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Selected Rhetorical Terms and Strategies Mr. Dalton’s FHS English 11 Classes
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By definition, rhetoric is the study of effective speaking and writing, but it can also include
evaluation of video and pictorial communication. In fact, FHS students have engaged in
rhetorical analysis of radio, television, and print advertisements when they have attended school
assemblies hosted by the New Mexico Media Literary Project (www.nmmlp.org). Sponsors of
the project show students how to deconstruct the misleading rhetoric of commercials that lead
people to believe diamonds, beer, fast food, and other consumer items are absolutely necessary
for our health, well-being, and happiness. When analyzing rhetorical strategies in literature –
fiction or non-fiction – students do essentially the same thing: they deconstruct passages packed
with metaphors, similes, epiphanies, and other rhetorical devices used by writers to communicate
themes, or layers of mood and tone.
According to Gideon Burton at BYU, rhetorical meaning is conveyed not only by what one says,
but by how it is said. The study of rhetoric is a discipline that has evolved over the last 2,500
years, and many rhetorical terms were first defined in Aristotle’s treatise, The Rhetoric. An
explanation of this treatise and definitions for the rhetorical terms in the table above are included
with multiple examples below. The terms and definitions also come from a variety of modern
sources, including Advanced Placement English workshops, the Glossary of Literary Terms for
The Language of Literature text book used by FHS English teachers, and Osborn’s book, Public
Speaking, which is used at San Juan College. Definitions and examples have also been copied
from several websites. One of the best rhetoric websites is “Silva Rhetoricae” (http://
humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/silva.htm), which is the source of the definition for rhetoric used
above. Another reliable site for definitions and examples is “A Glossary of Rhetorical Terms with
Examples” (http://www.uky.edu/AS/Classics/rhetoric.html). Also useful was “A Handbook of
Rhetorical Devices” (http://www.virtualsalt.com/rhetoric.htm). The University of Victoria's
"Writer's Guide" (http://web.uvic.ca/wguide/Pages/LiteraryTermsIndex.html#I),"The Concepts
of Rhetoric" by Henry Jankiewicz (http://web.syr.edu/~hjjankie/209/cncpts.rhet.html), and "Mrs.
Dowling's Literature Terms" (http://www.dowlingcentral.com/MrsD/area/literature/
LitTerms.html) are excellent web sites for more information about rhetorical terms. Regardless,
the terms in the list above are the ones that students will be responsible for knowing in Mr.
Kerr’s English 10 class for Fall 2007 and Spring 2008. The Greeks and Romans became masters
of these techniques, and all of these strategies are still used today by people in every country and
every professional discipline, including lawyers, journalists, politicians, teachers, engineers,
medical doctors, and administrators.
Allegory: A narrative which has both a literal meaning and a representative one. There are two
main types of allegory:
The historical and political variety, in which historical persons and events are referred to: George
Orwell's Animal Farm was literally a story about a farm animal revolt, but an allegory about the
Russian Revolution.
The allegory of ideas, in which characters personify abstract concepts and the story has a moral
lesson: In the beast fable, the moral or general truth is exemplified by the experiences of animals
with human characteristics, as in Aesop's fable about a lion and a boar who fight over drinking
rights at a spring while vultures look on awaiting their deaths.
Alliteration: The repetition of initial consonant sounds beginning several words in sequence: Let
us go forth to lead the land we love. -- J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address
Ah, what a delicious day!
Done well, alliteration is a satisfying sensation.
At Devon, the Super Suicide Society of the Summer Session was a success from the start.
Allusion: A short, informal reference to a famous person or event:
If you take his parking place, you can expect World War II all over again. Plan ahead: it wasn't
raining when Noah built the ark. --Richard Cushing
Notice in these examples that the allusions are to very well known characters or events, not to
obscure ones. The best sources for allusions are literature, history, Greek myth, and the Bible.
Analogy: A point by point comparison between two things alike in some respect. Often,
analogies are used in nonfiction, when an unfamiliar subject or idea is explained in terms of a
familiar one. In the following analogy, the border between the United States and Canda is
compared to a one-way mirror:
· "The noses of a great many Canadians resemble Porky Pig’s. This comes from spending so
much time pressing them against the longest undefended one-way mirror in the world. The
Canadians looking through this mirror behave the way people on the hidden side of such mirrors
usually do: they observe, analyze, ponder, snoop and wonder what all the activity on the other
side means." – Margaret Atwood, “Through the One-Way Mirror.”
