
arm” data.
C
12. Answer the questions at the end of the
Data Report.
13. Save or Print the Data Report.
Fig. 1.14 Selection between clenches to measure tonus
An electronically editable Data Report can be found in the journal
(following the lesson summary,) or immediately following this Data
Analysis section. Your instructor will recommend the preferred format for
your lab.
14. Quit the program.
END OF DATA ANALYSIS
54
Lab 9 Answer Sheet
Turn in data sections A and B as a group. Turn in section C as an individual.
Group member name _______________________ ____________________ _______________
Subject Profile
Name____________________ Age ______________ Gender: Male/Female__________
Height _________________ Weight____________
Direction Reader Name ________________ Data Recorder Name _____________
A. EMG Measurements
Cluster #
See fig.1.8
1
Forearm 1 (Dominant)
CH 40
Mean
Forearm 2
CH 40
Mean
2
3
4
B. Tonus Measurements
Between Cluster #
See fig. 1.9
Forearm 1 (Dominant)
Forearm 2
CH 40
CH 40
Mean
Mean
1
2
3
4
55
My name __________________
C. Answer the following questions individually.
1. Define electromyography.
2. What contributes to the differences increase in EMG activity recorded between
the weakest clench and the strongest clench of forearms?
3. Do you expect to see any difference in EMG measurements between forearm 1
and 2? _____ Explain
4. Define tonus.
5. Explain if you expect to see any difference in tonus between two forearms.
56
Lab 10 EKG Components
I.
EXPERIMENTAL OBJECTIVES
1) To become familiar with the electrocardiograph as a primary tool for evaluating electrical events within
the heart.
2) To correlate electrical events as displayed on the ECG with the mechanical events that occur during the
cardiac cycle.
3) To observe rate and rhythm changes in the ECG associated with body position and breathing.
II.
MATERIALS
•
BIOPAC Electrode Lead Set (SS2L)
•
BIOPAC Disposable Electrodes (EL503,) 3 electrodes per subject
•
BIOPAC Electrode Gel (GEL1) and Abrasive Pad (ELPAD) or Skin cleanser or alcohol prep
•
Mat, cot or lab table and pillow for Supine position
•
•
Biopac Student Lab System: BSL 4 software, MP36, MP35 or MP45 hardware
Computer System (Windows or Mac)
III. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
B. SETUP
FAST TRACK Setup
Detailed Explanation of Setup Steps
1. Turn the computer ON.
• If using an MP36/35 unit, turn it OFF.
• If using an MP45, make sure USB
cable is connected and “Ready” light is
ON.
2. Plug the equipment in as follows:
Electrode Lead Set (SS2L)—CH 1
3. Turn ON the MP36/35 unit.
Fig. 5.5 MP3X (top) and MP45 (bottom) hardware connections
4.
Clean and abrade skin.
5. Attach three electrodes on Subject as
shown in Fig. 5.6.
If the skin is oily, clean electrode sites with soap and water or alcohol
before abrading.
If electrode is dry, apply a drop of gel.
Remove any jewelry on or near the electrode sites.
Place one electrode on the medial surface of each leg, just above the
ankle. Place the third electrode on the right anterior forearm at the
57
wrist (same side of arm as the palm of hand).
Setup continues…
6. Clip the Electrode Lead Set (SS2L) to the
electrodes following the color code
(Fig. 5.6).
For optimal electrode contact, place electrodes on skin at least 5 minutes
before start of Calibration.
• RIGHT forearm = WHITE lead
• RIGHT leg = BLACK lead (ground)
• LEFT leg = RED lead
Fig. 5.6 Lead II Setup
The pinch connectors work like a small clothespin, but will only latch
onto the nipple of the electrode from one side of the connector.
7. Subject gets in supine position (lying down, Position the electrode cables so that they are not pulling on the
electrodes. Connect the electrode cable clip to a convenient location
face up) and relaxes (Fig. 5.7).
on Subject’s clothes.
Fig. 5.7 Positioning (supine)
8.
Start the BIOPAC Student Lab program.
9.
Choose lesson “L05 –
Electrocardiography (ECG) I” and click
OK.
10. Type in a unique filename and click OK.
Start Biopac Student Lab by double-clicking the Desktop shortcut.
A folder will be created using the filename. This same filename can be
58
11. Optional: Set Preferences.
•
Choose File > Lesson Preferences.
•
Select an option.
•
Select the desired setting and click
OK.
END OF SETUP
B. CALIBRATION
used in other lessons to place the Subject’s data in a common folder.
This lesson has optional Preferences for data and display while
recording. Per your Lab Instructor’s guidelines, you may set:
Grids: Show or hide gridlines
ECG filter: Set bandwidth
Heart Rate Data: Calculate and display Heart Rate data
Time Scale: Set the full screen time scale with options from 10 to 20
seconds.
Lesson Recordings: Specific recordings may be omitted based on
instructor preferences.
The Calibration procedure establishes the hardware’s internal parameters (such as gain, offset, and scaling) and is
critical for optimal performance. Pay close attention to Calibration.
FAST TRACK Calibration
1.
Subject is supine and relaxed, with eyes
closed.
2.
Click Calibrate.
• Subject remains relaxed with eyes
closed.
• Wait for Calibration to stop.
3.
Verify recording resembles example data.
• If similar, click Continue and
proceed to Data Recording.
Detailed Explanation of Calibration Steps
Subject must remain relaxed and as still throughout calibration to
minimize baseline shift and EMG artifact.
Calibration lasts eight seconds.
There should be a recognizable ECG waveform with a baseline at or
near 0 mV, little EMG artifact and no large baseline drift.
• If necessary, click Redo Calibration
Fig. 5.8 Example Calibration data
59
If recording does not resemble the Example Data

If the data is noisy or flatline, check all connections to the MP unit.

If the ECG displays baseline drift or excessive EMG artifact:
o
Verify electrodes are making good contact with the skin and that
the leads are not pulling on the electrodes.
o
Make sure Subject is in a relaxed position.
Click Redo Calibration and repeat Steps 1 – 3 if necessary.
END OF CALIBRATION
D. DATA RECORDING
FAST TRACK Recording
1.
Subject remains supine and relaxed, with
eyes closed.
• Subject must remain still.
• Review recording steps.
Detailed Explanation of Recording Steps
Four conditions* will be recorded: Supine, Seated, Breathing deeply, and
After exercise. Subject performs tasks in the intervals between
recordings.
*IMPORTANT
This procedure assumes that all lesson recordings are enabled in Lesson
Preferences, which may not be the case for your lab. Always match the
recording title to the recording reference in the journal and disregard any
references to excluded recordings.
Hints for obtaining optimal data:
To minimize EMG artifact and baseline drift:
 Subject’s arms and legs must be relaxed.
 Subject must remain still and should not talk during any
recordings.
 Make sure electrodes do not peel up and that the leads
do not pull on the electrodes.
Supine
2.
Click Record.
3.
Subject remains supine and relaxed, with
eyes closed.
4.
Record for 20 seconds.
5.
Click Suspend.
6.
Verify recording resembles the example
data.
• If similar, click Continue and
proceed to next recording.
The ECG waveform should have a baseline at or near 0 mV and should
not display large baseline drifts or significant EMG artifact. The Heart
Rate (BPM) data will not be accurate until after the first two cardiac
(ECG) cycles after which there should not be sporadic variations that
go out of the visible range.
60
Fig. 5.9 Example Supine data
• If necessary, click Redo
If recording does not resemble the Example Data
• If all required recordings have been
completed, click Done.

If the data is noisy or flatline, check all connections to the MP unit.

If the ECG displays excessive baseline drift or EMG artifact, or if
the Heart Rate (BPM) data shows sporadic values:

o
Verify electrodes are making good contact with the skin and that
the leads are not pulling on the electrodes.
o
Make sure Subject is in a relaxed position.
Click Redo and repeat Steps 2 – 6 if necessary. Note that once Redo
is clicked, the most recent recording will be erased.
Recording continues…
Seated
• Review recording steps.
7.
Subject gets up quickly and then settles
into a seated position (Fig. 5.10).
Subject should sit with arms relaxed at side of body and hands apart in
lap, with legs flexed at knee and feet supported for seconds 21 – 40.
Fig. 5.10 Positioning (seated)
8.
Once Subject is seated and still, click
Record.
In order to capture the heart rate variation, click Record as quickly as
possible after Subject sits and relaxes.
61
9.
Record for 20 seconds.
Subject remains seated, relaxed, and breathing normally.
10. Click Suspend.
11. Verify recording resembles the example
data.
• If similar, click Continue and
proceed to the next recording.
Fig. 5.11 Example Seated data
• If necessary, click Redo.
The data description is the same as outlined in Step 6.
• If all required recordings have been
completed, click Done.
Click Redo if necessary. The Subject must return to the Supine position
for at least 5 minutes before repeating Steps 7 – 11.
Note that once Redo is clicked, the most recent recording will be erased.
Recording continues…
Deep Breathing
• Review recording steps.
Subject remains seated.
12. Click Record.
13. Subject inhales and exhales slowly and
completely as possible for five prolonged
(slow) breath cycles.
• Recorder presses F4 at the start of
each inhale.
Note It is important to breathe with long, slow, deep breaths
to help minimize EMG artifact.
If possible, the Subject should breathe through nose so the Recorder can
clearly observe the start of each inhale and exhale.
• Recorder presses F5 at the start of
each exhale.
14. Click Suspend.
15. Verify recording resembles the example
data.
• If similar, click Continue and
proceed to the next recording.
62
Fig. 5.12 Example Deep Breathing data
• If necessary, click Redo.
• If all required recordings have been
completed, click Done.
The data description is the same as outlined in Step 6 with the following
exception:
 The ECG data may exhibit some baseline drift during deep
breathing which is normal and unless excessive, does not
necessitate Redo.
Click Redo and repeat Steps 12 – 15 if necessary. Note that once Redo is
clicked, the most recent recording will be erased.
After exercise
• Review recording steps.
16. Subject exercises to elevate heart rate.
• If electrode leads were unclipped,
clip them back on.
• Following exercise, Subject sits
down and relaxes.
Subject should perform an exercise to elevate his/her heart rate fairly
rapidly, such as running up stairs, push-ups, or jumping-jacks.
Note You may remove the electrode cable pinch connectors so that
Subject can move about freely, but do not remove the
electrodes.
If you do remove the cable pinch connectors, you must
reattach them following the precise color placement in Fig. 5.6
prior to clicking Record.
When seated, Subject’s arms must be relaxed and at sides of body, with
arms relaxed and feet supported.
In order to capture the heart rate variation, it is important that you
resume recording as quickly as possible after Subject has performed the
exercise. However, it is also important that you do not click Record
while Subject is exercising or you will capture motion artifact.
17. Record for 60 seconds.
18. Click Suspend.
19. Verify recording resembles the example
data.
