GFN-SSR REGIONAL GUIDE:
Security Sector Reform in Latin America and the
Caribbean
This guide was written by Paul Beckitt and was updated by Shiv Bakrania in
September 2010
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................... 1
A Good Place to Start ........................................................................ 6
Caribbean ....................................................................................... 12
Haiti ................................................................................................. 12
Jamaica ............................................................................................. 16
Central America .............................................................................. 19
Costa Rica ......................................................................................... 19
Guatemala ......................................................................................... 20
Mexico .............................................................................................. 24
Southern America ........................................................................... 27
Argentina .......................................................................................... 27
Brazil ................................................................................................ 29
Chile ................................................................................................. 32
Colombia ........................................................................................... 34
Peru.................................................................................................. 38
Introduction
This regional guide p rovides an introduction to literature on security sector reform
(SSR) i n Lat in A merica and the C aribbean. I t h ighlights k ey regional te xts an d
resources that c ut ac ross a num ber o f s ecurity s ectors and c ountries. B ecause o f
the size of the region, several broadly representative country case studies from
sub-regions have been selected to highlight particular issues of interest. Whilst not
exhaustive, this guide gives an indication of the growing literature available on SSR
in the re gion. R esearch o n S SR, part icularly re gion-wide c omparisons, is no t
abundant and though English-language papers are used wherever possible, if a key
document i s only available in S panish then i t is included below, w ith a b rief
summary in English.
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Clicking on the link in the document title will take the re ader to a more extensive
summary in the GFN-SSR Document Library, which includes a direct link to the
original relevant document.
Where appl icable, th is gui de a lso pro vides l inks to re levant j ustice, c onflict and
fragile s tates re lated re sources o n the Go vernance and S ocial D evelopment
Resource Centre website (GSDRC).
The Regional Political Context
Latin American political history throughout the twentieth century was characterised
by the involvement of the military in political affairs, whether in dictatorships, coups
or conflicts. This has slowly changed over the last 50 years as the region has seen a
gradual tre nd to wards de mocracy. A w ave o f de mocratisation c rossed Lati n
America, with the notable exception of Cuba, from the late 1970s onwards and the
region does not, generally, show signs of a return to authoritarianism. There is,
however, a difference in the quality of democracy in many countries.
Experiences o f m ilitary involvement v aried thro ughout Lat in A merica and the
Caribbean. Most of Central America saw harsh civil wars, for example in El Salvador
and Guatemala, and political instability, including military coups and counter-coups,
in many more countries. In response to a rising number of socialist governments
taking power at time of heightened superpower tension during the Cold War, the US
is alleged to have supported right-wing groups in Central America and the rise of
military dictatorships (or juntas) across South America, most notably in Chile,
Argentina and Brazil. Indeed, internal conflict did not afflict South America in the
same way that i t did C entral A merica. H owever, the re were two no table
insurgencies in the continent: the Peruvian state fought a battle against left-wing
rebels in the 1 980s and 1990s; and C olombia continues to suffer from an internal
conflict today that began with left-wing guerrilla rebels taking up arms in the 1960s
and the n s pread to include o ther gro ups including r ight-wing param ilitaries and
drug traffickers.
In the Caribbean, colonial dominance continued for much longer than in Central and
South America, and many islands are still French or British dependent territories.
The Caribbean islands have, by and large, been relatively stable over recent
decades, though internal crime and violence have been ongoing problems. A
significant exception here is Haiti: a UN peacekeeping force first intervened in 1994
and most recently in 2004, and the UN continues to have responsibility for much of
the country’s security needs in the aftermath of the 2010 earthquake.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
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Current Security Challenges
In the twenty-first century, as in much of the twentieth, the key security challenges
come no t externally, f rom ne ighbouring states ( despite an increase i n te nsion
between Venezuela, Ecuador and Colombia in 2008) or from coups or insurgencies,
but f rom d omestic c riminal gangs and/ or as a re sult o f tra nsnational c riminal
organisations trafficking in people, drugs, small arms and other illicit goods. Central
America, in particular, has experienced a proliferation of gangs over the past two
decades.
As democratic governments elected through successive, (broadly) free and fair
elections became commonplace over the last decade, the security focus of most
governments in the region has reflected the changing nature of the threat. Security
policy has shifted from national security t o public security, in particular to tackling
the high levels of crime and violence. However, in many cases governments have
chosen to adopt a populist hard-line and at times an anti-democratic approach to
tackling crime. Moreover, the security forces and their alleged human rights’ abuses
are often as much of a threat to public security as criminal gangs. Problems of
insecurity are somewhat compounded where the military takes on a greater role in
ensuring pub lic s ecurity, de spite its h istoric i nvolvement as a s tate i nstrument o f
repression in many nations.
In addition to the impact of rising crime, post 9/11 US counter-terrorism efforts
have had a m ajor impact on world security, and c ounter-terrorism strategies have
grown in prominence. In Latin America, this is most evident in Colombia: The US
has played a major role in aiding the counterinsurgency through Plan Colombia, but
over the p ast seven y ears, counter-narcotics and counter-terrorism p riorities have
been c ombined. The US and Colombian administrations label the United S elfDefense Forces of Colombia (AUC), National Liberation Army (ELN) and the
Revolutionary A rmed F orces o f C olombia ( FARC) as te rrorist o rganisations ( a
designation d isputed by m any). W hile e lsewhere, ho wever, te rrorism is less o f a
concern, the US continues to play a major role in regional security. For instance it
funds a billion dollar assistance plan, Plan Merida, supporting the security forces of
Mexico to combat the violence and drugs trafficking on the southern US border,
along the same lines as Plan Colombia in the Andes.
SSR in Latin America and the Caribbean
There are serious challenges for governments and security forces in Latin America.
The security sector is in urgent need of adapting and improving its ability to ensure
security for its citizens and aid the consolidation of democracy. Democratisation
itself, ho wever, has not al ways led to m ajor re form; i t i s a necessary b ut no t
sufficient c ondition. Countries re garded as the m ost po litically and e conomically
developed (Uruguay, Chile and Costa Rica, for example) have generally engaged in
more reform than the poorer countries of the region, such as Peru. Reforms that
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have tak en p lace in c ountries that are under po litical o r e conomic s tress, f or
instance Bolivia, Ecuador and Colombia, are sometimes very contradictory and
occasionally regressive (such as increasing the involvement of the military in
internal security). Yet it is impossible to generalise: Brazil, the continent’s largest
democracy, is in as much need of reform as most other countries in Latin America;
and some of the poorest countries of Central America initially undertook significant
reforms o f their security sectors towards the end o f the twe ntieth century, in part
due to high levels of post-conflict i nternational funds, but these processes have
since slowed down due to a lack of human and material resources.
SSR in some form is required in all countries, but though the SSR needs of each
country are often similar, they are always unique. For example, several countries
within the region do not, for various reasons, have the ir own ar med forces (Costa
Rica, Dominica, Grenada, Haiti, Saint Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines)
depending instead on alternatives such as regional security mechanisms or an
alliance with the United States. Other countries, such as Brazil and Argentina, have
a federal structure of government and this is reflected in the structure of policing –
these countries have both a federal police force and individual state police forces.
In Colombia and Mexico, a key SSR concern is the role of the armed forces in
internal security. These give but a small indication of some of the differences
between countries in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Civilian oversight in countries such as Chile, Brazil and Argentina has improved in
recent years whereas countries such as Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Paraguay
have security institutions of dubious merit. Ecuador has experienced periodical
military de fiance o f the ex ecutive, including a c oup i n 2 000. Similarly, Venezuela
was victim to a coup attempt in 2002, as was Paraguay in 1996.
The relationship between civilian political leadership and the police in Latin America
is complex. Whilst most countries have enacted laws and regulations to assert
civilian control and oversight, they have been unevenly enforced. Furthermore,
citizens still suffer mistreatment and abuse from the authorities whilst police
violence is a daily occurance in many countries.
Despite the c lear ne ed f or S SR, re form p rogrammes h ave be en app lied une venly
both ac ross s ectors and c ountries. B y an d large, the y hav e b een i nsufficient to
address the major challenge of ensuring public security and have often been met by
resistance from the security institutions concerned. The armed forces and police
have undergone some reform in many countries, but a noted trend is the
militarisation o f the p olice and a ‘ police-isation’ o f the m ilitary, rathe r than the
creation o r re inforcement o f two s eparate s ecurity o rganisations w ith d istinct
responsibilities. T here has b een an i mportant pro cess o f j ustice re form in Lat in
America, and around thirteen countries have taken significant steps towards
reform; Chile’s reform of the criminal justice systems is noted as perhaps the best
example of success in this area. However, the justice sector in many countries is
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close to collapse and corruption is endemic. The same could also be said about the
penal system throughout the continent. Prisons are, universally, in a dire state and
conditions are frequently described as inhumane. Over-crowding, poor health and
nutritional f acilities, and hi gh num bers o f pre -trial inmates l ocked up f or l ong
periods of time are common criticisms.
Challenges for Reform and Key Recommendations
Wide-ranging re form i s urge ntly ne eded i n e very are a o f t he s ecurity s ystem
throughout Latin American and the Caribbean. Three main factors have stymied
attempts at security sector reform: weak civilian leadership, especially regarding
police and military reform; weak or limited civilian capabilities; and weak
international incentives to promote reforms. Key areas of reform required include*:
• limiting the autonomy of the armed and security forces;
• strengthening the capacities of civilians working in the security sector;
• creating policies to regulate the intelligence sector;
• specifying and limiting the roles and responsibilities of the security sector;
• coordinating policies and activities among sectors;
• limiting the political use of the armed forces and police; and
• strengthening the role of the legislature in security issues.
