Hirohito
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Hirohito
Hirohito / Emperor Shōwa
裕仁 / 昭和天皇
Emperor of Japan
Reign
December 25, 1926 – January 7, 1989
Enthronement
November 10, 1928
Predecessor
Taishō
Successor
Akihito
Prime Ministers
Regent of Japan
Tenure
November 29, 1921 – December 25, 1926
Predecessor
None
Successor
Himself as Emperor
Monarch
Taishō
Spouse
Empress Kōjun
Issue
Princess Teru
Princess Hisa
Princess Taka
Princess Yori
Emperor Akihito
Prince Hitachi
Princess Suga
Full name
Hirohito (裕 仁)
House
Imperial House of Japan
Father
Taishō
Mother
Teimei
Born
April 29, 1901
Aoyama Palace, Tokyo, Japan
Died
January 7, 1989 (aged 87)
Fukiage Palace, Tokyo
Burial
Hachiōji, Tokyo, Japan
Signature
Hirohito
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Hirohito (裕 仁), posthumously in Japan officially called Emperor Shōwa (昭 和 天 皇 Shōwa-tennō, April 29,
1901 – January 7, 1989) was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order, reigning from December
25, 1926 until his death in 1989. Although better known outside of Japan by his personal name Hirohito, in Japan he
is now referred to primarily by his posthumous name Emperor Shōwa. The word Shōwa is the name of the era that
[1]
corresponded with the Emperor's reign, and was made the Emperor's own name upon his death. The name 裕 仁
means "abundant benevolence".
At the start of his reign, Japan was already one of the great powers — the ninth largest economy in the world after
Italy, the third largest naval country, and one of the five permanent members of the council of the League of Nations.
He was the head of state under the limitation of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan during Japan's imperial
expansion, militarization, and involvement in World War II. After the war, he was not prosecuted for war crimes as
many other leading government figures were. During the postwar period, he became the symbol of the new state and
Japan's recovery, and by the end of his reign, Japan had emerged as the world's second largest economy.
Early life
Born in the Aoyama Palace in Tokyo, Prince Hirohito was the first son of Crown
Prince Yoshihito (the future Emperor Taishō) and Crown Princess Sadako (the
future Empress Teimei).[2] His childhood title was Prince Michi (迪 宮 Michi
no miya). In 1908, he began elementary studies at the Gakushūin (Peers School).
Hirohito in 1902 as an infant
Imperial Standard as Regent
Upon the death of his grandfather, Emperor Meiji, on July 30, 1912,
Hirohito's father, Yoshihito succeeded him on the throne, he thus
became the heir apparent. At the same time, he was formally
commissioned in both the army and in the navy as a second lieutenant
and ensign, respectively, and was also decorated with the Grand
Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum. In 1914, he was promoted
to the ranks of lieutenant in the army and sub-lieutenant in the navy,
then to captain and lieutenant in 1916. He was formally proclaimed
Crown Prince and heir apparent on November 2, 1916; but an
investiture ceremony was not strictly necessary to confirm this status
as heir to the throne.[3]
Prince Hirohito attended the Y.M.C.A. of Gakushūin Peers' School from 1908 to 1914 and then a special institute for
the crown prince (Tōgū-gogakumonsho) from 1914 to 1921.
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In 1920, Prince Hirohito was promoted to the rank of Major in the
army and Lieutenant Commander in the navy. In 1921, Prince Hirohito
took a six month tour of Europe, including the United Kingdom,
France, Italy, the Netherlands and Belgium, becoming the first
Japanese crown prince to travel abroad. After his return to Japan, he
became Regent of Japan (Sesshō) on November 29, 1921, in place of
his ailing father who was affected by a mental illness.
During Prince Hirohito's regency, a number of important events
occurred:
Prince Hirohito and British Prime Minister Lloyd
George, 1921
In the Four-Power Treaty on Insular Possessions signed on December
13, 1921, Japan, the United States, Britain and France agreed to
recognize the status quo in the Pacific, and Japan and Britain agreed to terminate formally the Anglo-Japanese
Alliance. The Washington Naval Treaty was signed on February 6, 1922. Japan completed withdrawal of troops
from the Siberian Intervention on August 28, 1922. The Great Kantō earthquake devastated Tokyo on September 1,
1923. On December 27, 1923, communist Daisuke Namba attempted to assassinate him in the Toranomon Incident
but his attempt failed and he was executed. The General Election Law was passed on May 5, 1925, giving all men
above age 25 the right to vote.
In 1923, he was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel in the army and Commander in the navy, and to army
Colonel and Navy Captain in 1925.
Marriage and issue
Prince Hirohito married his distant cousin Princess Nagako Kuni (the future
Empress Kōjun), the eldest daughter of Prince Kuni Kuniyoshi, on January 26,
1924. They had two sons and five daughters:
Prince Hirohito and his wife Nagako
Kuni
Hirohito
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Name
Birth
Death
23 July
1961
Notes
Shigeko, childhood appellation Teru-no-miya
(照 宮 成 子 Teru-no-miya Shigeko)
9 December
1925
Married Prince Morihiro Higashikuni, had issue;
lost status as imperial family members, October
14, 1947.
Sachiko, Hisa-no-miya (久 宮 祐 子
Hisa-no-miya Sachiko)
10 September 8 March
1927
1928
Died of catarrh in infancy.
Kazuko, childhood appellation Taka-no-miya
(孝 宮 和 子 Taka-no-miya Kazuko)
30 September 28 May
1929
1989
Married Takatsukasa Toshimichi, had issue
(adopted).
Atsuko, childhood appellation Yori-no-miya
(順 宮 厚 子 Yori-no-miya Atsuko)
7 March
1931
Married Takamasa Ikeda, no issue.
Akihito, Crown Prince, childhood appellation
Tsugu-no-miya (継 宮 明 仁 Tsugu-no-miya
Akihito)
23 December
1933
125th Emperor of Japan since 1989, married
Princess Michiko and had issue.
Masahito, childhood appellation Yoshi-no-miya 28 November
(義 宮 正 仁 Yoshi-no-miya Masahito)
1935
Married Hanako Tsugaru, no issue; titled Prince
Hitachi (常 陸 宮 Hitachi-no-miya) since 1964.
Takako, childhood appellation Suga-no-miya
(清 宮 貴 子 Suga-no-miya Takako)
Married Hisanga Shimazu, had issue.
2 March
1939
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The daughters who lived to adulthood left the imperial family as a
result of the American reforms of the Japanese imperial household in
October 1947 (in the case of Princess Higashikuni) or under the terms
of the Imperial Household Law at the moment of their subsequent
marriages (in the cases of Princesses Kazuko, Atsuko, and Takako).
Ascension
On December 25, 1926, Hirohito assumed the throne upon the death of
his father Yoshihito; and the Crown Prince was said to have received
the succession (senso).[4] The Taishō era ceased at once and a new era,
the Shōwa era (Enlightened Peace), was proclaimed. The deceased
Emperor was posthumously renamed Emperor Taishō a few days later.