• If similar, click Continue to proceed
to optional recording section, or
click Done if finished.
Fig. 5.13 Example After Exercise data
Recording continues…
• If necessary, click Redo.
The data description is the same as outlined in Step 6, with the following
exception:
 The ECG data may exhibit some baseline drift which is normal and
unless excessive, does not necessitate Redo.
Click Redo and repeat Steps 16 – 19 if necessary. Note that once Redo is
clicked, the most recent recording will be erased.
OPTIONAL ACTIVE LEARNING PORTION
With this lesson you may record additional data segments by clicking
Continue following the last recording segment. Design an experiment
to test or verify a scientific principle(s) related to topics covered in this
lesson. Although you are limited to this lesson’s channel assignments,
the electrodes may be moved to different locations on the Subject.
Design Your Experiment
Use a separate sheet to detail your experiment design, and be sure to
63
20. After clicking Done, choose an option and
click OK.
21. Remove the electrodes.
address these main points:
G. Hypothesis
Describe the scientific principle to be tested or verified.
H. Materials
List the materials you will use to complete your investigation.
I. Method
Describe the experimental procedure—be sure to number each step
to make it easy to follow during recording.
Run Your Experiment
J. Set Up
Set up the equipment and prepare the subject for your experiment.
K. Record
Use the Continue, Record and Suspend buttons to record as many
segments as necessary for your experiment.
Click Done when you have completed all of the segments required
for your experiment.
Analyze Your Experiment
L. Set measurements relevant to your experiment and record the
results in a Data Report.
If choosing the Record from another Subject option:

Repeat Setup Steps 6 – 9, and then proceed to Calibration.
Remove the electrode cable pinch connectors and peel off all electrodes.
Discard the electrodes. (BIOPAC electrodes are not reusable.) Wash the
electrode gel residue from the skin, using soap and water. The electrodes
may leave a slight ring on the skin for a few hours which is quite normal.
END OF RECORDING
IV. DATA ANALYSIS
In this section, you will examine ECG components of cardiac cycles and measure amplitudes (mV) and durations
(msecs) of the ECG components.
Note: Interpreting ECGs is a skill that requires practice to distinguish between normal variation and those arising
from medical conditions. Do not be alarmed if your ECG is different than the normal values and references in the
Introduction.
FAST TRACK Data Analysis
1.
Enter the Review Saved Data mode.
Detailed Explanation of Data Analysis Steps
If entering Review Saved Data mode from the Startup dialog or lessons
menu, make sure to choose the correct file.
64
• Note Channel Number (CH)
designation:
CH 1
ECG (Lead II)
CH 40
Heart Rate
• Note measurement box settings:
Channel Measurement
CH 40 Value
CH 1
Delta T
CH 1
P-P
CH 1
BPM
Fig. 5.14 Example data
The measurement boxes are above the marker region in the data window.
Each measurement has three sections: channel number, measurement
type, and result. The first two sections are pull-down menus that are
activated when you click them.
Brief definition of measurements:
Value: Displays the amplitude value at the point selected by the Ibeam cursor. If an area is selected, displays the value of the endpoint
based on the direction the cursor was dragged.
 CH 40 heart rate data is only updated at the end of an R-R interval
so it remains constant within an R-R interval; therefore, the Value
(BPM) measurement will be accurate from any selected point in
the R-R interval.
 Single point Values will be shown when placing the Arrow cursor
over the data while holding down the left mouse button.
Delta T: Displays the amount of time in the selected area (the
difference in time between the endpoints of the selected area).
P-P (Peak-to-Peak): Subtracts the minimum value from the maximum
value found in the selected area.
BPM: Use only if CH 40 was not recorded. The Beats Per Minute
measurement first calculates the difference in time between the
beginning and end of the selected area (seconds/beat,) and divides this
value into 60 seconds/minute.
Rate Mean: If CH 40 Heart Rate data was recorded, use the Rate
Mean measurement, which is designed specifically for rate data and
calculates accurate statistical means using one value only for every
cardiac cycle. This avoids any unintentional weighting due to time
variation in heart rate, unlike the amplitude "Mean" measurement.
Data Analysis continues…
The “selected area” is the area selected by the I-beam tool (including
endpoints).
Textual notes (such as identifying components of the ECG wave) can be
inserted into the graph by using the Annotation tool. This tool will place
a small editable text box anywhere in the waveform.
65
2.
Set up your display window for optimal
viewing of three complete cardiac cycles
from the initial “Supine” segment.
NOTE: For accurate BPM data go past the first
two cardiac cycles.
Fig. 5.15 Zoom in on “Supine” data
Note: The append event markers mark the beginning of each
recording. Click (activate) the event marker to display its label.
Useful tools for changing view:
Display menu: Autoscale Horizontal, Autoscale Waveforms, Zoom
Back, Zoom Forward
Scroll Bars: Time (Horizontal); Amplitude (Vertical)
Cursor Tools: Zoom Tool
Buttons: Overlap, Split, Adjust Baseline (Up, Down,) Show Grid, Hide
Grid, -, +
Hide/Show Channel: “Alt + click” (Windows) or “Option + click” (Mac)
the channel number box to toggle channel display.
The Heart Rate
channel is
updated at the
end of each R-R
interval, so it will
initially appear
“out of sync,” or
delayed by one
interval. (See Fig.
5.17 for
illustration.)
Fig. 5.16 Overlap sample: Heart Rate and ECG after supine Subject is seated
Adjust Baseline allows you to position the waveform up or down in
small increments so that the baseline (isoelectric line) can be exactly zero.
After Adjust Baseline is pressed, Up and Down buttons are generated.
Simply click these to move the waveform up or down. This is not needed
to get accurate amplitude measurements, but may be desired before
making a printout, or when using grids.
Note that the CH 40 Value measurement displays the BPM for the
select any data point within an R-R interval. interval preceding the current R-R interval.
3. For measuring heart rate, use the cursor to
A
If CH 40 Heart Rate data was not recorded, use CH 1 BPM measurement
to determine the heart rate; select from R wave peak to R wave peak as
precisely as possible.
Follow the examples shown above to complete all the measurements
required for the Data Report
66
4.
Take measurements within two other R-R
intervals in the current segment.
A
5.
Repeat measurements on the other segments
as required for the Data Report.
A
6.
Data Analysis continues…
Hide CH 40.
7.
Zoom in on a single cardiac cycle from
“Supine” segment.
8.
Measure Ventricular Systole and Diastole.
B
9.
Repeat measurements for “After exercise”
segment.
Fig. 5.17 Data point selection for Heart Rate data correlated to ECG data
The remaining measurements use ECG data only. To hide Heart Rate data
display and focus on ECG data, Alt + click (Windows) or Option + click
(Mac) the “40” channel number box.
For Ventricular Systole and Diastole measurements, the T wave reference
point for the selected area is 1/3 of the way down the descending portion
of the T wave; if necessary, see Fig. 5.2 and Table 5.1 in the Introduction
PDF for selected area details.
Measurement data starts at the append event marker labeled “After
exercise.”
B
10. Zoom in on a single cardiac cycle
from “Supine” segment.
11. Use the I-Beam cursor to select segments
and measure the durations and wave
amplitudes required for the Data Report.
Use P-P measurement to obtain amplitudes.
Select the components of the ECG as specified in the Introduction and
gather wave amplitude data for 3 cycles using the P-P measurement. If
necessary, see Fig. 5.2 and Table 5.1 in the Introduction for selected area
details.
C
Fig. 5.18 Measuring P wave duration (Delta T) and amplitude (P-P)
Fig. 5.19 Selection of P-R Interval
67
12. Zoom in on a single cardiac cycle
from “After exercise” segment.
Follow the examples shown above to complete all the measurements
required for your Data Report.
13. Repeat duration and amplitude (P-P)
measurements using “After exercise” data
as required for the Data Report.
C
Data Analysis continues…
14. OPTIONAL: Using the Annotation tool,
insert text boxes identifying the ECG
components in the selected area. Copy and
paste this graph to the Data Report at the
end of Section C.
Use the Annotation Tool
to insert text boxes into the graph
identifying the ECG components in the selected portion, and then drag
them to their correct locations within the ECG waveform.
Fig 5.20 Example of ECG Component Annotations
 Use the Copy Graph button to copy the selected area.
 Use the contextual menu in the Journal to paste the graph into the
Data Report.
15. Answer the questions at the end of the Data
Report.
16. Save or Print the data file.
An electronically editable Data Report is located in the journal
(following the lesson summary,) or immediately following this Data
Analysis section. Your instructor will recommend the preferred format for
your lab.
17. Quit the program.
END OF DATA ANALYSIS
END OF LESSON 5
Complete the Lesson 5 Data Report that follows.
68
Data Report
Turn in data report page as a group.
Group member name _______________________ ______________________________
_________________________ ____________________________
Subject Profile
Name______________________
Age ________________ Gender _____________ Height ________ cm Weight ______ Kg
69
Turn in this page as an individual.
Name______________________________________
C. Answer the following questions individually
1. Base on the body position change from supine to seated, what happen to the heat rate?
____________________________________________.
2. Based on the reading next to Figure 5.3, how does respiratory cycle affect heart rate?
_____________________________;
_____________________________________.
3. Label the given ECG diagram with P, Q, R, S and T.
4. Use your lecture book define :

Tachycardia
___________________________________________________

Bradycardia
___________________________________________________

Fibrillation
___________________________________________________
5. Use Figure 5.4 and knowledge you learn from this lab, answer the following
questions:
1)
How many second (s) do(es) one R-R occur? ________
2)
How many beat per second for this Subject? _______ bps.
3)
The heartbeat of this patient is ________beats per minute.
4)
Use the definition above and identify the type of arrhythmias.
______________________ Justify your answer:
_______________________________________________________
70
Lab 11 Pulse and Blood Pressure
Name __________________________
Prep Lab Reading
Cindy Stanfield 2013 Principle of Human Physiology Chapter 13
The following lab is adopted from Dr. Kovnat
Purpose
1. To accurately determine a subject’s blood pressure with a sphygmomanometer.
2. To determine a subject’s radial pulse.
3. To relate systolic and diastolic pressures to events of the cardiac cycle.
Procedure
Palpating a Superficial Pulse
 The pulse rate is the number of pulse per minute measured by palpating on superficial
artery. The pulse may be felt easily on any superficial artery when the artery is
compressed over a bone or firm tissue. Palpate the pulse on your partner by placing the
fingertips of the first two or three fingers of one hand over the radial artery. It helps to
compress the artery firmly as you begin your palpation and then immediately ease up on
the pressure slightly. Notice the regularity of the pulse, and assess the degree of tension
or amplitude. With your partner sitting quietly, practice counting the radial pulse for 1
minute. Make three counts and average the results.
Table 1 My Pulse Rate
1
2
3
Average
Using a Sphygmomanometer to Measure Arterial Blood Pressure Indirectly
 Obtain a stethoscope, alcohol swabs, and a sphygmomanometer. Clean the earpieces of
the stethoscope with the alcohol swabs, and check the cuff for the presence of trapped
air by compressing it against the laboratory table.