This guide points to some of the main research from academia, civil society
organisations and governments that analyses the security sectors and SSR
programmes. The reports and publications that follow contain key recommendations
specific to countries and sectors for policymakers and other actors involved in
security sector reform in Latin America and the Caribbean.
*Recommendations taken from FLACSO-Chile (2007) ‘Report on the Security Sector
in Latin America and the Caribbean’ – see below for further details.
GFN-SSR Resources
Report on the Security Sector in Latin America and the Caribbean
This report published by FLACSO aims to contribute to the understanding of
security s ector re lated po litical and institutional pro cesses i n the re gion s ince the
return of democracy.
No Ownership, No Commitment: A Guide to Local Ownership of Security Sector
Reform
This p ublication ai ms to c ontribute to o perationalising do nor c ountries’ p olicy
commitments to local ownership of SSR. It includes a chapter on intersectoral
dialogue on SSR in Guatemala
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ssrbulletin
The re gion has be en f eatured thre e times as a c ase s tudy in the GF N-SSR
ssrbulletin: SSR in South America (May 2008); Guyana (July 2008); and Haiti
(October 2008).
A Good Place to Start
SSR: General
FLACSO-Chile, 2007, Report on the Security Sector in Latin America and the
Caribbean, FLACSO-Chile, Santiago (also available in Spanish)
What is the experience of security sector reform in Latin America and the Caribbean
since the return to democracy? What are the security reform issues specific to the
region? This report by the Facultad Latinoamerica de Ciencias Sociales, Chile
(FLACSO-Chile) analyses security policy and reform in defence, public security, and
intelligence i n 2 0 c ountries in L atin A merica and the C aribbean. M any c ountries
have o nly re cently e merged f rom m ilitary auto cracies; c oncepts s uch a s c ivilian
oversight, accountability and transparency are no vel to many and underdeveloped
at best. Drawing on individual country reports (see below), the report compares
and contrasts progress on key security indicators, including legislative framework,
civilian control and steps taken towards reform. Policy recommendations highlight
the need for the need for coordinated and comprehensive reforms that focus on
increasing accountability, limiting the political use of the security services, and
enhancing civilian and legislative oversight.
FLACSO-Chile, 2006, Reporte Sector Seguridad en America Latina y El Caribe:
Informes Nacionales, FLACSO-Chile, Santiago (only available in Spanish except
Barbados and Jamaica)
• Central America and the Caribbean: Barbados (English only), Belize,
Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica
(English only), Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama
• Andean Countries: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru
• Southern Cone: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay
What are the key characteristics of the defence, public security and intelligence
sectors within each country in Latin America and the Caribbean? These detailed
reports analyse the changes that have taken place in the security sectors across the
region. Each report starts with a brief introduction to the social and economic
context o f the country, and the n e xamines the de fence, p ublic s ecurity and
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
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intelligence sectors. The principle themes covered include civil leadership, the roles
of democratic institutions and the missions of the police and armed forces.
Bibliographies provide extensive links to the websites of government departments
and security forces.
Fuentes, C ., 2 009, Political D imensions o f S ecurity T ransformation in L atin
America, IDS Bulletin, Volume 40, Number 2, pp. 79-87
Transforming the security sector in Latin America has been one of the most
challenging tasks following de mocratisation i n the re gion. W hat has impeded the
progress of citizens' rights and institutional democratic reform? This article
discusses the complex and intertwined political conditions that surround military
and police institutional reform, concluding that progress must be made within the
broader p olitical system, no t just in the security institutions the mselves. C ivil
society o rganisations and adv ocacy ne tworks hav e a c rucial role i n e mpowering
citizens to engage in reform.
Civilian Oversight
Ghebali, V . a nd L ambert, A . ( eds.), 2 007, Democratic G overnance o f the
Security S ector b eyond t he O SCE A rea: R egional A pproaches in A frica an d
the Americas, DCAF, Geneva
What are the experiences in regional approaches to security sector governance in
Africa, the Americas and Europe? What lessons can be drawn for promoting good
and de mocratic go vernance o f s ecurity s ector i nstitutions in the se and o ther
regions? T his b ook b y the Ge neva C entre f or the D emocratic C ontrol o f A rmed
Forces (DCAF) compares and assesses regional security sector governance
approaches. Since the end of the Cold War, the international security environment
has changed to encompass a rang e of non-military and trans -national d imensions.
Progress to wards e ffective implementation o f s ecurity s ector governance de pends
on s tates’ c apacities to re concile de mocratic s ecurity s ector o bjectives wi th the
global counterterrorism agenda imposed by the United States after 9/11. This study
contains three chapters specifically on Latin America:
• Füri, C., ‘The 2001 Quebec City Plan of Action: Toward a Convergence of
Security and Democracy Agendas in the Americas’;
• Diamint, R., ‘Sub-Regional Security Cooperation in Latin America: The 1995
Central American Framework Treaty on Democratic Security’;
• Arévalo de Leon, B., ‘The 1996 Guatemala Agreement on the Strengthening
of Civilian Power and the Role of the Armed Forces in a Democratic Society’.
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Defence Reform
Pion-Berlin, D., 2009, Defence O rganisation and C ivil-Military Relations i n
Latin America, Armed Forces & Society, Volume 35m Number 3, pp. 562-586
To what extent do civilians maintain institutional control over armed forces in Latin
America? This research examines the organisation of defence institutions in sixteen
Latin American countries and its implications for civil-military relations. Most
countries o f the re gion hav e no t ac hieved the ideal-typical m odel f or m aximising
civilian control, although some come close. Other countries have a defence
structure that leaves too much military power unified. In yet others, there is a dual
command structure that weakens the defence m inistry and merges military power
high up the ladder of influence.
Policing
Dammert, L., 2008, Professional Autonomy and Civil Leadership in the Latin
American an d C aribbean Po lice, Working Paper, Global C onsortium on Security
Transformation
Does the civilian political leadership exercise sufficient control over the police in
Latin America and the Caribbean? This paper analyses the security sector reforms
that have occurred over the past decade in the region. It concludes that, in spite of
reforms aimed at increasing accountability and oversight, in many counties police
autonomy remains high, with the civilian political leadership needing to exercise
tighter control over police actions.
Justice Reform
Justice S tudies C entre of t he A mericas (C EJA), 2 007, 2006-2007 R eport o n
Judicial Systems in the Americas, CEJA, Santiago (also available in Spanish)
Published by the Justice Studies Centre of the Americas (CEJA), these reports
provide an e xcellent o verview o f the j ustice s ectors i n e very c ountry in Lat in
America and the C aribbean. E ach do cument e xamines the organisation o f the
justice system before going into greater detail on a wide array of justice issues
including legal and penal codes, the police, the power of the judiciary and justice
reform projects currently underway.
Deshazo, P. a nd V argas, J ., 2 006, Judicial R eform in L atin A merica: A n
Assessment, P olicy P apers o n the Americas V olume X VII, Study 2 , C enter f or
Strategic and International Studies, Washington DC
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
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What is the current state of the administration of justice in Latin America? Which
countries are the relative success stories and which countries have made less
progress towards reform? This paper summarises the results of a conference that
brought together justice experts from across the region and f ocuses on the reform
process wi thin Guate mala an d f ive c ountries i n S outh A merica. W hile C hile has
made the most progress towards reform through a substantial transformation of its
criminal justice system, the general record is less positive. Political and economic
instability in many c ountries has m ade reform m uch m ore d ifficult. T o ov ercome
these difficulties, policymakers should promote political support for long-term and
coherent policies and look to improve both efficiency and transparency within the
justice sector.
Penal Reform
Dammert, L and Z úñiga, L ., 2008, La C árcel: Pr oblemas y Desafíos Par a la s
Américas FLACSO-Chile, S antiago ( currently av ailable i n S panish but wi ll s hortly
be available in English from the FLACSO-Chile)
In what state is the penal system in Latin America and what is its current purpose?
How serious a problem are overcrowding, violence and the inadequate healthcare of
inmates? What are the particular concerns regarding the incarceration o f females?
What are the working conditions of the officials and guards on whom the security
and well-being of the prisoners depend? This paper attempts to provide answers to
these q uestions. O f all the s ecurity s ectors i n the re gion, the pri son s ector ha s
received the least attention. While some of the blame falls on those working within
the sector, government public security polices should take more responsibility.
These have focused on being tough on crime, which has led to further pressure on
the penal system without a c oncomitant increase in resources. The collapse of the
judicial systems in many countries has exacerbated a situation in which prisons
have been transformed into ‘ universities of crime’. T his report makes a num ber of
recommendations to re gional g overnments i ncluding: invest i n e xisting pr isons
instead of solely building new institutions; make greater use of non-custodial
sentences; improve conditions for those who work in the prisons; and improve the
record-keeping o f th e pri son po pulation. S trong c ivil leadership is e ssential to
improve the dire state of Latin American prisons and incarceration needs to be seen
as the option of last resort rather than the solution to all criminal problems.
Small Arms and Light Weapons
FLACSO, 2 007, Armas Pe queñas y Livianas: Una A menaza a la S eguridad
Hemisférica, Secretaria General de FLACSO, San Jose (only available in Spanish)
What i s the thre at p osed by S mall A rms and Li ght W eapons ( SALW) i n Lati n
America? How does this problem vary across the region? What steps can be taken
on the national, regional, and international stages to reduce the problems caused
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
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by SALW? Latin America is fortunate in not suffering from inter-state conflicts, but
countries in the region have some of the highest rates of violent crime in the world.