Following Japanese custom, the new Emperor was never referred to by
his given name, but rather was referred to simply as "His Majesty the
Emperor" (天 皇 陛 下 tennō heika), which may be shortened to
"His Majesty" (陛 下 heika). In writing, the Emperor was also
referred to formally as "The Reigning Emperor" (今 上 天 皇 kinjō
tennō).
Emperor Shōwa after his enthronement ceremony
in 1928, dressed in sokutai
In November 1928, the Emperor's ascension was confirmed in ceremonies (sokui)[4] which are conventionally
identified as "enthronement" and "coronation" (Shōwa no tairei-shiki); but this formal event would have been more
accurately described as a public confirmation that his Imperial Majesty possesses the Japanese Imperial Regalia,[5]
also called the Three Sacred Treasures, which have been handed down through the centuries.[6]
Early reign
The first part of Hirohito's reign as sovereign took place against a background of
financial crisis and increasing military power within the government, through
both legal and extralegal means. The Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial
Japanese Navy had held veto power over the formation of cabinets since 1900,
and between 1921 and 1944 there were no fewer than 64 incidents of political
violence.
Hirohito in his early years as
Emperor
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Hirohito narrowly missed assassination by a hand grenade thrown by a
Korean independence activist, Lee Bong-chang in Tokyo on January 9,
1932, in the Sakuradamon Incident.
Another notable case was the assassination of moderate Prime Minister
Inukai Tsuyoshi in 1932, which marked the end of civilian control of
the military. This was followed by an attempted military coup in
February 1936, the February 26 incident, mounted by junior Army
officers of the Kōdōha faction who had the sympathy of many
Imperial Standard as Emperor
high-ranking officers including Prince Chichibu (Yasuhito) one of the
Emperor's brothers. This revolt was occasioned by a loss of ground by
the militarist faction in Diet elections. The coup resulted in the murder of a number of high government and Army
officials.
When Chief Aide-de-camp Shigeru Honjō informed him of the revolt, the Emperor immediately ordered that it be
put down and referred to the officers as "rebels" (bōto). Shortly thereafter, he ordered Army Minister Yoshiyuki
Kawashima to suppress the rebellion within the hour, and he asked reports from Honjō every thirty minutes. The
next day, when told by Honjō that little progress was being made by the high command in quashing the rebels, the
Emperor told him "I Myself, will lead the Konoe Division and subdue them." The rebellion was suppressed
following his orders on February 29.[7]
Sino-Japanese War and World War II
Entering World War II
Prior to World War II, Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and the rest
of China in 1937 (the Second Sino-Japanese War). Primary sources
reveal that Hirohito never really had any objection to the invasion of
China in 1937,[8] which was recommended to him by his chiefs of staff
and prime minister Fumimaro Konoe. His main concern seems to have
been the possibility of an attack by the Soviet Union in the north. His
questions to his chief of staff, Prince Kan'in, and minister of the army,
Hajime Sugiyama, were mostly about the time it could take to crush
the Chinese resistance.
According to Akira Fujiwara, Hirohito personally ratified the proposal
by the Japanese Army to remove the constraints of international law on
The Emperor and the Imperial stallion Shirayuki
the treatment of Chinese prisoners on August 5.[9] Moreover, the works
(literally: 'white-snow')
of Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno show that the Emperor
authorized, by specific orders (rinsanmei), the use of chemical
weapons against the Chinese.[10] During the invasion of Wuhan, from August to October 1938, the Emperor
authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions,[11] despite the resolution adopted by the League of Nations
on May 14 condemning the use of toxic gas by the Japanese Army.
During World War II, ostensibly under Hirohito's leadership, Japan formed alliances with Nazi Germany and Fascist
Italy, forming the Axis Powers. In July 1939, the Emperor quarreled with one of his brothers, Prince Chichibu, who
was visiting him three times a week to support the treaty, and reprimanded the army minister Seishirō Itagaki.[12]
However, after the success of the Wehrmacht in Europe, the Emperor consented to the alliance.
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On September 4, 1941, the Japanese Cabinet met to consider war plans prepared by Imperial General Headquarters,
and decided that:
Our Empire, for the purpose of self-defense and self-preservation, will complete preparations for war ... [and
is] ... resolved to go to war with the United States, Great Britain, and the French if necessary. Our Empire will
concurrently take all possible diplomatic measures vis-à-vis the United States and Great Britain, and thereby
endeavor to obtain our objectives ... In the event that there is no prospect of our demands being met by the first
ten days of October through the diplomatic negotiations mentioned above, we will immediately decide to
commence hostilities against the United States, Britain and the French.
The objectives to be obtained were clearly defined: a free hand to continue with the conquest of China and Southeast
Asia, no increase in US or British military forces in the region, and cooperation by the West "in the acquisition of
goods needed by our Empire."
On September 5, Prime Minister Konoe informally submitted a draft of the decision to the Emperor, just one day in
advance of the Imperial Conference at which it would be formally implemented. On this evening, the Emperor had a
meeting with the chief of staff of the army, Sugiyama, chief of staff of the navy, Osami Nagano, and Prime Minister
Konoe. The Emperor questioned Sugiyama about the chances of success of an open war with the Occident. As
Sugiyama answered positively, the Emperor scolded him:
—At the time of the China incident, the army told me that we could make Chiang surrender after three months
but you still can't beat him even today! Sugiyama, you were minister at the time.
—China is a vast area with many ways in and ways out, and we met unexpectedly big difficulties.
—You say the interior of China is huge; isn't the Pacific Ocean even bigger than China? Didn't I caution you
each time about those matters? Sugiyama, are you lying to me?[13]
Chief of Naval General Staff Admiral Nagano, a former Navy Minister and vastly experienced, later told a trusted
colleague, "I have never seen the Emperor reprimand us in such a manner, his face turning red and raising his voice."
According to the traditional view, Emperor Shōwa was deeply
concerned by the decision to place "war preparations first and
diplomatic negotiations second", and he announced his intention to
break with tradition. At the Imperial Conference on the following day,
the Emperor directly questioned the chiefs of the Army and Navy
general staffs, which was quite an unprecedented action.
Nevertheless, all speakers at the Imperial Conference were united in
favor of war rather than diplomacy. Baron Yoshimichi Hara, President
of the Imperial Council and the Emperor's representative, then
questioned them closely, producing replies to the effect that war would
only be considered as a last resort from some, and silence from others.
Emperor Shōwa riding Shirayuki during an Army
inspection in August 1938
At this point, the Emperor astonished all present by addressing the
conference personally, and in breaking the tradition of Imperial silence
left his advisors "struck with awe." (Prime Minister Konoe's description of the event.) Emperor Shōwa stressed the
need for peaceful resolution of international problems, expressed regret at his ministers' failure to respond to Baron
Hara's probings, and recited a poem written by his grandfather, Emperor Meiji which, he said, he had read "over and
over again":
Across the four seas, all are brothers.