 The subject should sit in a comfortable position with one arm resting on the laboratory
table (approximately at heart level if possible). Wrap the cuff around the subject’s arm,
just above the elbow, with the inflatable area on the medial arm surface. The cuff may
be marked with an arrow; if so, the arrow should be positioned over the brachial artery.
Secure the cuff by bringing the Velcro areas together.
 Palpate the brachial pulse, and lightly mark its position with a felt pen. With the
stethoscope in position, place its diaphragm over the pulse point. The cuff should not
be kept inflated for more than one minute. If you have any trouble obtaining a reading
within this time, deflate the cuff, wait 1 or 2 minutes, and try again. (A prolonged
interference with BP homeostasis can lead to fainting.)
71
 Inflate the cuff to approximately 160 mm Hg pressure, and slowly release the pressure
valve. Watch the pressure gauge as you listen carefully for the first soft thudding
sounds of the blood spurting through the partially occluded artery. Mentally note this
systolic pressure (SP), and continue to release the cuff pressure. You will notice first an
increase, then a muffling, of the sound. Note, as the diastolic pressure (DP), the
pressure at which the sound disappears. Make two blood pressure determinations, and
record your results below.
 Compute the pulse pressure (PP) for each trial. The pulse pressure is the difference
between the systolic and diastolic pressure, and indicates the amount of blood forced
from the heart during systole, or the actual “working” pressure. The average pulse
pressure for a health adult is
o PP = SP-DP=110 mmHg – 70 mmHg = 40 mmHg
 Compute the mean arterial pressure (MAP) for each trial using the following
equation:
MAP = [SP+ (2*DP)]/3
Table 2 My Blood Pressure
Trail
1
SP
DP
PP= SP-DP
MAP
2
Observing the Effect of Various Factors on Blood Pressure and Heart Rate
 Arterial blood pressure is directly proportional to cardiac output and peripheral
resistance to blood flow. Peripheral resistance is increased by constriction of blood
vessels, by an increase in blood viscosity or volume, and by a loss of elasticity of the
arteries. Many factors, such as age, weight, time of day, exercise, body position,
emotional state, and various drugs, alter blood pressure.
 To monitor circulatory adjustments to changes in position (posture), take blood pressure
and pulse measurements under the conditions noted:
Table 3 The effect of position change on BP and pulse
Subject 1
BP
Pulse
(SP/DP)
Subject 2
Sitting quietly
Sitting quietly
Reclining (lying
down)
Immediately on
standing From
the reclining
position
After standing
for 3 min

Reclining (lying
down)
Immediately on
standing from
the reclining
position
After standing
for 3 min
BP(SP/DP) Pulse
72

Bench stepping is to be performed at least twice in each group of four people– once
with a well-conditioned person acting as the subject, and once with a poorly condition
subject. The other two people act as testers who measure the blood pressure and time
the exercise time. Bench stepping is the following series of movements repeated
sequentially:
1) Place one foot on the step.
2) Step up with to the other foot so that both feet are on the platform. Straighten
the legs and the back.
3) Step down with one foot.
4) Bring the other foot down.
The pace for the stepping will be set by the “timer” (student 1), who will repeat “up-2-3-4,
up-2-3-4” at such a pace that each “up-2-3-4” sequence takes 2 seconds (30 cycles/second).
Once the baseline pulse and blood pressure measurements have been recorded, the subject
is to stand quietly at attention for 2 minutes to allow his or her blood pressure to stabilize
before beginning to step.
The subject is to perform the bench stepping for as long as possible at a faster pace, up to a
maximum of 5 minutes according to the cadence called by the timer. The subject is to be
watched for and warned against crouching (posture must remain erect). If he or she is
unable to keep the pace for a span of 15 seconds, the test is to be terminated. When the
subject is stopped by the pacer, stops voluntarily because he or she is unable to continue, or
has completed 5 minutes of bench stepping, he or she is to sit down. The duration of
exercise (in seconds) is to recorded, and the blood pressure and pulse are to be measured
immediately and thereafter at 1 minute intervals for 3 minutes post-exercise.
Table 4 The effect of exercise on BP and pulse

Subject 1
Name
Pulse Examiner
Name
BP Examiner
Name
Data Recorder
Name
Subject 2
Name
Pulse Examiner
Name
BP Examiner
Name
Data Recorder
Name
Record the test values on the chart below, and repeat the testing and recording
procedure with the second subject
73
Subject
Before Ex
Baseline
BP
P
Immediate
After Ex.
BP
P
1 min After
BP
P
Recovery
2 Min After
BP
P
3 Min. After
BP
P
1
2
 Based on the data above, when did you notice a greater elevation of blood pressure and pulse
_______________________________________________________________________
 Explain what happened during exercise in terms of blood pressure and pulse (see Chapter 14,
page 428):
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

What contributes to systolic pressure?
____________________________________________________________________
 What contributes to diastolic pressure?
___________________________________________________________________
The subject’s index of physical fitness is to be calculated using the formula below:
Index = duration of exercise in seconds (# of minutes exercised*60) X 100
2 X sum of the 3 pulse counts in recovery
Show calculation below:
Subject 1
Subject 2
Total exercise in seconds _____ *60 =
_____ *60 =
Pulse counts in recovery P1+P2+P3 =
P1+P2+P3 =
Index of Physical Fitness
Which subject is better conditioned? _______
Scores are interpreted according to the following scale:
<55
poor
55-62
low average
72-79 high average
80-89 good
63-71 average
>89 excellent
74
Lab 12 Hematocrit and Blood Type
Prelab Reading
Cindy Stanfield 2013 Principle of Human Physiology Chapter 15
Blood has a liquid component (plasma) and a cellular component (blood cells). The plasma
contains ions, hormones and other materials that can be distributed throughout the body. It also
maintains the pH. The cellular components of the blood include the erythrocytes (red blood
cells), the leukocytes (white blood cells) and membrane bound fragments called platelets. The
primary function of red blood cells is to transport oxygen. The ion containing protein hemoglobin
accomplishes this task. A low reading of red blood cell and hemoglobin may indicate that a
person has anemia. White blood cells involve in immune responses and platelets help the blood
clotting.
The total red blood cell is determined by using a hemacytometer in this lab. A lower than
normal reading may suggest that a person is anemia, hemorrhage (bleeding), bone marrow failure
(for example, from radiation, toxin, fibrosis, tumor), or malnutrition. Further tests should be
conducted to determine the exact cause. If the count is too high (a condition called polycythemia
vera), there is a risk that the red blood cells will clump together and block tiny blood vessels
(capillaries).Table 1 shows the desired reading of hematocrit and hemoglobin. In our class, we
will use simulated blood or sheep blood to practice on the counting of red blood cells
Table 1 Desired Readings of Red Blood Cell Hematocrit and Hemoglobin
Red Blood Cells (millions of cells /mm3)
Hematocrit (%)
Hemoglobin (gm/dL )
4.7-6.1
41-51
14-17
Female 4.2 -5.4
36-47
12-16
Male
A. Determining the Hematocrit of Sheep Blood
Hematocrit is the fraction of red blood cells in a total blood cell. Hematocrit is measured by
using a centrifuged blood sample and then determined by using a reader.
Figure 1 Capillary tube
Materials
75
Heparinized capillary tubes (has a red line on the tube)
Seal ease or modeling clay
Sheep blood
microhematocrit reader
microhematocrit centrifuge
Procedure
1.
Obtain two (heparinized, if possible) capillary tubes, and Seal-ease (or modeling
clay).
2.
Take the end of a heparinized, capillary hematocrit tube to the edge of the blood
sample and allow the tube to fill three-fourths full. Air bubbles denote poor
technique, but do not affect the results of the test.
3.
Tilt the tube to leave both ends free of blood. Seal one end of the tube with clay
furnished with the tubes.
4.
Take a second capillary tubes and repeat steps 2-3.
5.
Now place the two hematocrit capillary tubes in the radial grooves of the centrifuge
head exactly opposite each other, with the sealed end away from the center of the
microhematocrit centrifuge. Record the grove number where you placed your
capillary tubes.
6.
Screw the flat centrifuge head cover in place.
7.
Centrifuge at 10,000 rpm for 5 minutes.
8.
Remove the hematocrit tubes as soon as the centrifuge has stopped spinning.
9.
The RBCs are the bottom layer, the plasma is the top layer, and the WBCs are the
buff-colored layer between the two.
10. Determine the percentage of RBCs, WBCs and plasma by using the
microhematocrit reader.
11. Record your results.
References
1.
http://sickle.bwh.harvard.edu/hct.html
2.
http://www.freed.net/sweethaven/MedTech/Hematology/lessonMain.asp?iNum=02
05
3.
http://tpub.com/corpsman/232.htm
4.
http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/jiwilliams/hematocrit_determination.htm
5.
http://www.medicine.uiowa.edu/cme/clia/modules.asp?testID=4
6.
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/reprod/semeneval/hemacytometer.h
tml
B. Determination of blood types by using simulated blood.
Blood contains 55% plasma, and 45% cellular elements. It is slightly alkaline. Blood circulates
throughout the vascular system carrying nourishment and transporting oxygen and waste. There
are four types of cellular elements including red blood cells (RBCs or erythrocytes). The surface
of red blood cells contains genetically determined antigens called agglutinogens. Antibodies
also called agglutinin (anti-A and anti-B) exist in the plasma. There are two types of blood
group systems based on the presence (or absence) of these antigens and antibodies, ABO and
76
blood Rh system. An “A+” person has both antigens A and Rh on his (her) red blood cell surface.
A person’s blood type is determined by his or her parents’ blood type.
1. ABO Group
Karl Landsteiner received a Nobel Prize in 1930 for his discovery of ABO blood system.
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the four blood types under the ABO blood group. As
you can see these blood types are named after the presence antigens A and B on the surface of
the RBCs. The genes that code for these antigens are located on chromosome number 9.
Table 1 Summary of ABO Group
Antigen on RBCs
Antibody in plasma
A
A
Anti- B
B
B
Anti-A
Genotypes (gene)
IAIA or IAi
IBIB or IBi
ABO Blood Type
AB
Both A and B
Neither anti-A
nor anti-B
IAIB
O
Neither A nor B
Both anti-A
and anti-B
ii
2. Rh Blood System
The Rh factor was designated Rh, because it was first discovered in Rhesus monkey. This
classification is based on the presence or absence of the antigen Rh on the surface of RBCs. If
the Rh factor (antigen) is present on the surface of RBC, it is called Rh positive (Rh +). About
85% of people in the United States are Rh+. Rh negative (Rh -) is for those that lack Rh
antigens. The genes for Rh factor are found on chromosome 1. The incidence of blood types
varies among the races of a human population (Table 2). The anti-Rh antibodies of the system
are not normally present in the plasma, but anti-Rh antibodies can be produced upon exposure
and sensitization to Rh antigens. Sensitization can occur when Rh+ blood is transfused into an
Rh- recipient or when an Rh- mother carries an Rh+ fetus. In latter case, this could trigger the
mother to produce anti-Rh antibodies at the end of her pregnancy. So the first Rh+ child is not
affected. The second Rh+ fetus may receive the anti-Rh bodies from the mother therefore
causing the agglutination and hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes, and resulting in a condition
called erythroblastosis fetalis. To treat an infant in a severe case, the infant’s Rh+ blood is
replaced with Rh- blood to reduce the level of anti Rh antibodies.