The re port argue s th at th is po ses a m ajor thre at to hum an s ecurity. T he f ear o f
violence is one of the biggest concerns of Latin American citizens; it has an adverse
effect o n the e conomy and puts pre ssure o n nati onal he alth s ystems. T he
proliferation of SALW that fuels this violence is consequently a major concern to all
security forces w ithin the region. There are, however, part icular issues relevant to
each sub-region, for instance: fire-arms and urban violence in the southern cone;
the links between drugs and SALW in Colombia and the Andean countries; and,
more b roadly, the quasi-military re sponse to tac kling the epidemic of S ALW
proliferation. The scale of the challenge is huge but the re are a number of ways in
which the impact of SALW can be reduced including cultural and legislative changes
and greater regional and international cooperation.
Stohl, R. and Tuttle, D., 2008, The Small Arms Trade in Latin America, NACLA
Report on the Americas, Vol. 41 No.2, March/April 2008
What is the source of the small arms that are freely available across Latin America?
How has the p resence o f S ALW i mpacted s ecurity w ithin the r egion? W hat e ffect
has the proliferation of small arms and light weapons had o n development in Latin
America? This article, published in the NACLA Report on the Americas, reviews the
multifaceted social consequences of the small arms trade. The trend of accelerating
levels of crime and violence suggests that a broad-based and concerted gun control
effort is needed. Gun violence is now holding back development in much of the
region; fresh initiatives and the continued allocation of resources to tackling the
trade will be needed to safeguard Latin America’s future prosperity.
Intelligence
Weeks, G., 2008, A Preference for Deference: Reforming the Military's
Intelligence Role in Argentina, Chile and Peru, Third World Quarterly, vol. 29:
no. 1, pp. 45-61
Why has i ntelligence s ervice re form i n Lati n A merica be en s o limited? T his pape r
examines i ntelligence s ervices i n A rgentina, C hile and P eru. I t f ocuses o n th e
number o f i nstitutions i nvolved in o verseeing re form, the de gree o f pr esidential
control and the extent to wh ich military intelligence activities are overseen by the
civilian government. Reform has been limited in terms of expanding civilian
authority. Incentives for civilians to pursue complicated reform have been absent,
given the military's proven ability to operate its own intelligence agencies.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
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Non-state Actors
Jütersonke, O., Muggah, R. and Rodgers, D., 2009, Gangs, Urban Violence, and
Security Interventions in Central America, Security Dialogue, vol. 40, nos. 4-5,
pp. 373-397
What is the nature of Central American gang violence and have attempts to reduce
it been successful? Urban violence is a major preoccupation of policymakers,
planners and development practitioners, but it is a complex phenomenon. This
article argues that repressive first-generation approaches have tended to radicalise
gangs and push them towards organised crime. Meanwhile, preventive secondgeneration interventions have been credited with modest success, but have yielded
more rhetorical advances than actual reductions in gang violence.
Related Documents
Isacson e t al., 2007, Below t he R adar: U S M ilitary Pr ograms w ith Latin
America, 1997-2007, CIP/WOLA/Latin America Working Group Education Fund,
Washington (also available in Spanish)
How much military assistance has the US provided to Latin American countries over
the past decade? How has the nature of assistance changed? What should be done
to make US aid most effective? This briefing document is an o utput from ‘Just the
Facts’, a j oint pro ject o f thre e U S-based o rganisations wo rking on Lati n A merica.
Covering the decade up to 2007, it includes statistics and analysis on US$7bn worth
of defence and security assistance provided to Latin America by the US. Over the
last f ew y ears, the majority o f thi s a id h as be en i n the f orm of c ounter-narcotics
assistance and, p ost-2001, as part o f the war o n te rror aga inst ‘ narco-terrorists’.
The Department of Defence has replaced the State Department in the lead r ole in
the disbursement of funds and th is, the paper argues, has been at the expense of
transparency, accountability and concerns such as human rights and democracy. To
best add ress the c hallenges f acing the re gion, the U S s hould shift its f ocus away
from military s olutions and to wards i mproving de mocratic and e conomic
development.
Tickner, A., 2007, Latin America and the Caribbean: Domestic and
Transnational Insecurity, Coping with Crisis Working Paper Series, International
Peace Academy, New York
How is Latin America and the Caribbean coping with the non-traditional security
challenges i t f aces? T his pape r e xamines the two k ey ax es of s ecurity d ynamics:
weak governance and citizen i nsecurity, and trans-national organised crime. It
explores the ir inter-linkages and e valuates c oping m echanisms. I t i dentifies the
most likely future security scenarios in the region and s uggests a num ber of ways
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
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in w hich r egional insecurity m ight be a ddressed m ore effectively. T hese i nclude
strengthening the rule of law and judicial systems, and for important regional
actors including the US and the OAS to work in a more effective manner. However,
the development of a common security agenda remains an elusive goal.
More documents covering security sector reform throughout Latin America and the
Caribbean can be found online in the GFN-SSR Document Library.
Caribbean
Haiti
Haiti was struck by a magnitude seven earthquake in January 2010 that left over
200,000 d ead. S ecurity thre ats had be en e merging p rior to t he di saster b ut any
existing challenges have been amplified.
Haiti is an exceptional case in the region in many ways: it is the poorest country in
the we stern he misphere; i t i s an e xtremely we ak s tate; i t c urrently ho sts an
international UN peacekeeping mission (MINUSTAH); and the international
community plays a major role in all areas of politics, economics and security,
including in SSR.
Haiti’s security threats include high levels of violence, drugs trafficking and the easy
availability o f s mall arm s and l ight we apons ( SALW), e xacerbated by i ts po rous
borders. Consequently, in 2007 the UN Security Council broadened the mandate of
MINUSTAH to i nclude the p revention o f traf ficking and improved b order s ecurity.
Since 1995 H aiti has not had its own armed f orces and hence reform has f ocused
on the police, judicial and penal sectors. Initial reform efforts after the first UN
intervention in 1994 formed part o f the international community’s first attempts at
SSR. Programmes to reform and strengthen the Haitian National Police (HNP) have
achieved visible results, however justice reform has stalled.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
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SSR: General
The Centre for International Governance Innovation, 2010, Security S ector
Reform Monitor: Haiti, No. 4, The Centre for International Governance Innovation
(CIGI), Waterloo, Ontario
What are Haiti's security challenges and SSR priorities following the 2010
earthquake? This report finds that – with infrastructure devastated and the police
acting as relief facilitators – some SSR priorities will change dramatically, yet many
existing challenges will be amplified. Justice reform is lagging behind police and
prison re form, d onor c oordination i n S SR i s s till lacking, and m ost H aitians want
their country to have a s econd arm ed force. Inequitable de velopment is a k ey
security risk, and state-building must be prioritised as the only enduring solution to
poverty, insecurity and instability.
International Crisis Group, 2010, Haiti: Stabilisation an d Reconstruction After
the Q uake, L atin A merica/Caribbean R eport N o. 3 2, I nternational C risis Gro up,
Port-au-Prince/Bogotá/Brussels
What are the challenges of and priorities for establishing post-disaster security and
stability in Haiti? This paper finds that historical institutional and governance
weaknesses and deep poverty compound Haiti's humanitarian crisis. An integrated,
long-term re construction s trategy is ne eded, bas ed o n a very bro ad po litical and
social c onsensus. I t is important to re sume and c omplete po lice re form and to
prioritise p reventive ov er f orceful m easures t o c ontrol p otential s ocial u nrest.
Crucial factors will be the level of consensus reached on reconstruction between the
government and the d ifferent s ectors of H aitian s ociety and m ore e fficient
cooperation from the international community.
International Crisis Group, 2008, Reforming Haiti’s Security Sector, Latin
America/Caribbean Report N°28, 18 September 2008, International Crisis Group,
Port-au-Prince/Brussels
The violent A pril 2 008 pro tests aga inst the hi gh c ost o f living unde rscored th e
continued f ragility o f H aiti's s ecurity s ituation and the ne ed f or rapi d p rogress i n
security sector reform (SSR). This International Crisis Group report examines Haiti's
security sector and argues that stability lies in expediting and concluding reforms to
the po lice and j ustice s ector, and improving c ross-border c ooperation wi th it
neighbours. These challenges are all the more urgent, as they come at a time when
Haiti is struggling with severe hurricane devastation.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
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Mendelson-Forman, J., 2006, Security S ector R eform i n H aiti, International
Peacekeeping, vol.13, no.1 pp.14-27
Despite multilateral attempts in the 1990s to institute security sector reform (SSR)
in H aiti, l ack o f e lite s upport, i nsufficient j udicial s ector c apacity and pe rsistent
corruption has led to the current resurgence of violence. This study, published by
International Peacekeeping, examines recent international interventions to institute
SSR in H aiti. N ational d ialogue w ith local elites a nd lo ng-term do nor i nvolvement
are necessary to ensure that justice, security, development and governance sectors
are developed simultaneously to prevent the country from becoming a failed state.
Mobekk, E., 2008, MINUSTAH and the Need for a Context-Specific Strategy:
The Case o f H aiti, in Security Sector Reform and UN Integrated Missions, eds.
Hanggi, H & Scherrer, V (eds.), DCAF, Geneva, pp.113-168
How can Security Sector Reform (SSR) in Haiti be improved? This book chapter
from the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF)
assesses the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), deployed in
2004. SSR is crucial to Haiti's stability and security, and while MINUSTAH's success
in SSR has been limited, UN agencies have a key role to play. Areas for
improvement include coordination and evaluation. Basic stability, government
willingness and local ownership are essential for SSR in Haiti.