In such a world why do the waves rage, the winds roar?
[14]
Recovering from their shock, the ministers hastened to express their profound wish to explore all possible peaceful
avenues. The Emperor's presentation was in line with his practical role as leader of the Shinto religion.
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At this time, Army Imperial Headquarters was continually communicating with the Imperial household in detail
about the military situation. On October 8, Sugiyama signed a 47-page report to the Emperor (sōjōan) outlining in
minute detail plans for the advance in Southeast Asia. During the third week of October, Sugiyama gave the
Emperor a 51-page document, "Materials in Reply to the Throne", about the operational outlook for the war.[15]
As war preparations continued, Prime Minister Konoe found himself more and more isolated and gave his
resignation on October 16. He justified himself to his chief cabinet secretary, Kenji Tomita :
Of course His Majesty is a pacifist, and there is no doubt he wished to avoid war. When I told him that to
initiate war was a mistake, he agreed. But the next day, he would tell me: "You were worried about it
yesterday, but you do not have to worry so much." Thus, gradually, he began to lean toward war. And the next
time I met him, he leaned even more toward. In short, I felt the Emperor was telling me: my prime minister
does not understand military matters, I know much more. In short, the Emperor had absorbed the view of the
army and navy high commands.[16]
The army and the navy recommended the candidacy of Prince Higashikuni, one of the Emperor's uncles. According
to the Shōwa "Monologue", written after the war, the Emperor then said that if the war were to begin while a
member of the imperial house was prime minister, the imperial house would have to carry the responsibility and he
was opposed to this.[17]
Instead, the Emperor chose the hard-line General Hideki Tōjō, who
was known for his devotion to the imperial institution, and asked him
to make a policy review of what had been sanctioned by the Imperial
Conferences. On November 2, Tōjō, Sugiyama and Nagano reported to
the Emperor that the review of eleven points had been in vain. Emperor
Shōwa gave his consent to the war and then asked: "Are you going to
provide justification for the war?"[18] The decision for war (against
United States) was presented for approval to Hirohito (Emperor
Shōwa) by General Tōjō, Naval Minister Admiral Shigetarō Shimada,
and Japanese Foreign Minister Shigenori Tōgō.[19]
The Emperor as head of the Imperial General
Headquarters in 1943
On November 3, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on
Pearl Harbor to the Emperor.[20] On November 5, Emperor Shōwa approved in imperial conference the operations
plan for a war against the Occident and had many meetings with the military and Tōjō until the end of the month. On
December 1, an Imperial Conference sanctioned the "War against the United States, United Kingdom and the
Kingdom of the Netherlands." On December 8 (December 7 in Hawaii) 1941, in simultaneous attacks, Japanese
forces struck at the US Fleet in Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines and began the invasion of Malaysia.
With the nation fully committed to the war, the Emperor took a keen interest in military progress and sought to boost
morale. According to Akira Yamada and Akira Fujiwara, the Emperor made major interventions in some military
operations. For example, he pressed Sugiyama four times, on January 13 and 21 and February 9 and 26, to increase
troop strength and launch an attack on Bataan. On February 9, March 19 and May 29, the Emperor ordered the Army
Chief of staff to examine the possibilities for an attack on Chungking, which led to Operation Gogo.[21]
As the tide of war gradually began to turn (around late 1942 and early 1943), some people argue that the flow of
information to the palace gradually began to bear less and less relation to reality, while others suggest that the
Emperor worked closely with Prime Minister Tōjō, continued to be well and accurately briefed by the military, and
knew Japan's military position precisely right up to the point of surrender. The chief of staff of the General Affairs
section of the Prime Minister's office, Shuichi Inada, remarked to Tōjō's private secretary, Sadao Akamatsu:
There has never been a cabinet in which the prime minister, and all the ministers, reported so often to the
throne. In order to effect the essence of genuine direct imperial rule and to relieve the concerns of the
Emperor, the ministers reported to the throne matters within the scope of their responsibilities as per the prime
Hirohito
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minister's directives... In times of intense activities, typed drafts were presented to the Emperor with
corrections in red. First draft, second draft, final draft and so forth, came as deliberations progressed one after
the other and were sanctioned accordingly by the Emperor.[22]
In the first six months of war, all the major engagements had been
victories. As the tide turned in the summer of 1942 with the battle of
Midway and the landing of the American forces on Guadalcanal and
Tulagi in August, the Emperor recognized the potential danger and
pushed the navy and the army for greater efforts. In September 1942,
Emperor Hirohito signed the Imperial Rescript condemning to death
American Fliers: Lieutenants Dean E. Hallmark and William G.
The Emperor with his wife empress Kōjun and
Farrow
and Corporal Harold A. Spatz and commuting to life sentences:
their children in 1941
Lieutenants Robert J. Meder, Chase Nielsen, Robert L. Hite and
George Barr and Corporal Jacob DeShazer. When informed in August 1943 by Sugiyama that the American advance
through the Solomon Islands could not be stopped, the Emperor asked his chief of staff to consider other places to
attack : "When and where on are you ever going to put up a good fight? And when are you ever going to fight a
decisive battle?"[23] On August 24, the Emperor reprimanded Nagano and on September 11, he ordered Sugiyama to
work with the Navy to implement better military preparation and give adequate supply to soldiers fighting in
Rabaul.[24]
Throughout the following years, the sequence of drawn and then decisively lost engagements was reported to the
public as a series of great victories. Only gradually did it become apparent to the people in the home islands that the
situation was very grim. U.S. air raids on the cities of Japan starting in 1944 made a mockery of the unending tales of
victory. Later that year, with the downfall of Hideki Tōjō's government, two other prime ministers were appointed to
continue the war effort, Kuniaki Koiso and Kantarō Suzuki—each with the formal approval of the Emperor. Both
were unsuccessful and Japan was nearing defeat.