Table 2 Incidences of Blood Types
(From http://www.givelife2.org/aboutblood/bloodtypes.asp)
ABO Rh
White
African American
Hispanic
Asian
O+
37%
47%
53%
39%
O-
8%
4%
4%
1%
A+
33%
24%
29%
27%
A-
7%
2%
2%
0.5%
B+
9%
18%
9%
25%
B-
2%
1%
1%
0.4%
77
ABO Rh
White
African American
Hispanic
Asian
AB +
3%
4%
2%
7%
AB -
1%
0.3%
0.2%
0.1
3. Blood Type Test
Blood typing is performed by mixing a small sample of blood with anti-A or anti-B
(antiserum). The presence or absence of clumping (agglutination, jelly looking with our kit)
is determined for each type of antiserum and blood used. Agglutination reaction is actually an
immune response. It indicates a positive reading. Table 3 summaries the results of some blood
typing results.
Table 3 Agglutination Reaction of Some Blood Types
Blood Cell Reaction When Mixed with
Anti-A Serum
Anti-B Serum
Conclusive
Anti-Rh Serum Blood Type
Agglutination
No Agglutination
Agglutination
Type A +
No Agglutination
Agglutination
Agglutination
Type B+
Agglutination
Agglutination
Agglutination
Type AB+
No Agglutination
No Agglutination
No
Type O-
Blood transfusion can save lives if it is done correctly. However it could be fatal if the wrong
blood were used. The agglutinated cells can block blood vessels and may lead to death. Blood
typing is also used in legal situations involving identification or disputed paternity. In this
exercise, we will use simulated blood to learn the principles and techniques of blood typing.
Materials (Ward’s simulated blood typing kit)
4 blood typing slides (with A, B and Rh wells)
8 toothpicks
4 unknown "blood" samples (Mr. Smith, Ms. Jones, Mr. Green, Ms. Brown)
anti-A, anti-B anti-serums and anti-Rh antiserum
Procedure
1. Label each of the four slides as follows: Mr. Smith, Ms. Jones, Mr. Green, and Ms.
Brown
2. Place 2 drops of Mr. Smith’s blood in the A, B and Rh wells of Slide Mr. Smith.
3. Place 2 drops of Ms. Jones’s blood in the A, B and Rh wells of Slide Ms. Jones.
4. Place 2 drops of Mr. Green’s blood in the A, B and Rh wells of Slide Mr. green.
5. Place 2 drops of Ms. Brown’s blood in the A, B and Rh wells of Slide Ms. brown.
6. Add 2 drops of the anti-A serum to each “A” well of the four slides. Use a clean tooth
pick to mix each solution.
7. Add 2 drops of the anti-B serum to each B well of the four slides. Use a clean tooth
pick to mix the solution.
8. Add 2 drops of the anti-Rh serum to each Rh well of the four slides.
78
9. Stir each mixture with a different clean toothpick. Use only one toothpick per well to
avoid cross contamination.
10. Examine each well for agglutination (jelly-like for our artificial blood). Look at the
chart displayed in class for real blood reaction.
11. Agglutination indicates a positive test result. Record your results (agglutination or no
agglutination) and conclusions (blood type) in Table 4.
12. Discard the used tooth picks. Wash and save the slides.
79
Lab 12 Answer Sheet
Name _________________________
A. Determining the Hematocrit of Sheep Blood
1. Define hematocrit.
2. Results:
Tube 1
% RBC __________
Tube 2
__________
Average
_______
% WBC _________
__________
_______ (% WBC = 100-plasma- RBC)
% plasma _________
_________
_______
B. Blood Type
Table 4 Based on information described in lab, table 1 and table 3. Predict the agglutination reaction results.
Blood Cell Reaction When Mixed with
Anti-A Serum
Anti-B Serum
Anti-Rh Serum
Conclusive Blood Type
Type A Type BType ABType O+
Table 5 Agglutination Results (Agglutination = +)
Slide
Anti-A Serum
Mr. Smith
Mr. Jones
Mr. Green
Ms. Brown
Anti-B Serum
Anti-Rh Serum
Concluded Blood Type
1.
If a patient is A+, what are the antigens on her RBC _________; list the antibodies in the
plasma ________________
2.
If Mr. Jones needed a transfusion, what type(s) of red blood cells could he safely receive?
_____________
3.
Why is it necessary to match the donor’s and the recipient’s blood before a
transfusion is given?
A
4.
Rh
Identify the patient (results shown on your right) blood type ______.
B
80
Lab 13 Pulmonary Function
Prelab Reading
Cindy Stanfield 2013 Principle of Human Physiology Chapter 16
Introduction
Processes of respiration fall into one of three categories: external respiration, gas transport, and
internal respiration. External respiration refers to mechanisms by which a person obtains oxygen
from the external environment and eliminates carbon dioxide into the external environment. Gas
transport refers to mechanisms used to distribute oxygen to and remove carbon dioxide from
cells. Internal respiration refers to the chemical reactions of cellular metabolism in which
oxygen is consumed and carbon dioxide is produced. In this lesson we will focus on mechanisms
of human external respiration..
At the beginning of inspiration, the thoracic cavity is enlarged by contraction of the
diaphragm and the external intercostals (figure 14.1). The diaphragm, normally dome-shaped at
Figure 1 Intrapulmonic pressure and volume changes during one respiratory cycle
rest, becomes flatter when its muscle fibers contract, thereby increasing thoracic volume. The
external intercostals elevate the ribs, a kind of bucket-handle lift that increases the diameter, and
hence the volume of the thorax. An increase in thoracic volume is accompanied by an increase in
intrapulmonic volume, and, according to Boyle’s law, a decrease in intrapulmonic pressure. As
soon as intrapulmonic pressure falls below atmospheric pressure, air flows down the pressure
gradient from the atmosphere through the airways and into the expanded air spaces in the lungs,
continuing to flow until intrapulmonic pressure is again equal to atmospheric pressure (figure 12.
1). At the end of inspiration, intrapulmonic pressure equals atmospheric pressure and airflow
ceases even though intrapulmonic volume is larger than at the beginning of inspiration.
Expiration begins when the inspiratory muscles relax. The diaphragm returns to its resting dome
shape, decreasing thoracic and intrapulmonic volume. Relaxation of the external intercostals
allows the ribs to fall to their resting position, thereby reducing the diameter, and thus the volume
of the thorax and lungs (figure 12.1). A reduction in intrapulmonic volume is accompanied by an
increase in intrapulmonic pressure. As soon as intrapulmonic pressure increases above
atmospheric pressure, air flows down the pressure gradient from the expanded air spaces in the
81
lung through the airways and back into the atmosphere, continuing to flow until intrapulmonic
pressure is again equal to atmospheric pressure (Figure 1).
The volume of air a person inhales (inspires) and exhales (expires) can be measured with a
spirometer (spiro = breath, meter = to measure). A bell spirometer consists of a double-walled
cylinder in which an inverted bell filled with oxygen-enriched air is immersed in water to form a
seal. A pulley attaches the bell to a recording pen that writes on a drum rotating at a constant
speed. During inspiration, air is removed from the bell and the pen rises, recording an inspired
volume. As expired air enters the bell, the pen falls and an expired volume is recorded. The
resultant record of volume change vs. time is called a spirogram.
In this lesson, you will use an airflow transducer and the software will convert airflow to volume,
thus approximating the volume reading of a spirometer. This is a much quicker method of
obtaining lung capacity data, however, the disadvantage is that the recording procedure must be
followed exactly for an accurate conversion from airflow to volume.
Figure 2 Example of respiratory volumes and capacities
•
Tidal Volume (TV) is the volume of air inspired or expired during a single breath. When
a resting person breathes normally, tidal volume is approximately 500 ml. During
exercise, tidal volume can be more than 3 liters.
•
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) is the volume of air that can be maximally inhaled
at the end of a tidal inspiration. Resting IRV is approximately 3,300 ml in young adult
males and 1900 ml in young adult females.
•
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) is the volume of air that can be maximally exhaled
at the end of a tidal expiration. Resting ERV is approximately 1,000 ml in young adult
males and 700 ml in young adult females.
82
•
Residual Volume (RV) is the volume of gas remaining in the lungs at the end of a
maximal expiration. In contrast to IRV, TV, and ERV, residual volume does not change
with exercise. Average adult values for RV are 1,200 ml for males and 1,100 ml for
females. Residual volume reflects the fact that after the first breath at birth inflates the
lungs, they are never completely emptied during any subsequent respiratory cycle.
Pulmonary Capacity is the sum of two or more primary lung volumes. There are five
pulmonary capacities, which can be calculated as shown below:
1. Inspiratory Capacity (IC): IC = TV + IRV
2. Expiratory Capacity (EC): EC = TV + ERV
3. Functional Residual Capacity: (FRC) FRC = ERV + RV
4. Vital Capacity (VC): VC = IRV + TV + ERV
5. Total Lung Capacity (TLC): TLC = IRV + TV + ERV + RV
Each of these capacities is represented graphically in Figure 2 above. Pulmonary volumes and
capacities are generally measured when assessing health of the respiratory system because the
volume and capacity values change with pulmonary disease. For example, inspiratory capacity is
normally 60-70% of the vital capacity.
II. EXPERIMENTAL OBJECTIVES
1. To observe experimentally, record and/or calculate selected pulmonary volumes and
capacities.
2.
To compare the observed values of volume and capacity with average values.
3.
To compare the normal values of pulmonary volumes and capacities of subjects
differing in sex, age, weight, and height.
Part I BIOPAC Pulmonary Function (Lesson 12)
III. MATERIALS
 BIOPAC Airflow Transducer with removable, cleanable head (SS11LA)
 BIOPAC Bacteriological Filter (AFT1): one per subject; plus, if using calibration syringe, one
dedicated to syringe
 BIOPAC Disposable Mouthpiece (AFT2)
 BIOPAC Nose Clip (AFT3)
BIOPAC Calibration Syringe: 0.6-Liter (AFT6 or AFT6A+AFT11A) or 2-Liter (AFT26)
 Biopac Student Lab System: BSL 3.7.5 software and MP45 data acquisition unit
Laptop computer
IV. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
A. Setup
1. Take one laptop out from the COW by disconnecting the power cord.
2. Sign your name on the paper on the top of the COW.
3. Connect the airflow transducer (SS11LA) to Channel 1 on the BSL unit.
83
4. Make sure that the USB of BIOPAC MP45 unit is plugged into the computer.
Figure .3 Assembly of airflow transducer and BIOPAC MP45
5. Turn on your computer.
6. Your user name is the first two letter of your first name + first two letters of your last
name+ the last five digits of your student ID.