Anaphora: The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or
lines.
· “We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall
fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength
in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the
beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the
streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender.” -- Winston Churchill. · In A Separate Peace, Gene concluded wrongly that he and his room mate, Finney were
rivals: "I felt better. Yes, I sensed it like the sweat of relief when nausea passes away. I
felt better. We were even after all, even in enmity. The deadly rivalry was on both sides
after all." Antithesis: A clear, contrasting relationship between two ideas by joining them together
or juxtaposing them, often in parallel structure. · Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no
virtue. – Barry Goldwater · Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. – Brutus in Shakespeare's
Julius Caesar · The vases of the classical period are but the reflection of classical beauty; the vases of
the archaic period are beauty itself." – Sir John Beazley · To err is human; to forgive, divine. – Pope · That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. – Astronaut Neil
Armstrong
Appositive: A noun or noun substitute placed next to (in apposition to) another noun to
be described or defined by the appositive. The appositive can be placed before or after the noun: Henry Jameson, the boss of the operation, always wore a red baseball cap. A notorious annual feast, the picnic was well attended. That evening we were all at the concert, a really elaborate and exciting affair.
With very short appositives, the commas setting off the second noun from the first are
often omitted: That afternoon Kathy Todd the pianist met the poet Thompson. Is your friend George
going to run for office? Assonance: Repetition of the same vowel sound in words close to each other. · Thy kingdom come, thy will be done. · Get ready for the rumble in the jungle. · Sir Gawain came to the northern sea, left the islands of Anglesey, thence to the shore of
the river Dee. Connotation: The emotional response evoked by a word as opposed to the literal
meaning of the word (denotation). · The word kitten connotes images of softness, warmth, and playfulness. For example,
kitten is sometimes used as a nickname for a child or a girlfriend. · The word cigarette may connote images of addiction, cancer (cancer sticks), hacking
coughs, and stale odors. Denotation: The literal, dictionary meaning of a word. · Kitten – a young, domestic cat. · Cigarette – a roll of finely ground tobacco wrapped in paper for smoking. !
Diction: A writer's precise choice and arrangement of words to achieve a specific mood or tone.
Edgar Allan Poe was a master of diction. The first paragraph of his horror story, "The Fall of the
House of Usher," was packed with words that chilled the reader. The italicized words like shades,
spirit, gloom, white and decayed, suggest a ghostly, haunting atmosphere that is magnified by the
rider being alone and night coming soon.
· DURING the whole of a dull, dark, and soundless day in the autumn of the year, when the
clouds hung oppressively low in the heavens, I had been passing alone, on horseback, through a
singularly dreary tract of country; and at length found myself, as the shades of the evening drew
on, within view of the melancholy House of Usher. I know not how it was, but, with the first
glimpse of the building, a sense of insufferable gloom pervaded my spirit. I say insufferable, for
the feeling was unrelieved by any of that half-pleasurable, because poetic, sentiment, with which
the mind usually receives even the sternest natural images of the desolate or terrible. I looked
upon the scene before me — upon the mere house, and the simple landscape features of the
domain — upon the bleak walls — upon the vacant eye-like windows — upon a few rank sedges
— and upon a few white trunks of decayed trees — with an utter depression of soul which I can
compare to no earthly sensation more properly than to the after-dream of the reveller upon opium
— the bitter lapse into common life — the hideous dropping off of the veil. There was an iciness,
a sinking, a sickening of the heart — an unredeemed dreariness of thought which no goading of
the imagination could torture into aught of the sublime. What was it — I paused to think — what
was it that so unnerved me in the contemplation of the House of Usher?
Note: Diction was not the only rhetorical strategy in this passage. For example, Poe personified
the house using a simile (the vacant eye-like windows) and he used alliteration extensively (a
sense of insufferable gloom pervaded my spirit; there was an iciness, a sinking, a sickening of
the heart). The numerous "s" sounds might be likened to the hissing of a snake.
Epiphany: A sudden realization of truth, intuitive perception, or a revelation from God.