Civilian deaths and suicides
As the tide of war turned against the Japanese, Hirohito personally found the threat of defection of Japanese civilians
disturbing because there was a risk that live civilians would be surprised by generous U.S. treatment.[25] Native
Japanese sympathizers would hand the Americans a powerful propaganda weapon to subvert the "fighting spirit" of
Japan in radio broadcasts. At the end of June 1944 during the Battle of Saipan, Hirohito sent out the first imperial
order encouraging all Japanese civilians to commit suicide rather than be taken prisoner.[25]
The Imperial order authorized Lieutenant General Yoshitsugu Saito, the commander of Saipan, to promise civilians
who died there an equal spiritual status in the afterlife with those of soldiers perishing in combat. General Tojo
intercepted the order on June 30 and delayed its sending, but it was issued anyway the next day. By the time the
Marines advanced on the north tip of the island, from 8–12 July, most of the damage had been done.[25] Over 10,000
Japanese civilians committed suicide in the last days of the battle to take the offered privileged place in the afterlife,
some jumping from "Suicide Cliff" and "Banzai Cliff".[26][27]
Hirohito
Emperor and atomic bomb
Japan was doing basic research on the atomic bomb,[28] however Hirohito was opposed to the atomic bomb plan
from the beginning. The Emperor thought that use of an atomic bomb would bring about the extermination of
mankind. Research of the Japanese atomic bomb was finally abolished by command of the Emperor.[29]
On August 15, 1945, after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, he made apparent reference to the atomic bomb
in his Imperial Rescript on the Termination of the War: "Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most
cruel bomb, the power of which to do damage is, indeed, incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives. Should
We continue to fight, not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also
it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization." However, in his first ever press conference given in
Tokyo in 1975, when he was asked what he thought of the bombing of Hiroshima, the Emperor answered: "It's very
regrettable that nuclear bombs were dropped and I feel sorry for the citizens of Hiroshima but it couldn't be helped
(Shikata ga nai) because that happened in wartime."[30]
Last days of the war
In early 1945, in the wake of the loss of Leyte, Emperor Hirohito began a series of individual meetings with senior
government officials to consider the progress of the war. All but ex-Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe advised
continuing the war. Konoe feared a communist revolution even more than defeat in war and urged a negotiated
surrender. In February 1945, during the first private audience with the Emperor which he had been allowed in three
years,[31] Konoe advised Hirohito to begin negotiations to end World War II. According to Grand Chamberlain
Hisanori Fujita, the Emperor, still looking for a tennozan (a great victory) in order to provide a stronger bargaining
position, firmly rejected Konoe's recommendation.[32]
With each passing week a great victory became less likely. In April the Soviet Union issued notice that it would not
renew its neutrality agreement. Japan's ally Germany surrendered in early May 1945. In June, the cabinet reassessed
the war strategy, only to decide more firmly than ever on a fight to the last man. This strategy was officially affirmed
at a brief Imperial Council meeting, at which, as was normal, the Emperor did not speak.
The following day, Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Kōichi Kido prepared a draft document which summarized the
hopeless military situation and proposed a negotiated settlement. According to some commentators, the Emperor
privately approved of it and authorized Kido to circulate it discreetly amongst less hawkish cabinet members; others
suggest that the Emperor was indecisive, and that the delay cost many tens of thousands of Japanese and Allied lives.
Extremists in Japan were also calling for a death-before-dishonor mass suicide, modeled on the "47 Ronin" incident.
By mid-June 1945, the cabinet had agreed to approach the Soviet Union to act as a mediator for a negotiated
surrender, but not before Japan's bargaining position had been improved by repulse of the anticipated Allied invasion
of mainland Japan.
On June 22, the Emperor met with his ministers, saying "I desire that concrete plans to end the war, unhampered by
existing policy, be speedily studied and that efforts be made to implement them." The attempt to negotiate a peace
via the Soviet Union came to nothing. There was always the threat that extremists would carry out a coup or foment
other violence. On July 26, 1945, the Allies issued the Potsdam Declaration demanding unconditional surrender. The
Japanese government council, the Big Six, considered that option and recommended to the Emperor that it be
accepted only if one to four conditions were agreed, including a guarantee of the Emperor's continued position in
Japanese society. The Emperor decided not to surrender.
On August 9, 1945, following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet declaration of war,
Emperor Hirohito told Kido to "quickly control the situation" because "the Soviet Union has declared war and today
began hostilities against us."[33] On August 10, the cabinet drafted an "Imperial Rescript ending the War" following
the Emperor's indications that the declaration did not compromise any demand which prejudiced the prerogatives of
His Majesty as a Sovereign Ruler.
10
Hirohito
On August 12, 1945, the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender. One of his uncles,
Prince Asaka, asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai (national polity) could not be preserved. The
Emperor simply replied "of course."[34] On August 14, the Suzuki government notified the Allies that it had accepted
the Potsdam Declaration. On August 15, a recording of the Emperor's surrender speech was broadcast over the radio
(the first time the Emperor was heard on the radio by the Japanese people) signifying the unconditional surrender of
Japan's military forces. The historic broadcast is known as the Gyokuon-hōsō ("Jewel Voice Broadcast").
Objecting to the surrender, die-hard army fanatics attempted a coup d'état by conducting a full military assault and
takeover of the Imperial Palace. Known as the Kyūjō Incident, the physical recording of the surrender speech was
hidden and preserved overnight, and the coup was quickly crushed on the Emperor's order.
The surrender speech noted that "the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan's advantage" and ordered
the Japanese to "endure the unendurable" in surrender. It was the first time the public had heard the Emperor's voice.
The speech, using formal, archaic Japanese was not readily understood by many commoners. According to historian
Richard Storry in A History of Modern Japan, the Emperor typically used "a form of language familiar only to the
well-educated" and to the more traditional samurai families.[35]
Issue of the Emperor's responsibility for war crimes
Many historians see Emperor Hirohito as responsible for the atrocities committed by the imperial forces in the
Second Sino-Japanese War and in World War II and feel that he, some members of the imperial family such as his
brother Prince Chichibu, his cousins Prince Takeda and Prince Fushimi, and his uncles Prince Kan'in, Prince Asaka,
and Prince Higashikuni, should have been tried for war crimes.[36][37]
The issue of Hirohito's responsibility for war crimes is a debate regarding how much real control the Emperor had
over the Japanese military during the two wars. Officially, the imperial constitution, adopted under Emperor Meiji,
gave full power to the Emperor. Article 4 prescribed that, "The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in
Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution," while,
according to article 6, "The Emperor gives sanction to laws and orders them to be promulgated and executed," and
article 11, "The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and the Navy." The Emperor was thus the leader of
the Imperial General Headquarters.[38]
In 1971, David Bergamini showed how primary sources, such as the "Sugiyama memo" and the diaries of Kido and
Konoe, describe in detail the informal meetings Emperor Shōwa had with his chiefs of staff and ministers. Bergamini
concluded that the Emperor was kept informed of all main military operations and that he frequently questioned his