7. Your password is your birthday Month + day.
8. Waiting for a while for the computer to load your personal profile.
9. The Airflow transducer (SS11LA) needs 10 minutes to warm up.
10. While you are waiting, please get the followings:
a. One BIOPAC Bacteriological Filter (AFT1):
b. One Disposable Mouthpiece (AFT2):
c. One BIOPAC Calibration Syringe
d. One BIOPAC Nose Clip (AFT3):
11. Click on BIOPAC 3, 7, 5 software icon on the desktop.
12. Open BIOPAC Lesson 12 and click on OK.
13. Type in your file name and click OK.
84
VI.
EXPERIMENTAL OBJECTIVES
1.) To observe experimentally, record and/or calculate selected pulmonary volumes and capacities.
2.) To compare the observed values of volume and capacity with average values.
3.) To compare the normal values of pulmonary volumes and capacities of subjects differing in sex, age,
weight, and height.
VII. MATERIALS
•
BIOPAC Airflow Transducer (SS11LA)
•
BIOPAC Bacteriological Filter (AFT1): one per subject. If using calibration syringe, one dedicated to
syringe.
•
BIOPAC Disposable Mouthpiece (AFT2)
•
BIOPAC Noseclip (AFT3)
•
BIOPAC Calibration Syringe: 0.6-Liter (AFT6 or AFT6A+AFT11A) or 2-Liter (AFT26)
•
Optional—BIOPAC Autoclavable Mouthpiece (AFT8)
•
Biopac Student Lab System: BSL 4 software, MP36, MP35 or MP45 hardware
•
Computer System (Windows or Mac)
VIII. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
C. SETUP
FAST TRACK Setup
Detailed Explanation of Setup Steps
1. Turn your computer ON.
2. Turn OFF MP36/35 unit.
• If using an MP45, make sure USB cable is
connected and “Ready” light is ON.
3. Plug the Airflow Transducer (SS11LA) into
Channel 1.
4. Turn ON the MP36/35 unit.
Fig. 12.8 MP3X (top) and MP45 (bottom) equipment connections
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Setup continues…
5.
Start the Biopac Student Lab program.
6.
Choose “L12 – Pulmonary Function I” and
click OK.
7.
Type in a unique filename and click OK.
Start Biopac Student Lab by double-clicking the Desktop shortcut.
No two people can have the same filename, so use a unique identifier,
such as Subject’s nickname or student ID#.
A folder will be created using the filename. This same filename can be
used in other lessons to place the Subject’s data in a common folder.
8.
Enter the “Subject Details” and click OK.
(BSL 4.01 and higher only.)
Subject Details records the gender, age and height of the Subject
prior to beginning the lesson. Domestic or metric units may be
selected. These details are displayed in the Journal following the
lesson. (BSL 4.01 and higher only.)
9.
Optional: Set Preferences.
This lesson has optional Preferences for data and display while
recording. Per your Lab Instructor’s guidelines, you may set:
• Choose File > Lesson Preferences.
• Select an option.
• Select the desired setting and click OK.
Residual Volume: RV cannot be determined using a normal
spirometer or airflow transducer, so the BSL
software sets a value between 0 and 5 liters
(default is 1 L)
Grids: Show or hide gridlines
Calibration Syringe Values:
“Set each time lesson is launched”: Syringe (Stage 2) calibration is
required the first time the lesson is run. After the lesson is re-run
without closing the application, Syringe calibration is not required.
“Set once and use stored values”: After Syringe calibration is
performed once, it will not be performed again. This is only
recommended when specific SS11LA Airflow transducers are
matched to specific MP units.
Calibration Syringe Size:
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0.61 L (AFT6A/6,) 1 L, 2 L (AFT26,) 3 L, 4 L, or 5 L
END OF SETUP
D. CALIBRATION
Calibration establishes the hardware’s internal parameters (such as gain, offset, and scaling) and is critical for
optimal performance. Calibration will vary based on the Preference set by your lab instructor.
FAST TRACK Calibration
4.
Hold the Airflow Transducer upright and
still, making sure no air is flowing
through it (Fig. 12.9).
Detailed Explanation of Calibration Steps
Calibration Stage 1 precisely
zeroes the baseline. Any baseline
shift during this calibration can
cause errors in the subsequent
recordings. Baseline shift can
occur from:
Stage 1 – Always required
a)
Airflow through the transducer
from movement, an HVAC
duct or even from breathing
close to the unit.
Fig. 12.9
b) Changes in transducer
orientation. The transducer
should be held still and in the
same orientation that will be
used during the recording.
5.
Click Calibrate.
Calibration lasts from 4 to 8 seconds.
• Wait for Calibration to stop
6.
Check Calibration data:
• Verify data is flat and centered. If
necessary, click Redo Calibration.
• To proceed, click Continue.
Fig. 12.10 Example Calibration Stage 1 data
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7.
IF CALIBRATION STAGE 2 IS
REQUIRED—Attach Calibration
Syringe and filter to Airflow Transducer
(Fig. 12.11).
IMPORTANT!
Always insert on the
side labeled “Inlet.”
Stage 2 – If required
• Pull Calibration Syringe plunger all
the way out.
• Hold syringe horizontally. Airflow
Transducer must be vertical and
unsupported.
• Review Calibration procedure.
Based on Lesson Preference settings, the calibration syringe may not be
required. If not required, proceed to Step 9.
Notes:
 A bacteriological filter must be used between the transducer and
syringe in order for calibration to be accurate.
 Different syringe sizes are supported via File > Lesson Preferences >
Calibration Syringe Size. Check the pictures in the SET UP >
Calibration tab to make sure they match your setup. If incorrect, the
lesson must be re-run and the preference changed prior to calibration
Stage 1. If you are using a non-BIOPAC syringe, always check the
Preference setting prior to beginning calibration Stage 1.
Never hold onto the
Airflow Transducer
handle when using the
Calibration Syringe or
the syringe tip may
break.
Always insert syringe
assembly on the
transducer side labeled
“Inlet” so that the
transducer cable exits
on the left.
Calibration continues…
Stage 2 - Continued
8.
Fig. 12.11 Example AFT6A/6 connections.
Click Calibrate.
Fig. 12.12 AFT6A calibration stage 2 starting position
Fig. 12.13 AFT26 calibration stage 2 starting position
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9.
Cycle plunger in and out five times (10
strokes total).
• Wait two seconds between each
stroke.
Important:
 Complete exactly five cycles. Less or more cycles will result in
inaccurate volume data.
 Syringe must be pushed in and pulled out all the way.
 Hold the assembly as still as possible.
10. Click End Calibration.
11. Verify recording resembles the example
data.
• If similar, click Continue to
proceed.
 Use a rhythm of about one second per stroke with two seconds
rest between strokes.
There must be five downward deflections and five upward deflections.
The first deflection must be downward. If the first stroke (push)
resulted in an upward data deflection, the syringe/filter assembly must
be reversed by inserting the assembly into the other port of the airflow
transducer and rerunning the Calibration.
• If necessary, click Redo
Calibration.
Fig. 12.14 Example Calibration (stage 2) Data
Calibration continues…
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12. Optional Validate Calibration.
a) Click Record.
It is advisable to validate calibration once per lab session. Syringe must
be pushed in and pulled out all the way.
b) Cycle the syringe plunger in and out
completely 3 times (6 strokes,)
waiting about two seconds between
strokes.
c) Click Stop.
OPTIONAL
d) Measure P-P on CH2 Volume (Fig.
12.15) to confirm the result matches
the syringe volume:
• AFT6 = 0.61 L acceptable range:
0.57 to 0.64 liters
• AFT26 = 2 L acceptable range: 1.9
to 2.1 liters
e) If measurements are correct, click
Redo and proceed with Subject
recording.
f) If measurements are not correct:
• Click Redo then choose File > Quit.
Fig. 12.15 Calibration Validation shows P-P result 0.6 liters
If recording does not resemble the Example Data
 If the data is noisy or flatline, check all connections to the MP
unit.
Clicking Redo will erase the validation data and allow the Subject
recording to continue.
It is necessary to re-launch the application in order to allow a new
Stage 2 (Syringe) calibration. Prior to the next recalibration, make sure
the lesson preference setting “Calibration Syringe Values” is assigned
“Set each time lesson is launched” (see Setup Step 8).
13. Re-launch the application and re-run the
lesson.
END OF CALIBRATION
E. DATA RECORDING
FAST TRACK Recording
1.
Prepare for the recording.
• Remove calibration syringe/filter
assembly (if used).
IMPORTANT!
Subject must be relaxed to
obtain accurate measures.
Detailed Explanation of Recording Steps
The filter used during calibration should not be re-used by the Subject
as it will not be sterile.
Hints for obtaining optimal data:
 Subject should wear loose clothing so clothing does not inhibit
chest expansion.
 Subject must try to expand the thoracic cavity to its largest
volume during maximal inspiratory efforts.
 Air leaks will result in inaccurate data. Make sure all connections
are tight, noseclip is attached and that Subject’s mouth is sealed
around the mouthpiece.
 Keep the Airflow Transducer vertical and in a constant position
(Fig. 12.18).
 If recording is started on an inhale, try to stop recording on an
exhale, or vice versa. (A breath is considered a complete inhaleexhale cycle.)
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2. Insert the filter into the “Inlet” side of the
transducer, and then attach the mouthpiece
(Fig. 12.16).
• If your lab does not use disposable
filters, attach a sterilized mouthpiece
(AFT8) directly to the “Inlet” side of the
transducer (Fig. 12.17).
IMPORTANT: Each Subject must use a personal filter, mouthpiece
and noseclip. The first time they are used, the Subject should
personally remove them from the plastic packaging. It is advisable to
write Subject’s name on the mouthpiece and filter with a permanent
marker so they can be reused later (i.e. Lesson 13).
If your lab sterilizes the airflow heads after each use, make sure a clean
head is installed prior to Subject use.
Recording continues…
Fig. 12.16 SS11LA with unsterilized head
Fig. 12.17 SS11LA with sterilized head
3. Prepare the Subject:
• Subject must be seated, relaxed and
still, facing away from the monitor.
Verify there are no air leaks; mouthpiece and filter are firmly attached,
the noseclip is snug and the Subject’s mouth is tightly sealed around
mouthpiece.
• Place noseclip on Subject’s nose.
• Subject holds airflow transducer
vertically, breathing through
mouthpiece.
• Before recording, Subject acclimates
by breathing normally for 20 seconds.
• Review recording steps.