· Tull learned he was immortal while in "the box," an isolation cell in the state prison. · After stealing a pie, Gary Soto concluded, "I knew right then the best things in life
come stolen." · John, the initiate in "By the Waters of Babylon," journeyed to the dead place of the
gods, where he made a startling discovery: "I knew then they were men, not gods or
demons." · In A Separate Peace, the student Leper has an epiphany after seeing a recruiting video
for United States ski troops: "Now I see what racing skiing is all about. It's all right to
miss seeing the trees and the country side . . . when you've got to be in a hurry. And when
you're in a war, you've got to be in a hurry. So I guess maybe racing skiers weren't ruining
the sport after all." Eponym: A characteristic or attribute derived from the name of a famous person. Has he suffered? This poor Job can tell you himself. Is he smart? Why, the man is an
Einstein.
That little Caesar is fooling nobody.
He knows he is no Patrick Henry. You think your boyfriend is tight. I had a date with Scrooge himself last night.
The wisdom of a Solomon was needed to figure out the actions of the appliance
marketplace this quarter. Ethos: Ethics and morality arguments. In The Rhetoric, Aristotle emphasized the need
for speaker credibility. In other words, to be persuasive, the speaker must have a
reputable personality and character. The need for credibility is still evident today in the
words of news commentators and in advertising slogans we hear on television and radio. · News and commentary shows often feature anchors who have become “the most
trusted names in the business”: Walter Cronkite, Paul Harvey. · ACME Flooring, a company you can rely on because we are a family-owned business
that has been serving the Albuquerque area for more than 100 years. · Jerry McCready, an American independent gubernatorial candidate said, “As a selfemployed businessman, I have learned firsthand what it is like to try to make ends meet
in an unstable economy being manipulated by out-of-touch politicians.” Euphemism: Substitution of an agreeable or at least non-offensive expression for one
whose plainer meaning might be harsh or unpleasant. Shakespeare was the master of
euphemisms. Our society generally uses euphemisms as descriptors for sexual activity or
other uncomfortable subjects. · Hankie pankie – sex · Pass on – die · Collateral damage – unintended injuries, destruction, or death caused by war. · In A Separate Peace, the prizes offered at the First Devon Winter Carnival included "a
Webster's Collegiate Dictionary with all the most stimulating !
words marked . . . and a lock of hair cut under duress from the head of Hazel Brewster, the
professional town belle." – both references are sexual
Hyperbole: Extreme exaggeration for emphasis or for rhetorical effect.
There are a thousand reasons why more research is needed on solar energy.
This stuff is used motor oil compared to the coffee you make, my love.
“That one word 'banished,' Hath slain ten thousand Tybalts.” – Juliet after romeo was banished
for killing her cousin, Tybalt.
Imagery: Most commonly used to describe figurative language to make an imaginary world
seem real by using words that appeal to the five senses: sight, smell, taste, touch, and sound.
· The hot July sun beat relentlessly down, casting an orange glare over the farm buildings, the
fields, the pond. Even the usually cool green willows bordering the pond hung wilted and dry.
Our sun-baked backs ached for relief. We quickly pulled off our sweaty clothes and plunged into
the pond, but the tepid water only stifled us and we soon climbed onto the brown, dusty bank.
Our parched throats longed for something cool--a strawberry ice, a tall frosted glass of lemonade.
We pulled on our clothes, crackling underbrush, the sharp briars pulling at our damp jeans, until
we reached the watermelon patch. As we began to cut open the nearest melon, we could smell
the pungent skin mingling with the dusty odor of the dry earth. Suddenly, the melon gave way
with a crack, revealing the deep, pink sweetness inside.
Irony: Irony is the opposite of what is expected. Irony can be situational, verbal, or dramatic.
Situational Irony is evident in Saki's short story, "The Interlopers." Two old enemies trapped
beneath a fallen tree decide that as soon as they are freed from the tree, they will end their
lifelong feud and become friends so there will be peace in their valley. Ironically, they make this
decision just moments before a pack of wolves finds them and presumably eats them alive.
Note: Situational irony was also evident multiple times in A Separate Peace. For example,
students sometimes perceived their relationships to the teachers quite differently than one would
expect:
· Finny decided the Masters were showing commendable signs of maturity.
Verbal irony is the expression of something contrary to the intended meaning such as Antony’s
remarks at Caesar’s funeral:
· Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honourable man. -- Shakespeare, Julius Caesar
Dramatic Irony refers to the contrast between what the audience knows and what a character
knows. When Caesar goes to the Senate expecting to receive a crown, the audience knows the
senators are waiting to assassinate him. When the two enemies in “The Interlopers” expect to be
saved by their hired men, they get a surprise when wolves show-up instead of the men.
Juxtaposition: Putting ideas or things close together to reveal sharp differences.