senior staff and asked for changes.[39]
Historians such as Herbert Bix, Akira Fujiwara, Peter Wetzler, and Akira Yamada assert that the post-war view
focusing on imperial conferences misses the importance of numerous "behind the chrysanthemum curtain" meetings
where the real decisions were made between the Emperor, his chiefs of staff, and the cabinet. Historians such as
Fujiwara[40] and Wetzler,[41] based on the primary sources and the monumental work of Shirō Hara,[42] have
produced evidence suggesting that the Emperor worked through intermediaries to exercise a great deal of control
over the military and was neither bellicose nor a pacifist, but an opportunist who governed in a pluralistic
decision-making process. American historian Herbert P. Bix argues that Emperor Shōwa might have been the prime
mover of most of the events of the two wars.[37]
The view promoted by both the Japanese Imperial Palace and the American occupation forces immediately after
World War II had Emperor Shōwa as a powerless figurehead behaving strictly according to protocol, while
remaining at a distance from the decision-making processes. This view was endorsed by Prime Minister Noboru
Takeshita in a speech on the day of Hirohito's death, in which Takeshita asserted that the war had broken out against
[Hirohito's] wishes. Takeshita's statement provoked outrage in nations in East Asia and Commonwealth nations such
as the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Canada.[43] For historian Fujiwara, however, "the thesis that the
Emperor, as an organ of responsibility, could not reverse cabinet decision, is a myth fabricated after the war."[44]
11
Hirohito
12
In Japan, debate over the Emperor's responsibility was taboo while he was still alive. After his death, however,
debate began to surface over the extent of his involvement and thus his culpability.[43]
In the years immediately after Hirohito's death, the debate in Japan was fierce. Susan Chira reported that, "Scholars
who have spoken out against the late Emperor have received threatening phone calls from Japan's extremist right
wing."[43] One example of actual violence occurred in 1990 when the mayor of Nagasaki, Hitoshi Motoshima, was
shot and critically wounded by a member of the ultranationalist group, Seikijuku; Motoshima managed to recover
from the attack. In 1989, Motoshima had broken what was characterized as "one of [Japan's] most sensitive taboos"
by asserting that Emperor Hirohito bore responsibility for World War II.[45]
Kentaro Awaya argues that post-war Japanese public opinion supporting protection of the Emperor was influenced
by US propaganda promoting the view that the Emperor together with the Japanese people had been fooled by the
military.[46]
Postwar reign
As the Emperor chose his uncle Prince Higashikuni as prime minister
to assist the occupation, there were attempts by numerous leaders to
have him put on trial for alleged war crimes. Many members of the
imperial family, such as Princes Chichibu, Takamatsu and
Higashikuni, pressured the Emperor to abdicate so that one of the
Princes could serve as regent until Crown Prince Akihito came of
age.[47] On February 27, 1946, the emperor's youngest brother, Prince
Mikasa (Takahito), even stood up in the privy council and indirectly
urged the emperor to step down and accept responsibility for Japan's
defeat. According to Minister of Welfare Ashida's diary, "Everyone
seemed to ponder Mikasa's words. Never have I seen His Majesty's
face so pale."[48]
U.S. General Douglas MacArthur insisted that Emperor Shōwa retain
the throne. MacArthur saw the emperor as a symbol of the continuity
Gaetano Faillace's photo of General MacArthur
and cohesion of the Japanese people. Some historians criticize the
and the Emperor at Allied GHQ in Tokyo.
September 17, 1945.
decision to exonerate the Emperor and all members of the imperial
family who were implicated in the war, such as Prince Chichibu,
Prince Asaka, Prince Higashikuni and Prince Hiroyasu Fushimi, from criminal prosecutions.[49]
Before the war crime trials actually convened, the SCAP, the IPS, and Japanese officials worked behind the scenes
not only to prevent the Imperial family from being indicted, but also to slant the testimony of the defendants to
ensure that no one implicated the emperor. High officials in court circles and the Japanese government collaborated
with Allied GHQ in compiling lists of prospective war criminals, while the individuals arrested as Class A suspects
and incarcerated in Sugamo prison solemnly vowed to protect their sovereign against any possible taint of war
responsibility.[50] Thus, "months before the Tokyo tribunal commenced, MacArthur's highest subordinates were
working to attribute ultimate responsibility for Pearl Harbor to Hideki Tōjō"[51] by allowing "the major criminal
suspects to coordinate their stories so that the Emperor would be spared from indictment."[52] According to John W.
Dower, "This successful campaign to absolve the Emperor of war responsibility knew no bounds. Hirohito was not
merely presented as being innocent of any formal acts that might make him culpable to indictment as a war criminal,
he was turned into an almost saintly figure who did not even bear moral responsibility for the war."[53] According to
Bix, "MacArthur's truly extraordinary measures to save Hirohito from trial as a war criminal had a lasting and
profoundly distorting impact on Japanese understanding of the lost war."[54]
Hirohito
13
Imperial status
The Emperor was not put on trial, but he was forced[55] to explicitly
reject (in the Ningen-sengen (人 間 宣 言)) the State Shinto claim
that the Emperor of Japan was an arahitogami, i.e., an incarnate
divinity. This was motivated by the fact that, according to the Japanese
constitution of 1889, the Emperor had a divine power over his country,
which was derived from the shinto belief that the Japanese Imperial
Family was the offspring of the sun goddess Amaterasu. Hirohito was
however persistent in the idea that the emperor of Japan should be
considered a descendant of the gods. In December 1945 he told his
The Emperor visited Hiroshima in 1947.
vice-grand chamberlain Michio Kinoshita: "It is permissible to say that
the idea that the Japanese are descendants of the gods is a false conception; but it is absolutely impermissible to call
chimerical the idea that the emperor is a descendant of the gods."[56] In any case, the "renunciation of divinity" was
noted more by foreigners than by Japanese, and seems to have been intended for the consumption of the former.[57]
Although the Emperor had supposedly repudiated claims to divine status, his public position was deliberately left
vague, partly because General MacArthur thought him likely to be a useful partner to get the Japanese to accept the
occupation, and partly due to behind-the-scenes maneuverings by Shigeru Yoshida to thwart attempts to cast him as
a European-style monarch.
While Emperor Shōwa was usually seen abroad as a head of state, there is still a broad dispute about whether he
became a common citizen or retained special status related to his religious offices and participations in Shinto and
Buddhist calendar rituals. Many scholars claim that today's tennō (usually translated Emperor of Japan in English) is
not an emperor.
For the rest of his life, Emperor Hirohito was an active figure in
Japanese life, and performed many of the duties commonly associated
with a constitutional head of state. The emperor and his family
maintained a strong public presence, often holding public walkabouts,
and making public appearances on special events and ceremonies.
The Empress, Mrs. Ford, the Emperor and U.S.
President Gerald Ford at the White House prior to
a state dinner held in honor of the Japanese head
of state for the first time. October 2, 1975.
Hirohito
14
Emperor Hirohito also played an important role in rebuilding Japan's
diplomatic image, traveling abroad to meet with many foreign leaders,
including Queen Elizabeth II (1971) and President Gerald Ford (1975).
The emperor was deeply interested in and well-informed about marine
biology, and the Imperial Palace contained a laboratory from which the
emperor published several papers in the field under his personal name
"Hirohito."[58] His contributions included the description of several
dozen species of Hydrozoa new to science.[59]
Yasukuni Shrine
Emperor Hirohito maintained an official boycott of the Yasukuni
Shrine after it was revealed to him that Class-A war criminals had
secretly been enshrined after its post-war rededication. This boycott
lasted from 1978 until the time of his death. This boycott has been
maintained by his son Akihito, who has also refused to attend
Yasukuni.