Fig. 12.18 Keep Airflow Transducer vertical at all times
4. Click Record.
• Breathe normally for five cycles.
• Inhale as deeply as possible then exhale
completely.
1 cycle = inspiration + expiration
If a recording is started on an inhale, try to stop recording on an exhale,
or vice versa. (A breath is considered a complete inhale/exhale cycle.)
• Breathe normally for five more cycles.
5. Click Stop.
After clicking Stop, the Biopac Student Lab software will automatically
calculate volume data based on the recorded airflow data. At the end of
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the calculation, both waveforms will be displayed on the screen (Fig.
12.19).
6. Verify that Volume channel reading
resembles the example data.
• If similar, proceed to Step 7.
The deep inhale/exhale should be clearly seen in the Volume data and
there should be five normal breathing cycles both before and after deep
breathing. It is common to have some “tilt” in the volume data as shown
in Fig. 12.19. If the volume data exhibits excessive tilt (Fig. 12.20,)
redo the recording.
Recording continues…
Fig. 12.19 Example Data
Fig. 12.20 Excessive tilt in the Volume data
• If necessary:
Click Redo and repeat Steps 4 – 6
OR
Re-run the lesson and perform Stage 1
Calibration.
If recording does not resemble Fig. 12.19:
 If the data is noisy or flatline, check all connections to the MP
unit.
 If there is excessive “tilt” in the data (Fig. 12.20):
 Make sure there are five normal breathing cycles on either side of
the deep inhale/exhale.
 Verify there are no air leaks; mouthpiece and filter are firmly
attached, the noseclip is snug and the Subject’s mouth is sealed
around mouthpiece.
 If a recording is started on an inhale, try to stop recording on an
exhale, or vice versa.
 Verify the airflow transducer is kept vertical and still for the entire
recording.
Click Redo and repeat Steps 4 – 6 if necessary.
If redoing the recording does reduce data “tilt,” Stage 1 calibration
(baseline adjust) must be repeated. To re-run lesson and redo stage 1
calibration:
 Click Redo.
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 Choose “L12 – Pulmonary Function I” from the Lessons menu.
7. Click Done.
8. Choose an option and click OK.
 Re-enter your name and proceed with calibration and recording.
Note that once Redo is clicked or the lesson is re-run, the most recent
recording will be erased.
When Done is clicked, a dialog with options will be generated. Make a
selection and click OK.
If choosing the Record from another Subject option:

Repeat Calibration Steps 1 – 3, and then proceed to Recording.
END OF RECORDING
IX. DATA ANALYSIS
FAST TRACK Data Analysis
15. Enter the Review Saved Data mode.
• Note channel number (CH) designations:
Channel
CH 1
CH 2
Detailed Explanation of Data Analysis Steps
If entering Review Saved Data mode from the Startup dialog or
Lessons menu, make sure to choose the correct file.
Displays
Airflow (hidden)
Volume
• Note the measurement box settings:
Channel
CH 2
CH 2
CH 2
CH 2
Measurement
P-P
Max
Min
Delta
Fig. 12.21 Example data
All measurements will be performed on the Volume (CH 2) data. The
Airflow (CH 1) data, used to calculate volume, is hidden to avoid
confusion. It can be shown by “Alt + click” (Windows) or “Option +
click” (Mac) the channel number box.
The measurement boxes are above the marker region in the data
window. Each measurement has three sections: channel number,
measurement type, and result. The first two sections are pull-down
menus that are activated when you click them.
Brief definition of measurements:
P-P (Peak-to-Peak): Subtracts the minimum value from the
maximum value found in the selected area.
Max: Displays the maximum value in the selected area.
Min: Displays the minimum value in the selected area.
Delta: Computes the difference in amplitude between the last point
and the first point of the selected area.
93
The “selected area” is the area selected by the I-Beam tool (including
endpoints).
Useful tools for changing view:
Display menu: Autoscale Horizontal, Autoscale Waveforms, Zoom
Back, Zoom Forward
Scroll Bars: Time (Horizontal); Amplitude (Vertical)
Cursor Tools: Zoom Tool
Buttons: Overlap, Split, Show Grid, Hide Grid, -, +
Hide/Show Channel: “Alt + click” (Windows) or “Option + click”
(Mac) the channel number box to toggle channel display.
Data Analysis continues…
16. Review the measurements described in the
Introduction to identify the appropriate
selected area for each.
Fig. 12.22 Measurement areas for respiratory volumes and capacities
17. Calculate the Predicted Vital Capacity, then
measure VC and then compare the two.
A
The selected area should start just prior to the maximum peak and end
just after the minimum peak. The P-P (peak to peak) measurement
displays the VC.
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Fig. 12.23 Example selected area; P-P measures VC
18. Take two measures on the third TV cycle:
a)
Use the I-beam cursor to select the
inhalation of cycle 3 and note the P-P
result (Fig. 12.24). The selected area
should be from the valley to the peak of
the third cycle.
The P-P measurement in Fig. 12.24 represents the first value required
for the averaged TV calculation.
B
Fig. 12.24 Example of cycle 3 – Inhale selection to measure TV
b) Use the I-beam cursor to select the
exhalation of cycle 3 and note the P-P
result (Fig. 12.25). The selected area
should be from the peak to the valley of
the third cycle.
The P-P measurement in Fig. 12.25 represents the second value
required for the averaged TV calculation.
B
Fig. 12.25 Example of cycle 3 – Exhale selection to measure TV
Data Analysis continues…
19. Repeat TV measurements, as in Step 4, but
on cycle 4 data. Calculate average value of
all four TV measurements.
B
END OF LAB 13
Complete the lab 13 Data Report that follows.
_______________________________________________________________________
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Lab 13 Answer Sheet
Part I BIOPAC Lesson 12 (Turn in as a group)
Data recorder name____________________
Instruction reader name__________________
Computer operator name ________________
Subjection name __________________
I. Subject Profile
Height _________________ cm
Age _____ years
Gender _______________
Weight _____________ kg
II. Data and Calculation:
A.
Vital Capacity
1. Predicted V. C. Use the formula below to calculate predicated V.C.
A1 = ______________________________ = _________ liters
2.
3.
Observed/Predicated = A2/A1 = ___________liters x 100% = _______ %
Note: Vital capacity depends on other factors besides age and height. 80% of predicated
values are as considered “normal”.
96
B.
Volume and Capacity Measurements
Title
Measurement Results
Calculation
Tidal Volume TV
A=
Ch.2 P-P Cycle 3:
inhale
(A+B)/2 =
B=
Ch.2 P-P Cycle 3:
exhale
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Ch.2 Delta
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Ch.2 Delta
Residual Volume (RV)
Ch.2 Min
Default = 1
Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
Calculate these values by
using the formula on your
right.
TV+IRV =
Expiratory Capacity (EC)
TV+ERV=
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
ERV+RV=
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
IRV+TV+ERV+RV=
C. Compare the Average Volume with the Measured Volume
Circle the correct answer under the Measured Volume.
97
Name _____________________________ (Turn in this section as an individual)
Part II Measurement of Respiration Rate (You need to test yourself)
Respiration rate is the number of breaths per minute when a person stands erect and at rest.
A healthy human averages 12 – 18 breaths per minute while at rest. The respiration rate is
considered as abnormal when the reading is more than 25 or less than 10 per minute. Infants
have a higher respiration rate, 30-50 respirations per minute. Respiration rates may increase
with fever, illness, and with other medical conditions. Age, gender, and life style also affect
respiration rate.
Procedure
1. The rate is usually measured when a person is at rest and simply involves counting the
number of breaths for one minute by counting how many times the chest rises.
2. Get three trails of the respiration rate and take an average.
3. Record your results below:
Table 1 My Respiration Rate
Trail 1
Trail 2
Trail 3
Average
Normal Value
I. Use the words inspiration (use red pen) and expiration (use black pen) and arrows to indicate
the direction of movement of the thoracic cavity and diaphragm during respiration.
II. Measurement of tide volume (TV) by using handheld spirometer
The volume of air exchange during the quiet breathing is the tidal volume. The average tidal
volume is about 500 ml for male and 390 ml for female.
1. Wipe the spirometer stem with alcohol before and after using and use a fresh, sterile,
disposal mouthpiece.
2. Rotate the dial to 1000.
3. Inhale through your nose and exhale through the spirometer three normal breathing cycles
without using the spirometer.
4. Now place the mouth piece in your mouth. Inhale (through your nose) and exhale
(through the mouth piece) one normal breath. Do not force the expiration.
5. Record the dial reading as trail 1 (do not forget minus 1000 for each reading).
98
6. Repeat steps 2-5 twice.
Table 2 My tidal volume (ml) measurement
Trail 1 (ml)
Trail 2 (ml)
-1000ml
-1000 ml
Trail 3 (ml)1000ml
Average
III. Calculation of pulmonary ventilation (PV) or minute respiratory volume (MRV)
Pulmonary ventilation (also called minute ventilation) is the amount of air that enters all of
the conducting and respiratory zones in one minute. The conducting zone, also referred to
as the anatomical dead space, is the area of the lungs where no gas exchange takes place
(because there are no alveoli). The respiratory zone is the region of the lungs where alveoli
are located. Minute ventilation (MV) is the quantity of air moved into and out of the lungs
in one minute. MV= resting TV X respiratory rate. Calculate your MV. Show calculation.
My MV = __________ x __________ = ________ml/min
IV. Calculation of alveolar ventilation
Alveolar ventilation (AV) is the volume of air entering only the respiratory zone per
minute. Alveolar ventilation is of key importance because it represents the volume of fresh
air available for gas exchange. AV equals the pulmonary ventilation minuses the dead space
ventilation (DV). As a rule of thumb, the dead space volume in ml for a normal healthy
subject is approximately equal to the person's body weight in pounds (for example, if body
weight is 100 pounds, dead space volume is 100 ml).
AV = MV- DV; AV= MV – (body weight x respiration rate)
My AV =
_______ - (______ x _________) = __________ ml
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Lab 14 Urinalysis
Prelab reading
Cindy Stanfield 2013 Principle of Human Physiology Chapters 17 and 18.
The kidneys form urine and excrete the wastes from the human body. Kidneys also play a vital
role in homeostasis. Kidneys regulate the blood volume and water balance, electrolytes balances,
pH balance and the osmotic pressure of the blood.
Urinalysis is a routine examination of the chemical and physical aspects of urine. Together
with other clinic tests, urinalysis can disclose evidence of pathological problems such as urinary
tract and kidney infections; diabetes mellitus and hypertension. Urinalysis can also be used for
pregnancy test and drug screening.
A typical urinalysis usually includes three major tests: macroscopic urinalysis, microscopic
urinalysis and chemical urinalysis. The purposes of this lab are to learn the basic techniques of a
typical urinalysis and to be able to interpret the test results.