Policing and public security
Meharg, S. and Arnusch, A., 2010, Haiti: Police and Law Enforcement, Strategic
Studies Institute, Carlisle, PA, pp.73-96
This document outlines the context-specific approaches to Security Sector Reform
(SSR) in Haiti. It forms part of a larger report by the United States Strategic
Studies Institute, which explores emergent principles for implementing SSR. In
2004 the U nited N ations implemented the U N S tabilisation M ission in H aiti
(MINUSTAH) to redress a cycle of international intervention and create a secure and
stable environment. However, despite this and robust SSR programming in support
of the rule of law, Haiti remains a failed state facing numerous challenges.
Justice Reform
Action Aid, 2006, MINUSTAH: DDR and Police, Judicial and Correctional
Reform in Haiti, Action Aid, Port-au-Prince
How can the Haitian government and international community reduce violence and
promote sustainable reform in Haiti? This paper, by Action Aid, analyses the current
situation in H aiti and m akes re commendations f or c hanges to the U nited N ations
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
14
Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), based on what is feasible and can be
realistically
implemented
in
the
existing
circumstances.
Disarmament,
demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) and rule of law are critical to ensure
sustainable peace; therefore MINUSTAH and the new Haitian government must
renew their focus on these priorities.
International Crisis Group, 2007, Haiti: Justice Reform and the Security Crisis
Latin America/Caribbean Briefing N°14, 31 January 2007, International Crisis
Group, Port-au-Prince/Brussels
What are the challenges facing justice reform in Haiti? What lessons have been
learned from the failed interventions of the 1990s? This policy briefing from the
International Crisis Group examines Haiti's justice system, efforts at reform and the
security crisis. It argues that Haitians and international donors need to review past
failures and devise, fund and implement a comprehensive rule-of-law strategy.
Building a sustainable criminal justice system will require both short-term actions to
address the current crisis and longer-term institution-building.
International Crisis Group, 2007, Haiti: Prison Reform and the Rule of Law,
Latin A merica/Caribbean B riefing N °15, 4 M ay 2 007, I nternational C risis Gro up,
Port-au-Prince/Brussels
What risk does prison overcrowding, understaffing and insecurity pose for wider
security and j ustice s ector r eform e fforts i n H aiti? T his po licy bri efing f rom the
International Crisis Group examines the problems facing the Haitian prison system.
It argues that e xtreme prison overcrowding threatens Haiti's security and stability.
The m ost urg ent ne ed i s to re lieve e xisting pr isons by using o ther s pace
temporarily, while supporting the detention commission in accelerating treatment of
pre-trial cases. These measures must be accompanied by construction to meet
prison requirements for a generation.
Small Arms and Light Weapons
Control A rms, 2 006, The C all f or Tough A rms Controls: Voices f rom H aiti,
Control Arms Campaign, Amnesty International, the International Action Network
on Small Arms, and Oxfam International.
What impact has irresponsible arms sales had on people’s lives in Haiti? How have
groups that c ommit hum an ri ghts v iolations be en abl e to obtain we apons? T his
report from the Control Arms campaign examines the supply of arms to Haiti and
its effect on individuals and communities. It argues that irresponsible arms
transfers are f uelling atro cities in H aiti. G overnments m ust tak e re sponsibility f or
the supply of arms, by agreeing a new international arms trade treaty.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
15
GFN-SSR resources
More documents covering security sector reform in Haiti can be found online in the
GFN-SSR Document Library.
The Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) also has
a num ber o f re lated re sources f or Haiti in the the matic are as o f j ustice, f ragile
states and conflict.
Documents:
• Justice related documents on Haiti
• Fragile states related documents on Haiti
• Conflict related documents on Haiti
Jamaica
Jamaica has b een br oadly politically stable since independence i n 1962 b ut h as
serious economic and social problems. The country is blighted by one of the highest
levels of crime and violence in the world, caused both by criminals and through
legitimate and e xtra-judicial killings by the security services themselves, according
to reports by leading NGOs. Jamaica is a key point in the transit and trade of drugs
and weapons, which further fuels the cycle of violence and poverty.
The Jamaican Constabulary Force (JCF) has been associated with extra-judicial
killings, c orruption a nd hav e b een c riticised f or c ontributing to s ecurity p roblems
and acting with impunity. The country’s inability to address the problems caused by
crime is perpetuated by an overloaded and inefficient justice system, which in turn
stifles efforts to improve dire penal conditions.
Reforms are underway, including the JCF strategic review and the Justice System
Reform Task Force recommendations, as well as community safety programmes.
However, i nitial implementation o f j ustice re form has be en s low and i nternal
resistance against reform has been exploited by political groups.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
16
SSR: General
Government of Jamaica, 2007, National Security Policy for Jamaica: Towards
a Secure and Prosperous Nation, Government of Jamaica, Kingston
What s trategies i s th e Go vernment o f J amaica p lanning to i mplement in o rder to
establish a safe and secure environment? The Jamaican Government’s National
Security Policy sets out an agenda for a prosperous, democratic, peaceful and
dynamic society, which upholds the fulfillment of human rights and builds social
progress based on shared values and principles of partnership. It argues that for all
Jamaicans to enjoy a better quality of life and realise their full potential, everyone
must become involved.
Justice Reform
Foglesong, T and Stone, C., 2007, Measuring the Contribution of Criminal
Justice Systems to the Control of Crime and Violence: Lessons from
Jamaica and the Dominican Republic, Harvard Kennedy School of Government,
RWP07-019, April 2007
What impact have reforms in the criminal justice system had on crime and violence
in the Dominican Republic and Jamaica? This working paper from the Harvard
Kennedy School of Government shows how the governments of the Dominican
Republic and J amaica c urrently m easure t he pe rformance o f the ir c riminal j ustice
systems and as sess their impact o n c rime and v iolence. T he pape r arg ues that
justice and safety in both countries would benefit from better coordination among
institutions, including introducing information systems capable of tracking systemwide p erformance. F urthermore, b oth go vernments m ight m ore e xplicitly link the
work o f c riminal j ustice s ystems to a b roader, m ulti-sector s trategy o f c rime an d
violence prevention.
JJSR Task Force, 2007, Jamaican J ustice S ystem R eform T ask F orce: F inal
Report, Government of Jamaica, Kingston
What are the problems with the Jamaican justice system? What is the future vision
for the system, and what reforms can enable this vision to be realised? This report
followed a 1 0-month l ong i nvestigation i nto the Jamaican j ustice s ystem by a
government appointed task force, composed of members of the justice system, the
government, and representatives of civil society with advice from the Canadian Bar
Association. It briefly considers the current state of Jamaican justice and pro blems
including d elays and po or i nfrastructure, as we ll as s trengths s uch as ge neral
confidence i n the j udiciary. T he m ajority o f the re port l ooks at the re forms
necessary to ac hieve the n ew ‘ vision s tatement’ of f airer and m ore a ccountable
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
17
justice. R ecommendations range f rom improving p re-trial de tention f acilities to
initiating a public legal education strategy.
Policing and public security
Amnesty I nternational, 2 009, Public S ecurity R eforms and H uman R ights in
Jamaica, Amnesty International Publishing, London
What progress has been made in improving public security in Jamaica and
upholding h uman rights? H ow c an t he r emaining c hallenges b e addressed? T his
report identifies key security concerns as: state failure to provide protection;
killings by police; and lack of police accountability. The government has embarked
on reform processes reform that, if correctly and fully implemented, could remove
many of the factors contributing to Jamaica's public security crisis. Some (slow)
progress has been made in reforming Jamaica's pub lic security institutions, but so
far little improvement i n s ecurity h as b een s een i n de prived i nner-city are as.
Significant po litical will is re quired to overcome o bstacles to re form s uch as
institutional resistance.
Amnesty I nternational, 2 008, “Let Them Kill E ach O ther”: P ublic S ecurity i n
Jamaica’s Inner Cities, Amnesty International, London
What are the k ey c auses of the i ncrease in v iolence ac ross J amaican c ities? H ow
has the state attempted to tackle this problem in areas of social exclusion? What is
role of the security forces in fuelling the violence? This report by Amnesty
International argue s that the re i s a p ublic s ecurity c risis in J amaica and that
security institutions are failing to ensure the human security of Jamaican citizens.
Human r ights’ v iolations by the po lice are c ommonplace and t he l ack o f e ffective
oversight m echanisms m eans that po lice c an and do ac t w ith impunity. T he
situation is particularly bad for the poorest residents of inner cities who face a daily
threat from both gangs and the police. Amnesty’s principal recommendation is that
the J amaican g overnment c reate a c omprehensive publ ic s ecurity pl an f or th e
protection of human rights. It should include a crackdown on corruption, reforms to
create a m ore responsive and ac countable police force, and a reduction in the use
of excessive force by the police. There needs to be greater regional cooperation in
the f ield o f pub lic s ecurity, and increased i nternational as sistance to J amaica i s
essential.
GFN-SSR resources
More documents covering security sector reform in Jamaica can be found online in
the GFN-SSR Document Library.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
18
The Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) also has
a number of related resources for Jamaica in the thematic areas of justice and
conflict.
Documents:
• Justice related documents on Jamaica
• Conflict related documents on Jamaica
Central America
Costa Rica
Costa Rica has the longest democratic history in Central America and has had one
of the m ost s table p olitical s ystems in th e re gion. I t was the first c ountry in the
world to formally abolish its national army, the formation of which was forbidden in
its 1 949 c onstitution. T he judiciary is i ndependent f rom the l egislature and
executive, but lengthy pre-trial detention is commonplace in prisons that need
substantial investment. Despite these positive features, however, the perception of
public insecurity w ithin the c ountry’s bo rders i s a m ajor concern. T his s ense of
insecurity combined with abuses by the police force has led to a series of reforms of
the internal security sectors.