The Emperor and U.S. President Ronald Reagan,
On July 20, 2006, Nihon Keizai Shimbun published a front page article
Tokyo, November 9, 1983
about the discovery of a memorandum detailing the reason that the
Emperor stopped visiting Yasukuni. The memorandum, kept by former chief of Imperial Household Agency
Tomohiko Tomita, confirms for the first time that the enshrinement of 14 Class A War Criminals in Yasukuni was
the reason for the boycott. Tomita recorded in detail the contents of his conversations with the emperor in his diaries
and notebooks. According to the memorandum, in 1988, the emperor expressed his strong displeasure at the decision
made by Yasukuni Shrine to include Class-A war criminals in the list of war dead honored there by saying, "At some
point, Class-A criminals became enshrined, including Matsuoka and Shiratori. I heard Tsukuba acted cautiously."
Tsukuba is believed to refer to Fujimaro Tsukuba, the former chief Yasukuni priest at the time, who decided not to
enshrine the war criminals despite having received in 1966 the list of war dead compiled by the government. "What's
on the mind of Matsudaira's son, who is the current head priest?" "Matsudaira had a strong wish for peace, but the
child didn't know the parent's heart. That's why I have not visited the shrine since. This is my heart." Matsudaira is
believed to refer to Yoshitami Matsudaira, who was the grand steward of the Imperial Household immediately after
the end of World War II. His son, Nagayoshi, succeeded Fujimaro Tsukuba as the chief priest of Yasukuni and
decided to enshrine the war criminals in 1978.[60] Nagayoshi Matsudaira died in 2006, which some commentators
have speculated is the reason for release of the memo.
For journalist Masanori Yamaguchi, who analyzed the "memo" and comments made by the emperor in his first-ever
press conference in 1975, the emperor's evasive and opaque attitude about his own responsibility for the war and the
fact he said that the bombing of Hiroshima "could not be helped",[61] could mean that the emperor was afraid that the
enshrinement of the war criminals at Yasukuni would reignite the debate over his own responsibility for the war.[62]
Hirohito
15
Death and state funeral
On September 22, 1987, the Emperor underwent surgery on his
pancreas after having digestive problems for several months. The
doctors discovered that he had duodenal cancer. The emperor appeared
to be making a full recovery for several months after the surgery.
About a year later, however, on September 19, 1988, he collapsed in
his palace, and his health worsened over the next several months as he
suffered from continuous internal bleeding. On January 7, 1989, at
7:55 AM, the grand steward of Japan's Imperial Household Agency,
Shoichi Fujimori, officially announced the death of Emperor Hirohito,
and revealed details about his cancer for the first time. The emperor
was succeeded by his son, Akihito.
Hirohito's tomb in Hachiōji, Tokyo
The emperor's death ended the Shōwa era. On the same day a new era began: the Heisei era, effective at midnight the
following day. From January 7 until January 31, the emperor's formal appellation was Taikō Tennō (大 行 天 皇?,
"Departed Emperor") . His definitive posthumous name, Shōwa Tennō (昭 和 天 皇?) , was determined on January
13 and formally released on January 31 by Toshiki Kaifu, the prime minister.
On February 24, Emperor Hirohito's state funeral was held, and unlike that of his predecessor, it was formal but not
conducted in a strictly Shinto manner. A large number of world leaders attended the funeral, including U.S. President
George H. W. Bush, French President François Mitterrand, the Duke of Edinburgh, and many others. Emperor
Shōwa is buried in the Imperial mausoleum in Hachiōji, alongside Emperor Taishō, his father.
Titles and styles
Monarchical styles of
Emperor Shōwa
Reference style
His Imperial Majesty
Spoken style
Your Imperial Majesty
Alternative style Sir
•
•
•
•
29 April 1901 – 30 July 1912: His Imperial Highness The Prince Michi
30 July 1912 – 25 December 1926: His Imperial Highness The Crown Prince of Japan
25 December 1926 – 7 January 1989: His Imperial Majesty The Emperor of Japan
Posthumous title: His Imperial Majesty Emperor Shōwa
Hirohito
16
Honours
National honours
•
•
•
•
Collar and Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Blossoms
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Golden Kite (abolished in 1947)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
Foreign honours
•
•
Poland : Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
Finland : Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose of Finland; conferred in 1942 (Finland and
Japan were on the same side in World War II 1941–1944), the swastika collar was replaced by fir cross collar
within the state visit of the president of Finland Mauno Koivisto in 1986
•
Norway : Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of St. Olav
•
Spain : Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece[63]
•
United Kingdom : Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) – conferred in May
1921, revoked in 1941
•
•
•
•
•
United Kingdom : Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) – conferred in May 1921,
revoked in 1941.[64]
United Kingdom : Knight of the Order of the Garter (KG); conferred in 1929, revoked in 1941, restored in
1971[65]
United Kingdom : Honorary general in the British Army; conferred in May 1921[66]
United Kingdom : Honorary field marshal in the British Army; conferred in June 1930, revoked in 1941.[67]
United Kingdom : Fellow of the Royal Society of London[68]
Issue
Name
Birth
Marriage
Princess Teru
9 December 1925
died, 23 July 1961
10 October 1943
Princess Hisa
10 September 1927
died, 8 March 1928
Princess Taka
30 September 1929 21 May 1950
died, 28 May 1989
Toshimichi Takatsukasa
Princess Yori
7 March 1931
Takamasa Ikeda
10 October 1952
Emperor Akihito 23 December 1933 10 April 1959
Prince Morihiro Higashikuni Prince Nobuhiko Higashikuni
Princess Fumiko Higashikuni
Naohiko Higashikuni
Hidehiko Higashikuni
Yuko Higashikuni
Michiko Shōda
Prince Hitachi
28 November 1935 30 September 1964 Hanako Tsugaru
Princess Suga
2 March 1939
3 March 1960
Issue
Hisanga Shimazu
Naotake Takatsukasa (adopted)
Crown Prince Naruhito
Prince Akishino
Princess Nori
Yorihisa Shimazu
Hirohito
Scientific publications
• (1967) A review of the hydroids of the family Clathrozonidae with description of a new genus and species from
Japan.
• (1969) Some hydroids from the Amakusa Islands.
• (1971) Additional notes on Clathrozoon wilsoni Spencer.
• (1974) Some hydrozoans of the Bonin Islands
• (1977) Five hydroid species from the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea.
• (1983) Hydroids from Izu Oshima and Nijima.
• (1984) A new hydroid Hydractinia bayeri n. sp. (family Hydractiniidae) from the Bay of Panama.
• (1988) The hydroids of Sagami Bay collected by His Majesty the Emperor of Japan.