I. Macroscopic Urinalysis
Macroscopic urinalysis is the direct visual observation of the physical aspects of the urine,
noting its quantity, color, odor, and transparence or clarity. Normal urine is typically light
yellow, clear without any cloudiness or strange odor. Diet and pathological conditions may
change the physical appearance of the urine.
1. Color
The color of the normal urine can range from pale yellow to amber, depending on the
concentration of the pigment urochrome, which is the end product of the breakdown of
hemoglobin. The appearance of the urine may serve as an indication of a pathological
condition, food and water consumption. Dehydration will make urine color darker and smell
stronger. Table 1 provides some information between the urine color and its possible causes.
Table 1 Urine color and possible causes
Color
Milky
Greenish
Brown-black, rust
Reddish
Bright yellow
Possible Pathological and Dietary Causes
urogenital tract infection, pus or the presence of fat drops
bile pigment or certain bacterial infection,
renal injury or malaria, phenol or metallic poisoning;
rhubarb, blackberries
Blood, food pigment such as beets, medications
Carrots, vitamin B
2. Odor
The odor of urine varies greatly due to diet and pathology. For example, some coffee drinkers
will produce coffee smell pee. Asparagus pee is not a pathological condition. It occurs in the
people who can not digest certain compounds in asparagus well due to the genetic defect.
Interestingly some people lack the genes to smell the asparagus pee. Diabetic patients
produce sweet fruity smell urine. If an infant’s urine has a distinctive sweet odor (like burned
100
caramel), this infant may have a life-threatening genetic disorder called maple syrup urine
disease.
3. Clarity
The normal urine should be clear. Bacteria infection, blood, sperm, crystals, or mucus can
make urine look cloudy.
4. Specific gravity
Specific gravity shows how well the kidneys balance the amount of water in urine. It
indicates the amount of non water substance in urine. The normal specific gravity of urine
ranges from 1.015 and 1.025. Diet and pathological condition can affect specific gravity.
Specific gravity is inversely proportional to urine volume. The intake of fluid amount affects
the urine volume therefore affects the specific gravity. Higher intake of water lowers the
specific gravity. Lower water intake increases the specific gravity. Nephritis lowers the
specific gravity and diabetes can increase the specific gravity.
II. Chemical Analysis
The human kidneys secrete a lot of water, some ions and organic molecules. Urine is made of
about 95% of water and 5% inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, ammonium
and organic molecules (urea, creatinine, uric acid, pigments and others). Normal adults
produce 1-2 liters of urine per day. Fluid intake, diet, temperature and other factors contribute
to the variations.
The chemical analysis of the urine can be done by using a urine dipstick. The urine dipstick is
a narrow plastic strip which has several squares of different colors attached to it. Each small
square represents a component of the test used to interpret urinalysis. The entire strip is
dipped in the urine sample and color changes in each square are noted. The color change
takes place after several seconds to a few minutes from dipping the strip. The color change
occurring on each segment of the strip is compared to a color chart to obtain results.
1. Protein
Protein is normally not found in the urine. The presence of protein in urine indicates a
possible kidney malfunction. Fever, hard exercise, and pregnancy may cause the presence
of protein in the urine.
2. Glucose
Normally there is very little or no glucose in urine. Glucose is commonly found in blood.
When the blood sugar level is abnormally high (diabetes mellitus), glucose spills over
into the urine. Glucose is found in urine when the kidneys are damaged or diseased.
Diabetes patients also have glucose in their urine.
3. Ketones
Ketones (or ketone bodies) are by products of fat metabolism that are excreted in the
urine. However, large amounts of ketones in the urine may signify pathological
conditions such as diabetic ketoacidosis. A low carbohydrates diet, starvation, or severe
vomiting may also cause ketones to be present in the urine.
101
4. pH
The normal urine has a pH reading of 4.5 to 8.0. The pH of urine fluctuates depending on
the diet. In addition, fevers and acidosis lower the urine pH, whereas anemia and alkalosis
raises the pH.
III. Microscopic Urinalysis
Microscopic urinalysis requires only a relatively inexpensive light microscope. Other than
water, ion and organic materials, normal urine also contains of cells, crystals and casts. The
presences of certain cells and microbes may indicate certain pathological disorders.
1. Blood cells
Blood cells are not found in urine normally. Blood found in urine may be caused by
inflammation, disease, or injury to the urinary system. Strenuous exercise, such as
running a marathon may also contribute to the presence of the blood in urine. White
blood cells may be a sign of infection or kidney disease. The presence of red blood cells
may indicate glomerulonephritis.
RBC
(Red)
WBC
(White)
2. Casts
Casts can be made of red or white blood cells, waxy or fatty substances, or protein. The
type of cast in the urine can help to show what type of kidney disease may be present. For
example, RBC casts are indicative of glomerulonephritis. White blood cell casts reflect
the inflammation of the kidney, because such casts will not form except in the kidney.
Granular and waxy casts are commonly seen in end-stage chronic renal disease.
3. Crystals
Healthy people often have only a few crystals in their urine including calcium oxalate,
triple phosphate crystals and amorphous phosphates. A large number of crystals or certain
types of crystals may be indicative of kidney and liver diseases.
4. Bacteria, yeast cells, or parasites
Normally, there are no bacteria, yeast cells, or parasites in urine. Therefore the presence
of these organisms reveals pathological conditions.
5. Squamous cells
The presence of squamous cells may indicate that another urine sample needs to be
collected.
Materials
10 ml of simulated urine samples
Four medicine cups
Four microscope slides and cover slips in the slide box
Four urine dipsticks
Four droppers
102
Procedure
1. Label four medicine cups 1-4. Sample 4 is the control.
2. Shake each urine sample thoroughly and place 10 ml of urine to each medicine cup.
3. Macroscopic observations
a. Observe and record the color, clarity, and
smell (use your hand to wave some air to
you nose, do not stick your nose inside the
cup) of each sample in table 2.
b. Specific gravity measurements
1) Use a hydrometer (see figure), also
known as a urinometer, to measure the
specific gravity of the urine samples.
2) Pour the urine sample from patient 1
into the cylinder. There must be a
sufficient volume so that the
hydrometer will float.
3) Place the hydrometer in the urine
sample and spin it slowly. Be sure that
From
the hydrometer does not touch the side
http://biology.creighton.edu/cou
of the cylinder.
rses/BIO450/Lab11.html
4) When the hydrometer stops spinning,
note the point at which the meniscus of
the urine intersects the scale and read
the specific gravity indicated on the scale at that point. All the numbers on the
scale represent a specific gravity of 1.000 or higher. Only the last two digits
of the reading may be seen at some points on the scale. For example, if the
meniscus intersects the line indicated as 23, the specific gravity should be
recorded as 1.023.
5) A temperature correction factor is necessary when determining specific gravity
of a urine sample because hydrometers are calibrated for use at 15°C, and
urine is usually tested at a higher temperature. Measure the temperature of
each sample at the time that its specific gravity is tested. For every 3°C above
15°C, add 0.001 to the specific gravity reading obtained from the scale of the
hydrometer.
6) Rinse the hydrometer with distilled water and dry it after each use. Failure to
wash and dry the hydrometer before using it again can cause an error in the
next specific gravity measurement.
7) If the urine volume is not great enough to float the hydrometer, make all the
other required tests using the urine sample and then ask your instructor to
explain how to dilute the sample and convert the resulting reading into the
original specific gravity.
8) Repeat your measurement for the rest of urine samples.
9) Record the results in table 2.
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4. Microscopic observations
a. Observe the slides under the DEMO microscopes.
b. Record the observations in table 3.
c. Samples of crystals
5. Urine Dipstick Chemical Analysis
a. Dip the test strip into the medicine cup individually and compare the color with
the given chart on the vial.
b. Record your results in table 4.
IV. Patient Case Studies
Patient 1 is a 22 year old male named Michael Phelps. He complained about polyuria,
unexplained weight loss, great thirst and increases appetite.
Patient 2 is a 72 year old male, Mr. John Smith. He has been feeling tired, dizzy and difficult
to sleep. He face appears puffy. He has swollen ankles and feet. Mr. Smith also feels burning
pain in his lower back. His lower back is very sensitive to pressure. He notices the color of
his urine is very dark.
Patient 3 is a 30 year old female, Mrs. Jean Johnson. She has been having fever and
experiencing painful and frequent urination. She notices the color of her urine is milky. Her
physician has given her some antibiotics. After a few days, her symptoms start to ease up.
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Lab 14 Answer Sheet
Name _______________________________________
I. Results
1. Use descriptive words to record your observations
Table 2 Macroscopic Observations
Sample
Color
Clarity
Odor
Specific gravity
Patient 1
Patient 2
Patient 3
Sample 4
2. Use “+” for presence and “–“for absence of the followings.
Table 3 Microscopic Observations
Sample
RBC (+ or -)
WBC (+or -)
Crystals (+ or -)
Patient 1
Patient 2
Patient 3
Sample 4
3. Write corresponding color title for protein, glucose, ketone and pH in the table below.
Table 4 Urine Dipstick Chemical Analysis
Sample
Protein
Glucose
Ketones (Mmol/l) pH
Patient 1
Patient 2
Patient 3
Sample 4
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II. Interpretation of the Test Results
1. What is the function of sample 4? And why do you need the control?
2. If a patient’s urine revealed blood and protein, should the physician start the treatment
immediately? Why or why not?
3. What can you tell patient 1, Michael Phelps about his condition? Use both lab results and
physical symptoms to explain how you come up the diagnosis.
4. What can you tell patient 2, Mr. John Smith about his condition? Use both clinic results
and the physical symptoms to explain how you come up the diagnosis.
5. What can you tell patient 3, Mrs. Jean Johnson about her condition? Use both clinic
results and physical symptoms to explain how you come up the diagnosis.
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Lab 15 Physio Ex Acid and Base Balance
1.
2.
3.
Please bring your Mastering A and P account and password to class to complete this lab.
Login to your account, on your left side panel, click on Physioex. 9.1.
Complete Exercise 10 Activities 1-4. For each activity finish
a. Introduction
b. Pre-lab quiz,
c. Experiment
d. Post- lab quiz.
e. Save your lab report as PDF files and immediately email it to yourself.
4. Record your results below.
5. Study the questions for quiz.
Lab 15 Acid – Base Balance Answer Sheet
Name ___________________
Activity 1 Hyperventilation
Condition
Normal
Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation/Normal
Activity 2 Rebreathing
Condition
Normal
Rebreathing
Min PCO2
Min PCO2
Max PCO2
Max PCO2
Min pH
Min pH
Max pH
Max pH
Activity 3 Renal Response to Respiratory Acidosis and Alkalosis
pCO2
Blood pH
[H+] in Urine
[HCO3-] in Urine
40
30
60
Activity 4 Respiratory Response to Metabolic Acidosis and Alkalosis
Metabolic Rate
BPM
Blood pH
pCO2
[H+] in
[HCO3-] in
(kcal/hr)
(breaths/Min)
blood
blood
50
60
80
40
20
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Lab 16 Digestion
Prelab Reading:
Cindy Stanfield 2013. Principle of Human Physiology. Chapter 20.