Policing
Eijkman, Q , 2 006, ‘Around H ere I A m t he L aw!’ S trengthening P olice
Officers’ Compliance w ith the Rule of Law in Costa R ica, Paper Presented at
the C onference P olice H uman R ights S trategies, U niversity o f U trecht, 7 -8 A pril
2006
Has the i mplementation o f po lice legal training and po lice legal as sistance led to
improved police officer compliance with the rule of law in Costa Rica? What factors
influence the effectiveness of police human rights strategies (PHRS)? This article
examines the implementation of PHRS in Costa Rica and their effect on police
compliance with the rule of law. It finds that police legal training and police legal
assistance have strengthened police officer compliance with the rule of law. The
most important factors in ensuring compliance, however, are sustained sociopolitical c ommitment and institutional support f rom k ey ac tors at police s tation
level. Recommendations include more concerted institution-wide support of reform,
shaping human rights’ strategies to the demands of daily policing, and updating
training.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
19
GFN-SSR resources
More documents covering security sector reform in Costa Rica can be found online
in the GFN-SSR Document Library.
Guatemala
Guatemala was home to one of the many proxy conflicts fought throughout the
world during the Cold War. The civil war that began in 1960 ended in 1996 and the
peace accord of the same year established a blueprint for SSR, recognising the role
of the security forces in exacerbating the civil war. However, a referendum on the
constitutional reform that included elements of SSR was defeated. While some
reform has tak en pl ace, the m ilitary c ontinues to p lay an i mportant ro le in
Guatemalan society.
Since 1996 several democratic elections have taken place but t he legacy of war is
evident in a lack of transitional justice and the persistence of impunity. Guatemala
is one of the poorest and most violent countries in Latin America (if not the world),
with high rates of homicide a consequence of criminal gangs, widespread drugs
trafficking and easy access to small arms.
Criminal justice institutions are weak, corrupted, and often the source of much of
the violence they are supposed to be preventing. As a result – and as often seen in
Latin American countries – private security guards outnumber police officers. There
has been a rise of clandestine groups, many of which are directed by ex-senior
military officers and politicians. Furthermore, the country has experienced a
proliferation o f M exican gang s an d c riminal o rganisations that traf fic i llegal d rugs
and adopted babies. Consequently, it is the poor and m ost vulnerable who receive
the least protection, though politicians are not immune from violence.
SSR: General
Arévalo de León, B., 2007, Guatemala Case Study: Inter-Sectoral Dialogue on
SSR, in No O wnership, No C ommitment: A G uide t o L ocal O wnership of S ecurity
Sector Reform, ed. L. Nathan, GFN-SSR, Birmingham UK, pp. 68-77
What ro le did c ivil society p lay in military reform in Guatemala? What lessons can
be l earnt f rom the ir involvement? T his c ase s tudy i s o ne o f s everal in a gu ide to
local ownership of security sector reform. In Guatemala, a ‘research-based
dialogue’ w as c rucial i n o vercoming re sistance to S SR and i n f acilitating o fficial
acceptance o f c ivil s ociety i nvolvement i n the re form pro cess. T his i nvolved the
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
20
establishment o f a neutral s pace f or di alogue and m eetings rathe r than m ore
confrontational po litical n egotiations. M eetings i nvolved military l eaders,
government i nstitutions and s ignificant input f rom c ivil s ociety. T his s tudy ar gues
that generating a Guatemalan identity for SSR led to progress that might not have
occurred with predominantly foreign input.
Bonn International Centre for Conversion (BICC), 2005, Security Sector Reform
in Guatemala, BICC, Bonn
This short briefing provides an overview of SSR in Guatemala up until 2005. It
summarises the developments in all areas of reform including defence, penal, police
and j udicial re form, as we ll as no n-state s ecurity ac tors and p arliamentary
oversight of security forces.
International C risis Group, 2 010, Guatemala: S queezed b etween Crime a nd
Impunity, Latin America Report No. 33, International Crisis Group, Washington,
D.C.
The 1996 peace accords formally ended Guatemala's civil war, but failure to
address the conflict's root causes and to dismantle clandestine security apparatus
has we akened i ts institutions and o pened the do or to s kyrocketing violent c rime.
The UN-sanctioned International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala
(CICIG) has made some progress in addressing high-level corruption, but in June
2010 its d irector resigned, s aying the go vernment had no t kept i ts pro mise to
support CICIG's work and reform the justice system. The President needs to
consolidate recent gains with institutional reform, anti-corruption measures, vetting
mechanisms and a more inclusive political approach, including to indigenous
peoples. Reform of the police and military as well as the corrections and justice
systems are among the priorities
Civil Society
Pearce, J ., 2 007, Violence, Po wer a nd Par ticipation: B uilding C itizenship i n
Contexts of Chronic Violence, IDS Working Paper 274, Institute of Development
Studies, Sussex
Can civil society organisations play a role in building citizenship and confronting
violent actors and acts of violence? This Institute of Development Studies Working
Paper argues that they can, and explores civil society participation in Colombia and
Guatemala. Building citizenship in chronic violence contexts requires simultaneous
attention to citizenship and to violence, and it is also important to clarify the
relationship between power and violence.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
21
Defence Reform
Areválo d e L eón,B., 2 006, Civil-Military R elations in Po st-Conflict in
Guatemala, Revista Fuerzas Armadas y Sociedad,vol. 20, no.1, pp.63-108.
How did the Guatemalan security architecture effect a transformation from
militarisation to focus on public security? The political history of Guatemala is
almost e xclusively o ne o f autho ritarianism and he nce the s hift to de mocracy has
required a wholesale change in its politics, culture and society. The paper analyses
this s hift in the wa ke o f the 1 996 peace ac cords. A P art-Agreement wi thin the
accords sought to create a democratic framework in which the military and other
security services would operate in order to transform the governance of the security
sector. De spite s ome adv ances i n c ivil-military c ooperation and unde rstanding,
weaknesses remain including an incomplete regulatory framework for the military
and insufficient o versight, wh ile the N ational C ivilian P olice i s in ne ed o f
strengthening to become fully independent from the armed forces. Politicians need
to be resolute in their approach to military reform, and civil society needs to
become further involved in the national debate beyond advocating change – for
example through providing technical assistance for the state.
Intelligence Reform
Washington Office on Latin America, 2005, A Long Road: Progress and
Challenges in Guatemala's Intelligence Reform, WOLA, Washington DC
What re forms hav e t aken pl ace i n Guate malan intelligence s ince the 1 996 p eace
accords? H ow successful have the reforms been in achieving their aims of a more
accountable and d emocratic agency that do es not threaten the human rights of its
citizens? This paper by the Washington Office on Latin America assesses the
Guatemalan intelligence system and the reforms that have taken place between
1996 and 2 005. T he i ntelligence s ystem was re sponsible f or the de aths and
disappearances of at least 200,000 Guatemalan citizens during more than 35 years
of c onflict. T he 1 996 P eace A ccords atte mpted to trans form the o ld intelligence
apparatus w ithin a n ew f ramework o f d emocratic s ecurity but a c lear and we lldefined state policy for the sector is lacking. The paper calls for a number of
changes including structural reorganisation and the development of new systems of
democratic control and oversight.
Justice Reform
Samset, I ., Pe tersen S . a nd W ang, V ., 2 007, Maintaining t he Pr ocess? A id t o
Transitional J ustice in R wanda an d G uatemala, 1 995-2005, W orking Gro up
on Development and Peace (FriEnt), Bonn
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
22
How does aid to transitional justice work? What are the patterns, types and causes
of such aid? Little is known about the dynamics of external economic assistance to
national transitional justice (TJ) efforts. This paper examines the aid for transitional
justice mechanisms that was given to Rwanda and Guate mala from 1995 to 2005,
to assist two countries that were "post-conflict", in a process of transition from a
past p eriod o f m assive arm ed v iolence. Le ssons can be d rawn b oth o n th e
sustainability o f the trans itional j ustice p rocesses, and o n the complementarity o f
funding in t his field. For instance, donors s hould try to m aintain the b alance
between promoting local ownership of transitional justice and promoting the overall
aims of transitional justice while security sector reform should not overwhelm other
transitional justice mechanisms.
Policing
Scheye, E., 2005, Reflections o n Community B ased Po licing O perations i n
Guatemala, United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
What are the current capabilities of the Guatemalan National Civilian Police (PNC)
and the M inistry o f Go vernance with re gard to c ommunity-based po licing? H ow
effective has international policing assistance to Guatemala been? This report from
USAID e xamines community-based p olicing pro gramming in Guatemala. I t f inds
that eight years of international police assistance has failed to strengthen
appreciably the sustainable policing capacities of the Ministry or the PNC.
More documents covering security sector reform in Guatemala can be found online
in the GFN-SSR Document Library.
GFN-SSR resources
More documents covering security sector reform in Guatemala can be found online
in the GFN-SSR Document Library.
The Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) also has
a number of related resources for Guatemala in the thematic areas of justice,
fragile states and conflict.
Documents:
• Justice related documents on Guatemala
• Fragile states related documents on Guatemala
• Conflict related documents on Guatemala
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
23
Mexico
Mexico has seen a dramatic rise in violence over recent years and this has had a
major impact on both security and security sector reform. T he violence associated
with warr ing drug s c artels an d the inability o f the c ountry’s p olice f orces to d eal
effectively with it is so serious that te ns of thousands of soldiers were deployed to
the worst-hit areas of Mexico in 2007. The rise in violence along the United States’
Southern border prompted the US President to request billions of dollars in funding
for equipment and training to support the Mexican armed forces and national police
institutions thro ugh P lan M erida. T his p lan, ho wever, c aused c onsiderable
controversy in both countries as a result of its focus on a military solution.