• (1995) The hydroids of Sagami Bay II. (posthumous)
Footnotes
[1] In Japanese the reigning Emperor is referred to without a personal name as "his Majesty the Emperor" (天 皇 陛 下 Tennō Heika) or "his
current Majesty" (今 上 陛 下 Kinjō Heika)
[2] Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan, p. 337.
[3] Ponsonby-Fane, p. 338; 'see File:Crowd awaiting Crown Prince Tokyo Dec1916.jpg, New York Times. December 3, 1916.
[4] Varley, H. Paul, ed. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H.
Paul Varley), p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and
Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami;] Ponsonby-Fane, p. 350.
[5] Ponsonby-Fane, p. 349.
[6] Ponsonby-Fane, pp. 136–137.
[7] Mikiso Hane, Emperor Hirohito and His Chief Aide-de-camp, The Honjō Diary, 1983; Honjō Nikki, Hara Shobō, 1975
[8] Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (1991). " Emperor Hirohito on Localized Aggression in China (http:/ / chinajapan. org/ articles/ 04. 1/ 04.
1wakabayashi4-27. pdf)". Sino-Japanese Studies 4 (1), pp. 4–27. Retrieved on 2008-02-03.
[9] Fujiwara, Nitchū Sensō ni Okeru Horyo Gyakusatsu, Kikan Sensō Sekinin Kenkyū 9, 1995, p. 22.
[10] Dokugasusen Kankei Shiryō II, Kaisetsu, 1997, pp. 25–29.
[11] Dokugasusen Kankei Shiryō II, Kaisetsu, 1997, p. 28.
[12] Hidenari, pp. 106–108, Wetzler, pp. 25, 231.
[13] Conversation in Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, pp. 411, 745.
[14] Bix, p. 414.
[15] Wetzler, pp. 52–54.
[16] Fujiwara, Shôwa tennô no ju-go nen sensô, 1991, p. 126, citing Kenji Tomita's diary.
[17] Hidenari, p. 118.
[18] Bix, p. 421; Wetzler, pp. 47–50.
[19] Day of Deceit, Robert B. Stinnett, New York 2000 p.143
[20] Wetzler, pp. 29, 35.
[21] Yamada, pp. 180, 181, 185; Fujiwara, pp. 135–138.
[22] Akamatsu's diary, in Wetzler, p. 50.
[23] Bix, p. 466, citing the Sugiyama memo, p. 24.
[24] Yamada, pp. 240–242.
[25] Bergamini, David (1971). Japan's Imperial Conspiracy. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc.. pp. 1012–1014.
[26] John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945, Random House, 1970, p. 519
[27] "Battle of Saipan – The Final Curtain, David Moore" (http:/ / www. battleofsaipan. com/ seabee. htm). Battleofsaipan.com. . Retrieved
2010-10-03.
[28] Japanese nuclear weapon program
[29] 鬼 塚 英 昭 著 「 原 爆 の 秘 密 (国 内 編)昭 和 天 皇 は 知 っ て い た 」 成 甲 書 房 2008年7月19日 第1版 第1刷
発 行 ISBN 4-88086-233-9, ISBN 978-4-88086-233-0
[30] Bix, p. 676; Dower, p. 606
[31] Bix, p. 756
[32] Fujita Hisanori, Jijûchô no kaisô, Chûô Kôronsha, 1987, pp. 66–67, Bix, p. 489
[33] Kido Kōichi Nikki, p. 1223.
[34] Hidenari, p. 129.
[35] Storry, Richard (1991). A History of Modern Japan. Penguin.
[36] Dower
17
Hirohito
[37] Bix
[38] "The Constitution of the Empire of Japan(1889)" (http:/ / history. hanover. edu/ texts/ 1889con. html). .
[39] Bergamini, David (1971). Japan's Imperial Conspiracy: How Emperor Hirohito Led Japan Into War With the West. New York: Morrow.
[40] Fujiwara, Akira (1991). Shōwa Tennō no Jū-go Nen Sensō (The Shōwa Emperor fifteen years war).
[41] Wetzler
[42] Former member of section 20 of War operations of the Army high command, Hara has made a detailed study of the way military decisions
were made, including the Emperor's involvement published in five volumes in 1973–74 under the title Daihon'ei senshi; Daitōa Sensō kaisen
gaishi; Kaisen ni itaru seisentyaku shidō (Imperial Headquarters war history; General history of beginning hostilities in the Greater East Asia
War; Leadership and political strategy with respect to the beginning of hostilities).
[43] Chira, Susan (January 22, 1989). "Post-Hirohito, Japan Debates His War Role" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1989/ 01/ 22/ world/
post-hirohito-japan-debates-his-war-role. html). New York Times. . Retrieved 2009-04-10.
[44] Shōwa tennō no Jū-go nen sensō, Aoki Shoten, 1991, p. 122
[45] Sanger, David (January 19, 1990). "Mayor Who Faulted Hirohito Is Shot" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1990/ 01/ 19/ world/
mayor-who-faulted-hirohito-is-shot. html?sec=& spon=). New York Times. . Retrieved 2009-04-10.
[46] Awaya, Kentaro; Timothy Amos trans.. "The Tokyo Tribunal, War Responsibility and the Japanese People" (http:/ / www. japanfocus. org/
-Awaya-Kentaro/ 2061). Japan Focus. The Asia-Pacific Journal. . Retrieved 2009-04-10.
[47] Bix, pp. 571–573.
[48] Ashida Hitoshi Nikki, Dai Ikkan, Iwanami Shoten, 1986, p. 82.
[49] Dower, Bix
[50] Dower, p. 325.
[51] Dower, p. 585.
[52] Dower, p. 583.
[53] Dower, p. 326.
[54] Bix, p. 545.
[55] Dower, pp. 308–318
[56] Wetzler, p. 3
[57] The theory of a constitutional monarchy had already had some proponents in Japan. In 1935, when Tatsukichi Minobe advocated the theory
that sovereignty resides in the states, of which the emperor is just an organ (the tennō kikan setsu), it caused a furor. He was forced to resign
from the House of Peers and his post at the Tokyo Imperial University, his books were banned and an attempt was made on his life.(Large,
Stephen S.; Emperor Hirohito and Showa Japan: A Political Biography, p. 60; Routledge, 1992.) Not until 1946 was the tremendous step
made to alter the Emperor's title from "imperial sovereign" to "constitutional monarch".
[58] "The brief career of the Emperor Showa (Imperial Household Agency, Japanese)" (http:/ / www. kunaicho. go. jp/ about/ history/ history11.
html). Kunaicho.go.jp. . Retrieved 2010-10-03.
[59] "World Hydrozoa Database" (http:/ / www. marinespecies. org/ hydrozoa/ aphia. php?p=search). Marinespecies.org. . Retrieved 2010-10-03.