Objectives
1. To learn the digestive process in human.
2. To understand the functions of digestive enzymes.
Materials
9 test tubes with screw caps test tube rack
Marker
pH paper and chart
1% Pancreatin solution
vegetable oil
Graduated cylinder (5 ml)
1% cooked starch
Benedict Solution
incubator 37◦ C
Ice bath
0.1% NaOH
Hot plates and beaker with 300 ml water
egg white
graduated pipets
iodine solution
5% pepsin
1% HCl
bile salts
tooth picks
Food provides nutrients and energy to humans. The food we ingest must be broken down from
macromolecules such as polysaccharides, protein, lipids and nucleic acid into smaller molecules
of simple sugar, amino acids, fatty acids and nucleotides. These small molecules will be absorbed
by human body and utilized to make our own macromolecules or generate energy.
The digestive process contain two major events that working in concert, the mechanic
digestion and chemical digestion. The function of mechanic digestion is to break the large food
chunks into smaller pieces thereby to provide more surface area for enzymes to do their chemical
work. Mechanic digestion also mixes the food with the digestive juice and propels food through
the digestive tract. Chemical digestion employs various types of enzymes to break down
chemical bonds.
The digestion processes starts with oral cavity. When food is chewed, it becomes smaller.
The salivary glands release saliva. The saliva contains water, mucus, buffer and amylase. The
buffer helps to neutralize acids and protect the teeth from decaying. The mucus protects the
lining of the mouth and lubricates the food for swallowing. Salivary amylase hydrolyzes starch
and glycogen. The tong helps to mix food together with saliva.
The food is then passed to stomach through the pharynx and esophagus. The stomach stores
food and performs the initial digestion of protein. The epithelial lining of the stomach wall
secrets gastric juice. The gastric juice contains water, mucus, HCl and protein digesting enzyme,
pepsin. The stomach does not digest itself because chief cells secrets pepsiongen, an inactive
form of pepsin. Meanwhile, a different type of cell called the parietal cells secretes HCl. When
pepsiongen and HCl are mixed inside the lumen of the stomach, pepsiongen is converted into the
chemical active pepsin. The mucus cells of the stomach also secret a thick layer of mucus to
protect the lining. Stomach lining is still eroded by acid. A new lining is produced every three
days.
The major digestion and absorption of food is completed at the small intestine. All three
types of macromolecules are broken down into monomers. Lipid becomes smaller molecules.
These small food molecules are absorbed by the small intestine. Some nutrients and minerals are
also absorbed in the stomach and the large intestine.
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The major function of the colon or large intestine is to reclaim water. A rich flora of micros
in the large intestine is also helpful to break down food, and synthesis vitamins such as vitamin
B, vitamin K and folic acid. The feces contain undigested food and bacteria is temperately
stored at the rectum and eliminated through anus.
Liver has many functions in the human body. It aids digestion. It produces bile which is
concentrated and stored in gall bladder.
Pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine function. The exocrine function includes the
releases of pancreatin. Pancreatin is a mixture of several digestive enzymes composed of
amylase, lipase and protease. It also releases bicarbonates as a buffer to neutralize the acid food
bolus from stomach.
In this exercise, you will work in a group of three people. Complete the following three
activities.
A. Protein Digestion
The digestion of proteins starts in the stomach where pepsin breaks down proteins into small
polypeptides. Polypeptides digestion continues in the small intestine with the pancreatic
trypsin and chymotrypsin. These enzymes break down proteins into smaller polypeptides.
Pancreatic carboxypeptidase turns smaller polypeptides into amino acids inside the lumen of
small intestine. Dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase and amniopeptidase, present on the brush
border membrane of the lining of the small intestine, also catalyze the breakdown of small
polypeptides into amino acids. Amino acids are then absorbed by the small intestine. The
production of amino acid may either decrease or increase the pH readings depend on the
natures of amino acids produced.
Procedure
a. Label three test tubes as 1-3.
b. Use the graduated plastic dropper to add 1 ml distilled water into each test tube.
c. Add 3 ml of 5% pepsin to test tube 2 and 3.
d. To test tube 1, add 1 ml of distilled water.
e. To test tube 2, add 1 ml of 1% hydrochloric acid (HCl).
f. Crash1 antacid tablet and add to test tube 3.
g. Tighten the caps on these test tubes and invert the tubes to mix the solution.
h. Use a pH paper to test the pH reading for each test tube. A new pH strip should be used
for each test tube. Record your readings in Table 1.
i. Get three thin sliced pieces of boiled egg white. Measure the size of 8 mm by using a
ruler. Write their appearance and texture in Table 1.
j. Place one piece of boiled egg white into each test tube.
k. Make sure the caps are loosened slightly; incubate the tubes in a 37 ◦C water bath. Gently
mix the mixture every 10 minutes.
l. Measure the size of the egg white at the end of 2 hours and 45 minutes.
m. Record the readings in your answer sheet (Table 1).
B. Lipid digestion
Lipid is digested at the small intestine. Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall
bladder. Bile salts emulsify the dietary lipids forming smaller fat droplets. This
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emulsification increases the working surface area for lipase to digest fat. In human body,
small amounts of lipids are digested in oral cavity by lingual lipase and in stomach by gastric
lipase. Most of lipids are digested by pancreatic lipase in small intestine. Lipases break down
one molecule of triglycerides into three fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol. The fatty
acids and glycerol are then absorbed by the small intestine. The production of the fatty acid
will drop the pH reading. Phenolphthalein is a pH indicator. It turns pink when the solution
is a base. It looses the pink color when a solution becomes acidic. In this lab pancreatic lipase
was used to digest lipids.
Procedure
a. Label test tubes 1-3.
b. To each tube, all 5 ml of vegetable oil.
c. To each tube, add 10 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Shake well. If the mixture is not
pink, add at least 10 drops of 0.1% NaOH to the tubes until a pink color is obtained and
sustained (you may need more than 10 drops of NaOH).
d. To test tube 1, add 5 ml of water. Use the flat end of a tooth pick to add a few gains of
bile salts.
e. To test tube 2, add 5 ml of 2 % pancreatin solution.
f. To test tube 3, add 5 ml of 2% pancreatin a few grains of bile salts by using the flat end of
the tooth pick.
g. Tighten the cap on each test tube and mix the tube well by invert it a few times.
h. Loosen the caps slightly. Incubate all three test tubes in a 37 ◦C water bath.
i. Mix the solution gently at 5 minutes intervals and record the pH change of the solution by
observing its color for 60 minutes in table 3.
C. Digestion of carbohydrates
The digestion starts at the oral cavity where starch is broken down into smaller
polysaccharides and maltose by salivary amylase. The salivary amylase is denatured by the
acidic environment inside of the stomach therefore no carbohydrates digestion occurs in the
stomach. The digestion of shorter polysaccharides is continued in the lumen of the small
intestine by pancreatic amylases. The resulting disaccharides are broken down into
monosaccharide at the brush boarder of the small intestine by disaccharidases.
Monosaccharides are then absorbed from the small intestine. The reduced sugar can be test
by using the Benedict’s test. The presence of starch is tested by using iodine solution.
amylase
Starch →→→→ Maltose
Procedure
a. Label three clean test tubes as 1-3.
b. To test tube 1, add 5 ml of water.
c. To test tube 2, add 5 ml of 1% pancreatin.
d. To test tube 3, add 5 ml of 1% pancreatin and 1 ml of 1% HCl. Measure the pH of the
tube and make sure that the pH reading is about 2.
e. Add 5 ml 1% cooked starch solution to each test tube.
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f. Tighten the screw cap for all test tubes and mix the mixture well by inverting the tubes a
few times.
g. Loosen the caps slightly and incubate all three tubes in 37 ◦C water bath for one hour.
Gently mix the mixture every five minutes.
h. At the end of one hour, tighten each cap and shake the test tubes to mix the solution. Test
the presence of starch and reduced sugar.
i. Test the presence of starch
1) One a spot plate, add 3 drops of iodine solution to each spot (three spots total).
2) Add 3 drops of mixture from tube 1 to spot number 1, record color.
3) Add 3 drops of mixture from tube 2 to spot number 2, record the color.
4) Add 3 drops of mixture from tube 3 to spot number 3, record color.
j. Test the presence of reduced sugar
1) Add 3 ml Benedict’s solution to each test tube.
2) Slightly loosen up the crew caps.
3) Use test tubes holders to place tubes 1-3 into a beaker that contains boiling water.
4) Use test tube holders remove the tubes after the color changes in the test tubes or
for 2 minutes if no change occurs.
5) Record the color changes in table.
D. Write your names on the Postit note. Turn in your results to your instructor for grading.
E. Throw way all used graduated plastic pipets.
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Lab 16 Answer Sheet
Turn in all test tubes with entire content to your instructor at the end of the lab
Name ___________________________
I. Digestion of Protein
Table 1 Digestion of Protein
Test Tube
pH
Observation of Egg White
Appearance
Size
(white or translucent; smooth (mm)
or fuzzy)
Texture
(soft
or
hard)
Before Digestion
1: Water + egg white
2: Pepsin + water + HCl +
egg white
3: Pepsin + water +
Antacid+ egg white
After Digestion
1: Water
+ egg white
2: Pepsin + water
+ HCl + egg white
3: Pepsin + water
+ Antacid+ egg white
Based on your results above, answer the following questions:
a. Which tube has the smallest egg white at the end of digestion? _____. Is this what you
expected___? Explain:
b. According to your results, pepsin works the best at pH ________?
c.
Antacids neutralize the stomach acid and raise pH to 6 or 7. How do antacids affect
one’s ability to digest protein in general? ___________________
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II. Digestion of Lipid
Table 2 Digestion of Lipids
Time
pH (Pink = basic, clear= acidic)
(Minutes) Tube 1
Tube 2
Lipid + bile Salt Lipid + pancreatin
0
Basic
Basic
Tube 3
Lipid + pancreatin + bile salts
Basic
2
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
a. Based on your results, which tube has the fastest reaction? ___. Is this you expected?
____ Explain:
b. What is the function of bile salt? ____________________________________.
c. The production of _________________decreases the pH in some of the test tubes.
III. Digestion of Carbohydrates
Record your data in the table below. For starch test, use the following scale to rate the
reaction: blue = +, brown = - . For reducing sugar test, rate the reaction rate by using the
following scale from the least amount to the most amounts: blue = - no maltose, green = +,
yellow = ++, orange = +++, red = ++++
Table 4 Digestion of Starch
Tube 1
Tube 2
Tube 3
Starch+ water Starch+ pancreatin
Starch + pancreatin + HCl
Starch (+ or -)
Maltose (+ or -)
a. Based on your results, which tube has the largest amount of maltose at the end of
digestion? ___. Is this you expected? ___ Explain:
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