While the military is in need of assistance, the police are also in need of reform to
improve the ir ab ility to tac kle the c ountry’s i nternal s ecurity threats and ro ot o ut
widespread corruption and human rights abuses. A holistic approach incorporating
all security sectors is essential.
Bribery is rife throughout the judicial system while prison conditions are extremely
poor and fail in their roles as both a deterrent and a centre for rehabilitation. Efforts
to re form th e j udicial s ector be tween 2 000 and 2 006 failed to wi n C ongressional
approval but the y t riggered a nati onal debate and s ignaled f ederal ap proval f or
states to i mplement reform at a s ub-national level. T his s ubsequently led to the
approval of a package of legislative and constitutional reforms in 2008, which
covers v irtually a ll aspects o f the j udicial s ector, i ncluding the p olice, pub lic
defenders, the courts and the penal system.
SSR: General
Washington Office on Latin America, 2008, The M erida I nitiative an d C itizen
Security in Mexico and Central America, WOLA, Washington
What wi ll be the i mpact o f the U S’s Merida initiative o n s ecurity in M exico and
Central America? Are resources being directed in the most effective way? This
memo addresses the proposed US-Central American counter-narcotics package. It
notes that i n theory the Merida initiative may have the potential to improve public
security. However, the paper argues that in its present form the initiative focuses
on the armed forces and on operational law-enforcement issues such as equipment,
while neglecting longer-term institutional justice and police reform that would have
a much greater impact on improving human security. Moreover, the initiative lacks
accountability o r o versight m echanisms that are c rucial in a c ountry whe re
corruption is so endemic. The Merida plan alone will not reduce the flow of drugs
into the US and should not be judged on that basis. The initiative should instead be
judged by its e ffects o n p ublic s ecurity a nd c ivilian s ecurity institutions in M exico
and Central America.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
24
Defence Reform
Diez, J. and Nicholls, I., 2006, The Mexican Armed Forces in Transition,
Strategic Studies Institute of the US Army War College, Pennsylvania
Despite pas t p roblems, the M exican arm ed f orces hav e m ade s ignificant p rogress
towards becoming professional institutions. This study, from Queens University,
examines the history and structure of the Mexican armed forces and suggests areas
of possible military cooperation between Canada and Mexico. It looks at the process
of political change and the effects this has had on civil-military relations. The armed
forces are well-trained and dynamic organisations that are respected by Mexicans
and, although they could liberalise further, they are adapting well to democratic
change.
Justice Reform
Human Rights Watch, 2008, Mexico’s National Human Rights Commission: A
Critical Assessment, Human Rights Watch, New York
Mexico’s official human r ights organ, Comision Na cional de los Derechos Humanos
(CNDH), i s f ailing to pro mote reforms t o i mprove M exico’s di smal hum an r ights
record. What has gone wrong? This research, by Human Rights Watch, argues that
the C NDH c ould p lay a f ar m ore ac tive ro le b ut i t has b een limited by i ts o wn
policies and prac tices. F or s uch an i nstitution to be a c atalyst for c hange, rathe r
than a chronicler of the status quo, it must be proactive and persistent in promoting
solutions.
Shirk, D. A ., 2010, Justice Reform in Mexico: Change and Challenges in t he
Judicial Sector, Working Paper, Mexico Institute, Woodrow Wilson International
Center for Scholars and Trans-Border Institute, University of San Diego
What judicial reforms is Mexico embarking on? What must happen to create a more
democratic rule of law for the country by 2016? This paper explains Mexico’s justice
sector c hallenges an d pro posed re forms. M exico i s c urrently s uffering a pub lic
security crisis. In 2008 Congress app roved reforms that touch v irtually all as pects
of the judicial sector. Reform will require time, resources and effort, and will involve
a great deal of trial and error.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
25
Policing and public security
Müller, M., 2010, Community Policing in Latin America: Lessons from Mexico
City, European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 88, pp. 21-37
Does c ommunity po licing wo rk in Lat in A merica? W hat c an be l earned f rom
experiences o f community po licing in Mexico C ity? T his p aper anal yses the
experiences o f c ommunity po licing in M exico C ity s ince 2 006, and c ritiques the
theory and prac tice o f the ap proach applied to Lat in A merican c ountries.
Community policing is widely promoted as beneficial to urban law and order
through improved c itizen-police relations and c ooperation. H owever, e xperiences
from the Policia de Barrio programme in Mexico City show that clientelism, police
corruption and political factionalism make community policing a symbolic exercise
that does not genuinely improve public security.
Related Documents
Meyer, M., et al., 2007, At a Crossroads: Drug Trafficking, Violence and the
Mexican State, WOLA & Beckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme, Washington
DC
How can drug trafficking between the US and Mexico be reduced? This Washington
Office of Latin America and Beckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme brief
examines current and past drug policies implemented by the Mexican g overnment
and argue s that go vernment re sponses d ominated by law e nforcement and
militarisation do little to address the issue in the long-term. The most effective way
to address drug trafficking is through increased efforts to curb demand for illicit
drugs in the United States and Mexico.
More documents covering security sector reform in Mexico can be found online in
the GFN-SSR Document Library.
GFN-SSR resources
More documents covering security sector reform in Mexico can be found online in
the GFN-SSR Document Library.
The Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) also has
a number of related resources for Mexico in the thematic area of justice
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
26
Southern America
Argentina
Argentina has experienced military dictatorship an d an e conomic collapse in 2001.
Severe economic difficulties left a large portion of the population in poverty and
triggered unrest leading to escalating crime rates.
The police in Argentina are associated with excessive violence and the repression of
protest whilst police criminality has emerged as a serious security problem and a
threat to democracy. Police institutions are further hamstrung by significant
financial and organisational weaknesses including low wages, an overly hierarchical
command structure, and excessively militarised training.
Past reform proposals in Argentina have involved: encouraging the police to defend
individuals rather tha n go vernments; re ducing the po wer o f go vernors re lative to
mayors and civil society groups; and challenging the police's role in criminal
investigations. T hese pro posals hav e s ought to addre ss l ong-standing f eatures o f
Argentina's policing structure
The literature suggests that Argentina is experiencing crisis of public security, a
consequence of which has been the proliferation of private security agents in urban
areas such as Buenos Aires.
Policing and public security
Bonner, M. D., 2009, State Discourses, Police Violence and D emocratisation
in Argentina, Bulletin of Latin American Research, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 227-245
Do go vernment s tatements af fect the i nstitutionalisation o f democratic po licing
practices? This article examines newspaper coverage of three major incidents of
police v iolence i n A rgentina, f inding that s tate ac tors ad opt di ffering po sitions
towards this use o f force in their reported p ublic statements. Government officials
oscillate be tween de nying the o ccurrence o f po lice v iolence, j ustifying s uch po lice
action and absolving themselves of responsibility. This inconsistency contributes to
the persistence of police violence. While institutional reforms aimed at changing
police practice are important, in addition state actors must maintain a clear and
relatively consistent discourse in favour of democratic policing. State discourses can
affect policy outcomes by holding police verbally accountable to minimum standards
of democratic policing.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
27
Eaton, K., 2008, Paradoxes of Police Reform: Federalism, Parties, and Civil
Society in Argentina's Public Security Crisis, Latin American Research Review,
vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 5-32
Why is police reform in Argentina so difficult? This article examines three obstacles
to police reform: 1) federal institutions that magnify the effects of disputes over the
police among national, provincial, and municipal government; 2) illicit benefits for
political parties from unreformed police forces; and 3) deep ideological divisions
within civil society over the appropriate policy response to increasing levels of
crime. Each of these obstacles has generated an important, yet distinct, paradox.
Efforts to improve police institutions must be intensified, but wi th a m ore accurate
and detailed understanding of the paradoxes to be overcome.
GFN-SSR resources
More documents covering security sector reform in Argentina can be found online in
the GFN-SSR Document Library.
The Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) also has
a num ber o f r elated re sources f or Argentina in the the matic are as o f j ustice and
conflict.
Documents:
• Justice related documents on Argentina
• Conflict related documents on Argentina
Helpdesk reports:
• Argentine F inancial Crisis ( 2001-2002): P lease i dentify literature o n the s ocial
impacts of the financial crisis in Argentina (2001-2002) with particular attention
to the c auses o f s ocial unre st ( including u nemployment). P lease include
information on the policy responses implemented.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
28
Brazil
Brazil is the continent’s economic and military power. However, the country itself is
blighted by e xtremely hi gh levels o f i nsecurity am id o ne o f t he hi ghest ho micide
rates in the world. Police violence and human rights abuses’ are part of everyday
life as the country struggles to deal with the proliferation of organised crime, drugs
trafficking and small arms and light weapons. Informal militias, funded by the
profits of the drugs trade, control many of the favelas (shantytowns) in and around
Brazil’s cities.
The country is in urgent need of police reform to improve internal security but this
in itself will be insufficient while the prison system suffers from chronic
overcrowding and v iolence i s r ife. Brazil's po lice f orces are unequipped, b adly
trained, unde rpaid a nd f requently c orrupt. V iolence is e scalating in B razil's m ajor
urban c entres and th ere i s an i ncreasing loss o f p opular and f ederal go vernment
trust in state police forces.
SSR: General
BICC, 2 005, Security S ector Reform i n Br azil, B onn I nternational C entre f or
Conversion, Bonn
This short briefing provides an overview of SSR in Brazil up until 2005. While a few
years o ld, it s ummarises the de velopments i n a ll are as o f S SR i ncluding de fence,
penal, police and j udicial re form, as we ll as par liamentary o versight o f s ecurity
forces.