[60] "Hirohito visits to Yasukuni stopped over war criminals | The Japan Times Online" (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/
nn20060721a1. html). Search.japantimes.co.jp. . Retrieved 2010-10-03.
[61] "-Does your majesty feel responsibility for the war itself, including the opening of hostilities ? -I can't answer that kind of question because I
haven't thoroughly studied the literature in this field, and so I don't really appreciate the nuances of your words." Bix, p. 676
[62] "Yasukuni and a week that will live in infamy" (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ fd20060820pb. html). Search.japantimes.co.jp.
August 20, 2006. .
[63] Naval History: Hirohito Showa. (http:/ / navalhistory. flixco. info/ H/ 177028x19846/ 8330/ a0. htm)
[64] Viewing Page 3747 of Issue 32318 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 32318/ supplements/ 3747). London-gazette.co.uk
(1921-05-09). Retrieved on 2012-02-15.
[65] " Britain wanted limited restoration of royal family's honors, (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0XPQ/ is_2002_Jan_7/
ai_83579303)" Japan Policy & Politics. January 7, 2002.
[66] London Gazette : Issue No. 32324, p. 3917 (May 13, 1921). (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 32324/ supplements/ 3917)
[67] Viewing Page 4028 of Issue 33619 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 33619/ pages/ 4028). London-gazette.co.uk (1930-06-27).
Retrieved on 2012-02-15.
[68] Corner, E. J. H. (1990). "His Majesty Emperor Hirohito of Japan, K. G. 29 April 1901-7 January 1989". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of
the Royal Society 36: 242–226. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1990.0032.
18
Hirohito
References
• Behr, Edward Hirohito: Behind the Myth, Villard, New York, 1989. – A controversial book that posited that
Hirohito had a more active role in World War II than had publicly been portrayed; it contributed to the
re-appraisal of his role.
• Bix, Herbert P. (2000). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. New York: HarperCollins. 10-ISBN
0-06-019314-X; 13-ISBN 978-0-06-019314-0; OCLC 247018161 (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/247018161)
A scholarly and copiously sourced look at the emperor's role. Winner of the 2001 Pulitzer Prize for General
Non-Fiction.
• Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Aftermath of World War II, W.W Norton and Company, 1999. –
'A superb history of Japan's occupation' (Ian Buruma, The New York Review of Books). Winner of the 2000
Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction and the 1999 US National Book Award.
• Drea, Edward J. (1998). "Chasing a Decisive Victory: Emperor Hirohito and Japan's War with the West
(1941–1945)". In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. Nebraska: University of
Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-1708-0.
• Fujiwara, Akira, Shōwa Tennō no Jū-go Nen Sensō (Shōwa Emperor's Fifteen-year War), Aoki Shoten, 1991.
ISBN 4-250-91043-1 (Based on the primary sources)
• Hidenari, Terasaki Shōwa tennō dokuhakuroku, Bungei Shūnjusha, 1991
• Hoyt, Edwin P. Hirohito: The Emperor and the Man, Praeger Publishers, 1992. ISBN 0-275-94069-1
• Kawahara, Toshiaki Hirohito and His Times: A Japanese Perspective, Kodansha International, 1997. ISBN
0-87011-979-6 (Japanese official image)
• Mosley, Leonard Hirohito, Emperor of Japan, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1966. ISBN 1-111-75539-6 ISBN
1-199-99760-9, The first full-length biography, it gives his basic story.
• Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. (http://books.google.com/
books?id=SLAeAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Imperial+House+of+Japan&dq=The+Imperial+House+of+Japan&
client=firefox-a&pgis=1) Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 (http://www.worldcat.org/
wcpa/oclc/194887)
• Wetzler, Peter Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan, University
of Hawaii Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8248-1925-X
• Yamada, Akira, Daigensui Shōwa Tennō (Shōwa Emperor as Commander in Chief), Shin-Nihon Shuppansha,
1994. ISBN 4-406-02285-6 (Based on the primary sources)
External links
•
•
•
•
Kunaicho | Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun (http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/e-about/history/history11.html)
Hirohito biography and timeline (http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/dictators/hirohito/) at the Rotten Library
Reflections on emperor Hirohito's death (http://www.scarsdalemura-kara.com/emperor.htm)
Video | Gakushūin, Principal's Official Residence, Peers' School, Hirohito graduate (http://www.housing.com/
categories/homes/japanese-meiji-period-architecture-1868-1912/
gakushuin-principals-residence-peers-school-tokyo-1909.html)
• Booknotes interview with Herbert Bix on Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, September 2, 2001 (http://
www.booknotes.org/Watch/165148-1/Herbert+Bix.aspx)
• Booknotes interview with John Dower on Embracing Defeat, March 26, 2000. (http://www.booknotes.org/
Watch/155311-1/John+Dower.aspx)
19
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Hirohito Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=519401191 Contributors: 1234r00t, 1297, 2001:558:6040:66:553:941F:87B1:3D09, 62.253.64.xxx, ACSE, AMorozov, AThing,
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File:Hirohito in dress uniform.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hirohito_in_dress_uniform.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kintetsubuffalo, Morio,
Ras67, Shika ryouse shomei, 1 anonymous edits
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Morio, Rekishi-JAPAN
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File:Crown Prince Hirohito and Lloyd George 1921.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crown_Prince_Hirohito_and_Lloyd_George_1921.jpg License: Public
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File:Teru-no-miya Shigeko 1941-nihongami.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Teru-no-miya_Shigeko_1941-nihongami.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
Aotake, Blahmos, Rekishi-JAPAN, 3 anonymous edits
File:Princess Sachiko.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Princess_Sachiko.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 宮 内 省
File:Takatsukasa Wedding 1950.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Takatsukasa_Wedding_1950.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aotake, Gryffindor,
Rekishi-JAPAN, Ruhthunp
File:Princess Atsuko.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Princess_Atsuko.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 宮 内 庁 （ 投 稿 者 が ス キ ャ ン ）
File:Crown Prince Akihito 1938-10.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crown_Prince_Akihito_1938-10.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hosiryuhosi,
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File:Yoshi-no-miya Masahito1939.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yoshi-no-miya_Masahito1939.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Rekishi-JAPAN
File:Crown Prince Akihito & Princess Takako1950-9.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crown_Prince_Akihito_&_Princess_Takako1950-9.jpg License: Public
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and User:Philip Nilsson
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
Image:Emperor Shōwa Army 1938-1-8.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emperor_Shōwa_Army_1938-1-8.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Morio,
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稿者が出典雑誌より取り込み
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Rekishi-JAPAN, Ruhthunp, 2 anonymous edits
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Image:Ford and Emperor1975.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ford_and_Emperor1975.jpg License: unknown Contributors: White House Photographic Office.
File:Reagan hirohito.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reagan_hirohito.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hunter01, Infrogmation, KTo288, Morio, Shika
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Image:Showa Shrine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Showa_Shrine.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Bridgecross at en.wikipedia
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