Public security and Policing
Amnesty International, 2007, Brazil: From Burning Buses to Caveirões’: the
Search f or H uman S ecurity, A mnesty, Lo ndon ( also av ailable in Spanish and
Portuguese)
How has the Brazilian government and its security forces responded to ongoing
violence and i nsecurity wi thin the c ountry? W hat c hanges are needed to i mprove
the effectiveness of t he police? T his report by Amnesty International was re leased
in response to a wave of criminal violence that affected Sao Paolo in May 2006 and
analyses both the events of that m onth and the state response to them. It argues
that the main problems include: poorly trained and under-resourced police forces;
poorer communities that have become lawless zones due to official neglect; and a
prison s ystem o n the b rink o f c ollapse. A mnesty re commends the introduction o f
human-rights based policing; a programme to prevent police killings; and wholesale
prison reform to ensure the security of both guards and prisoners.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
29
Leeds, E., 2007, Serving States and Serving Citizens: Halting Steps toward
Police Reform in Brazil and Implications for Donor Intervention, Policing and
Society, vol. 17, no.1, March 2007, pp. 21-37
What is the nature of the police reform that has taken place in Brazil? What effect
can donors have on reform programmes? This paper, looking at reforms between
1997 and 2003, argues that the police service has made the least progress of all
sectors of government and administration in reforming since the process of
democratisation began 20 years ago. Attempts at po lice reform have occurred but
are hi ndered by a lack of p olitical w ill and internal re sistance. D onors need to
increase the participation of civil society in order to ensure reforms continue as
political administrations change and gain police buy-in to make accountability
mechanisms more effective.
Macaulay, F., 2005, Problems of Police Oversight in Brazil, Working Paper CBS33-02, Centre for Brazilian Studies, University of Oxford
How effective is police oversight in Brazil? What are the strengths and we aknesses
of current institutional mechanisms for police control? This working paper from the
Centre for Brazilian Studies analyses the problem of subjecting the Brazilian police
to truly effective control and oversight. It argues that the current system has been
an a lmost c omplete f ailure in br inging about po lice ac countability in B razil. I t
recommends that the standards against which police performance and conduct are
measured become much clearer and more objective. Accountability should be
conceived o f in bro ader te rms, w ith o versight m echanisms more p ro-active in
reviewing police behaviour. Police reform should be carried out to eliminate
underlying structural problems, enabling the Ministério Público to use its autonomy,
resources and legal powers for police oversight.
Zaverucha, J., 2008, 'The G uaranteeing L aw and O rder Doctrine' a nd the
Increased Role of the Brazilian Army in Activities of Public Security, Nueva
Sociedad, no. 213
This pape r e xamines the increasing m ilitarisation of Brazilian public security. I t
argues that the development of democracy is constrained by politicised armed
forces and militarised police. Confusing security governance and institutional
arrangements and the involvement of the army in policing constrain the
development of democracy.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
30
Related Documents
De Carvalho, I. and Corrêa, R., 2007, Brazilian Pe rspectives o n H uman
Security, Policy: Issues and Actors, vol. 20, no. 8, Centre for Policy Studies,
Johannesburg
How c an the c oncept o f hum an s ecurity be us ed as a prac tical de vice to ad dress
armed violence? This paper from the Centre for Policy Studies presents the example
of Brazilian non-governmental organisation Viva Rio that uses the human security
concept as a to ol to f ormulate po licies and e xecute pro jects on the gro und. V iva
Rio’s work includes: the development of strategies to reduce the supply and
demand o f s mall ar ms and light we apons and to increase po lice tra ining and
reform, income generation and education programmes; research, design and
implementation of specific programmes to overcome armed violence and social
exclusion; and i ntegrating s ecurity, hu man ri ghts and de velopment goals in
collaboration w ith local and re gional pa rtners as a l ong-term s olution to arm ed
violence. The human security concept can be a powerful point of departureto orient
governments, international and regional organisations and NGOs towards initiatives
that increase personal safety.
GFN-SSR resources
More documents covering security sector reform in Brazil can be found online in the
GFN-SSR Document Library.
The Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) also has
a number of related resources for Brazil in the thematic area of justice,
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
31
Chile
Chile is on e of t he m ost d eveloped c ountries i n t he A mericas a nd h as on e of t he
most stable political and economic systems. Yet for 17 years it was ruled by military
dictator General Augusto Pinochet following a coup in 1973. Pinochet’s rule was
characterised by severe human rights’ abuses; the Chilean Truth and Reconciliation
Commission reported that over 3,000 people were killed or went missing up until
Pinochet left office in 1990. The legacy of Pinochet continues to impact Chilean
society and politics, but reform of the criminal justice system in Chile has been
more successful than elsewhere in the continent, and courts are generally free from
political interference. However, less reform has taken place in the security sector,
including the military justice system. Moreover, though constitutionally subordinate
to the e xecutive, the m ilitary e njoys a l arge d egree o f autonomy, and i s
strengthened by high copper prices through a law that directs 10 per cent of copper
revenues into the military’s budget.
SSR: General
Fuentes, C., 2002, Resisting Change: Security Sector Reform in Chile, Conflict
Security and Development, vol. 2, no. 1 April 2002, pp. 121 - 131
What e ffect has the end o f military rule had on the security sectors in C hile? How
responsive have the armed forces, in particular, been to change? Despite the fact
that Chile entered a new democratic era almost two decades ago, security sector
reform (SSR) still faces enormous institutional and po litical resistance. This report,
published by Conflict, Security and Development, examines the cautious steps that
Chile’s c urrent go verning c oalition is ta king to i nstitute S SR. E ven i n h ighly
restricted political and institutional environments, civilians can lead SSR initiatives
when they have political support and the technical capacity to do so.
Intelligence Reform
Weeks, G., 2004, The Military and Intelligence Reform in Chile, Revista
Fuerzas Armadas y Sociedad’, vol.18, no.3-4, pp.253-263
How can intelligence reform assist in asserting civilian supremacy over the military?
This article, published in the journal Revista Fuerzas Armadas y Sociedad, argues
that the work of three successive Chilean governments has had only limited success
in expanding civilian authority over intelligence. A new model for understanding the
dynamics of intelligence reform is offered, involving the number of institutions
involved, presidential control and civilian oversight.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
32
Justice Reform
Fensom, M , 2006, Judicial R eform, M ilitary J ustice, a nd t he C ase o f Chile’s
Carabineros, P repared f or de livery at th e 2 006 M eeting o f the Lati n A merican
Studies Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico, March 15-18, 2006
What was the i mpact o f P inochet’s m ilitary re gime o n C hile’s j udicial s ystem and
what legacy did it leave behind? How did social change affect clamour for judicial
reform? Has the role of Chile’s Carabineros (police) transformed in the wake of
democratic government? Since the country’s return to democracy in 1990, Chile
has implemented a broad programme of judicial reform. However, this University of
Florida paper argues that Chilean judicial transformation is incomplete with reforms
not addressing military jurisdiction over the country’s police, the Carabineros.
Under the c urrent arrangement, C hilean s ecurity f orces c ontinue to ac t wi th
impunity at the expense of citizen security, not as effective guardians of it.
Pereira, S . and Z averucha, J , 2 005, The Neglected S tepchild: M ilitary J ustice
and Democratic Transition in Chile, Social Justice, vol. 32, no.2, pp.115-131
Can judicial reform in Chile be judged a success without considering the state of the
military justice system? What distinguishes the armed forces’ system from other
mechanisms? T he military j udicial s ystem re quires parti cular ana lysis whe n
considering t he ov erall ef fectiveness of j udicial r eform in C hile m ore s o than i n
other countries. This paper looks at the role that m ilitary justice plays in Chile and
argues that the armed forces system is focused on the protection of the armed
forces’ i nterests and c ontrary to n ormal j udicial p rinciples s uch as the e qual
treatment o f c itizens be fore the l aw. T he autho rs c onclude that the re i s l ittle
political incentive to implement changes.
GFN-SSR resources
More documents covering security sector reform in Chile can be found online in the
GFN-SSR Document Library.
The Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) also has
a number of related resources for Chile in the thematic areas of justice and conflict.
Documents:
• Justice related documents on Chile
• Conflict related documents on Chile
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
33
Colombia
Colombia is the only country in South America that currently experiences an active
civil conflict. During recent years the internal security situation has improved
dramatically but in t he s econd hal f o f th e 2 0th c entury C olombia was o ne o f the
most violent countries in the world. Over the past 50 years the conflict has involved
a number of different actors including left-wing rebel groups, right-wing
paramilitary o rganisations, c riminal ga ngs and s tate s ecurity f orces. T he
paramilitary gro ups initially gre w as a re sult o f the inability o f the s tate to o ffer
protection for its citizens against left-wing organisations but they, like their
opponents, are increasingly motivated by profits from the cocaine trade, of which
Colombia is the world’s biggest producer.
In re sponse t o re peated f ailures by pre vious p residents to tac kle C olombia’s
security pro blems, P resident A lvaro U ribe was e lected i n 2 002 o n a p latform o f
‘democratic security’, which led to an expansion of the role of the military in
internal s ecurity. A n extensive D DR p rogramme has be en c arried o ut s ince 2 005
together wi th a J ustice and P eace Law to addre ss hum an ri ghts’ v iolations. W hile
thousands of right-wing paramilitaries have been demobilised, the programme has
been c riticised f or i nsufficient c oncern f or the ri ghts o f v ictims, an d m any
demobilised fighters have simply joined new armed groups. The United States is a
key ally and has contributed billions of dollars in counter-insurgency and countertrafficking funding and training for the Colombian armed forces. Core components
of S SR, ho wever, hav e o nly be en app lied to a l imited e xtent; ac countability to
citizens and parliamentary oversight have not been implemented and civil society
(whilst active as a voice against human rights abuses) has not been a partner in the
process. F urthermore, the arm ed f orces have b een i mplicated i n e xtrajudicial
killings and c over-ups. Gro ss hum an ri ghts’ v iolations by al l s ides have
characterised this conflict right up until the present day.
Elsewhere, the lower rungs of the judicial system are compromised by extortion and
corruption though the Supreme Court has demonstrated its independence in ruling
against the government on several occasions. Recent court cases have found many
politicians guilty of collusion with paramilitaries.
SSR: General
Grabendorff, W., 2009, Limited Security Sector Reform in Colombia in Security
Sector Reform in Challenging Environments, eds H. Born and A. Schnabel, Lit
Verlag, Munster, pp 69-86
Can the concept of Security Sector Reform (SSR) be applied to Colombia? How
should such reforms be implemented? This chapter outlines the limited SSR process
in Colombia, which has concentrated on increasing the effectiveness of the state in
fighting internal conflict, not necessarily on improving democratic governance. The
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
34
need to extend and c omplete S SR i n C olombia is indicated by: the ab sence o f
parliamentary oversight; limited space for civil society involvement; government
and security actors' limited acceptance of the rule of law; and a lack of provision for
the treatment of non-statutory security forces.
International Crisis Group, 2010, Improving S ecurity Po licy in C olombia, Latin
America Briefing No. 23, International Crisis Group, Bogota/Brussels
How can the Colombian government consolidate security gains and improve
security po licy? T his briefing recommends that the ne w g overnment ac knowledge
that Colombia has still not reached the post-conflict phase. The government needs
to: maintain pressure on the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC);
develop and implement a comprehensive citizen security strategy; tackle the threat
posed by p aramilitary s uccessors and ne w i llegal arm ed g roups; and adv ance
military and citizen security policy reform.
Perdomo, C ., 2006, International Assistance f or Security Sector Reform,
Oasis 2006-07, no. 12, CIPE, Universidad Externado de Colombia, pp. 77-117,
Bogotá
Since the late 1990s, discussions amongst donors concerning development have
increasingly focused on Security Sector Reform (SSR). This is due to the potentially
negative e ffects o n security, we alth and d emocracy that a c orrupt o r inefficient
security sector can have. This paper, by Catalina Perdomo, examines the
arguments und erlying the s kepticism o f d onor a nd re cipient c ountries and
development agencies towards the SSR agenda. It uses the cases of the United
States’ assistance to Colombia and the United Kingdom’s assistance to Sierra Leone
as e xamples. I n d oing s o, the pape r suggests s ome way s t o l imit the p otential
negative impacts of supporting SSR.
Civil Society
Abello Colak, A., 2010, Civil Society and Security Transformation in Medellin:
Challenges a nd O pportunities, New V oices S eries n o. 2 , G lobal C onsortium on
Security Transformation (GCST), Santiago, Chile
What attempts have been made to transform security in Medellin, Colombia? What
role could civil society play in addressing violence? Security sector transformation
should c onsider the content o f the s ecurity age nda as we ll as s ecurity s tructures
and actors. C ivil s ociety organisations have v aluable unde rstanding of local
community needs. They could help to revise security goals and introduce a greater
focus on human security if better participatory spaces were opened.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
35
Pearce, J ., 2 007, Violence, Po wer a nd Par ticipation: Building C itizenship i n
Contexts of Chronic Violence, IDS Working Paper 274, Institute of Development
Studies, Sussex
Can civil society organisations play a role in building citizenship and confronting
violent actors and acts of violence? This Institute of Development Studies Working
Paper argues that they can, and explores civil society participation in Colombia and
Guatemala. Building citizenship in chronic violence contexts requires simultaneous
attention to citizenship and to violence, and it is also important to clarify the
relationship between power and violence.
Defence Reform
Marks, T ., 2 005, Sustainability o f C olombian M ilitary/Strategic S upport f or
'"Democratic S ecurity", S trategic S tudies I nstitute, U S A rmy W ar C ollege,
Carlisle
How has Colombia reoriented its approach towards the country’s principal security
challenge - a lengthy insurgency closely linked to criminal activity? Published by the
Strategic Studies Institute at the US Army War College, this paper assesses the
sustainability of the counterinsurgency waged by Colombian President Alvaro Uribe
against FARC rebels. Although not yet complete, this multifaceted campaign is likely
to result in a Colombia that is more integrated, prosperous and democratic than at
any time in the past 40 years.
Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR)
Gómez I sa, F ., 2 008, Paramilitary D emobilisation in C olombia: B etween
Peace and Justice, FRIDE Working Paper 57, Madrid, Spain
How does Colombia’s Justice and Peace Law balance the needs for peace and
justice? To what extent does the paramilitary demobilisation process meet
international s tandards f or j ustice, truth and re parations? T his pap er f rom the
Fundación para les Relaciones I nternacionales y e l D iálogo E xterior e xamines
Colombia’s Justice and Peace Law in relation to justice, truth and reparation. It
argues that wh ile th e l aw us es the language o f hum an r ights and j ustice, it is
lacking in mechanisms to put these principles into practice.
Guaqueta, A., 2007, The Way Back In - Reintegrating Illegal A rmed Groups
in C olombia T hen and N ow, Conflict, Security and Development, vol. 7 no.3,
pp.417-456
Which factors determine whether former combatants can be successfully integrated
into s ocial a nd p olitical spheres at the e nd o f a c onflict? T his article p ublished in
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
36
Conflict, Security and Development compares the political r eintegration of the
Movimiento 19 de Abril (M-19) in Colombia in the early 1990s with the reintegration
of the p aramilitary a decade later. It argues that successful reintegration d epends
on the acceptance of relevant audiences and the capacity of former combatants to
perform as social and political interlocutors.
International Crisis Group, 2007, Colombia’s New Armed Groups, Latin America
Report N°20, 10 May 2007, International Crisis Group, Bogotá/Brussels
What is the nature of the new armed groups emerging in Colombia? How effective
is the C olombian g overnment’s s trategy of tre ating the se ne w groups as c riminal
gangs? W hile the d emobilisation o f the f ormer param ilitary b lock the U nited S elfDefence Forces of Colombia (AUC) was heralded by the Colombian government as a
key indicator of progress towards peace, this report by International Crisis Group
highlights the gro wth o f N ew Illegal A rmed Gro ups. T hese gro ups are o ften
composed of former paramilitary members, frequently collaborate with criminal
organisations and o ften o perate m uch l ike the A UC. A ccording to thi s re port, the
police and judiciary are ill-equipped to take on this challenge while the DDR process
has be en unabl e to ensure th e s uccessful re integration o f f ormer c ombatants. T o
tackle this growing problem, the Colombian government needs to combine more
effective j udicial, p olice and m ilitary measures agai nst t he ne w and o ld
paramilitaries with improved protection for civilians and victims of atrocities and an
economic development programme that will facilitate sustainable integration.
Related Documents
DeShazo, P. e t a l, 2 007, Back f rom t he Brink: Evaluating Pr ogress in
Colombia, 1999–2007, Americas Program, Center for Strategic and International
Studies, Washington DC
How has C olombia m oved f rom the b rink o f c haos i n 1 999 to re lative s tability in
2007? What are its most s ignificant ac hievements and whe re d o the m ost difficult
challenges remain? What role has the US played in facilitating the improvements in
security? This paper, by the Center for Strategic and International Studies, looks at
President U ribe’s p olicy o f ‘ democratic s ecurity’ an d e xamines p rogress i n are as
including security, human rights, governance and economics. It argues that
progress is impressive as violence has been reduced, state authority extended and
governance enhanced. However, more w ork n eeds t o be d one: t he rule of law
needs strengthening, cocaine trafficking remains a serious problem and the success
of the DDR process is still far from clear.
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
37
GFN-SSR resources
More documents covering security sector reform in Colombia can be found online in
the GFN-SSR Document Library.
The Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) also has
a number of related resources for Colombia in the thematic areas of justice, fragile
states and conflict.
Documents:
• Justice related documents on Colombia
• Fragile states related documents on Colombia
• Conflict related documents on Colombia
Peru
Security and the security sectors within Peru remain influenced by the conflict
fought against Maoist rebels during the 1980s and 1990s. Yet while the remnants of
insurgent g roup S hining P ath c ontinue to pose a m inimal thre at, c urrent s ecurity
problems are more a result of criminal activity, much of which is linked to armed
gangs and the c ocaine trade . A n effective po lice f orce i s k ey to c ombating the se
challenges, but although police reform was a k ey project of former P resident
Alejandro Toledo when he took office in 2001 after many years of authoritarian
rule, c hange has be en s low and f requently re sisted. B oth the s ecurity f orces and
the judicial system command little respect amongst the population, tainted by
endemic corruption and a l egacy of human rights abuses during the administration
of former President Fujimori.
Policing
Costa, G., 2006, Two Steps Forward, One and a Half Steps Back: Police
Reform in Peru, 2001-2004, Civil Wars, vol. 8 no. 2, pp. 215-230
How effective was the reform transformation of the Peruvian police between 2001 2004? This article from Civil Wars journal argues that P eru’s police reform process
suffered f rom f luctuating p olitical interest and s upport. C onsequently, a lthough
achievements were significant, they were much less than initially hoped. The article
examines the ho st of d ifficulties f aced i n ac hieving re form and c oncludes that
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
38
additional resources and consistent political and institutional backing are necessary
to foster and sustain transformation.
GFN-SSR resources
More documents covering security sector reform in Peru can be found online in the
GFN-SSR Document Library
The Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) also has
a number of related resources for Guatemala in the thematic areas of justice and
conflict.
Documents:
• Justice related documents on Peru
• Conflict related documents on Peru
GFN-SSR Topic Guide on Latin America and the Caribbean
39