· One wonders how many visitors to the porn shop on Harper Hill notice the billboard
outside that shows a picture of Christ and the words, "Jesus is watching you." · In Listening Woman, Theodora Adams parks her midnight blue Corvette in front of a
“collection of tired buildings,” and next to an Plymouth sedan and two rusty pickups.
Leaphorn thought Theodora Adams herself looked expensive and “utterly out of place at
Short Mountain Trading Post.” · Lively eyes versus greedy frown – “Searching for Summer” Logos: Aristotle believed arguments must be logical and rational to be persuasive. Logic is an
appeal to reason. According to the University of Iowa Rhetoric Department, there are two
types of appeal to reason, deductive and inductive: · Deductive argument-begins with a generalization and moves toward a specific conclusion.
A famous example used by Aristotle himself:
All men are mortal. (Generalization)
Socrates was a man. (Specific case)
Socrates is mortal. (Conclusion about the specific case)
· Inductive argument-begins with pieces of specific evidence and draws a general conclusion
from this.
ex.
Senator Kennedy argued, “in Georgia, blacks who killed whites received the death penalty 16.7
percent of the time, while whites who killed blacks received the death penalty only 4.2 percent of
the time.”
Malapropism: The unintentional and often hilarious slips caused by the incorrect use of a word,
either by ignorance or by confusion over the similar sounding or spelling.
· "...she's as headstrong as an allegory (alligator) on the banks of Nile." Mrs. Malaprop
in Rivals · "Listen to the blabbing (babbling) brook." - Norm Crosby · "This is unparalyzed (unparalleled) in the state's history. - Gib Lewis, Texas Speaker of the
House · He was a man of great statue (stature). - Thomas Menino, Boston mayor
Metaphor: Substitutes one idea for another. Unlike a simile or analogy, a metaphor asserts that
one thing is another thing, not just like another.
The fountain of knowledge will dry up unless it is continuously replenished by streams of new
learning. I wonder when motor-mouth is going to run out of gas.
When it comes to midterms, it's kill or be killed. Let's go in and slay this test.
The furnace of affliction had softened his heart and purified his soul.
Finny had gotten away with everything. It was hypnotism. He could talk his way out of anything.
Mythos: Emphasizes those frequently told stories that express the traditions, identity, and values
of a group. Cultural myth is the story we tell ourselves about the way things really are. The
believers of a myth always call it a true story. Although mythos was present in Greek rhetoric, it
was not explicitly identified by Aristotle as a rhetorical strategy. That credit goes to the Roman
orator, Cicero, who actually studied Aristotle’s Rhetoric very closely.
· Cicero might have said, "Homer’s Illiad and Odyssey defined whole cultural traditions for
Greek society, describing the mythos of heroes, gods, tragedies, and appropriate manners with
strangers and guests."
Myths have political implications because they embody our beliefs and values, our assumptions
about the way the world ought to be, and so they provide a rationale for the way a culture
organizes its institutions. Our democracy thrives on certain myths about individualism, about
freedom and human rights.
· The “American Dream,” is a form of mythos that consists of eight themes: freedom, equality,
democracy, religious independence, wealth, Puritan work ethic, new beginnings, consumption
and leisure (DeSantis)
Change the myths and you change the culture:
· In the United States, the “antebellum,’ pre-Civil War mentality of the Southern states
finally ceased to exist after the Civil Rights legislation of the 1960s. Some scholars argue
that the South has been developing a new mythos or mythology since the 1960s. · Things that are obviously the most true and self-evident about reality to an American
may not seem convincing at all to an African or Japanese person. For instance, we would
probably argue it as self-evident that paintings using two-point perspective and
possessing visual depth are more photographic and hence more like what the eye actually
sees than a Japanese pen and ink sketch in two dimensions. But Japanese observers
disagree; they will say that paintings in the styles of their own culture are more accurate
and representative of what the eye perceives. Although it seems self-evident, the
correlation of perspective to reality is learned. It is a cultural commonplace. Different cultures might perceive war different ways: • war as an occasion to prove one's worthiness
• war as a patriotic endeavor
• war as an economic strategy
• war as a power play on the part of an individual leader • war as a lethal form of
institutional insanity • war as a natural means of population control • war as a means of establishing peace Onomatopoeia: Use of words to imitate natural sounds. · No one talks in these factories. Everyone is too busy. The only sounds are the snip, snip
of scissors and the hum of sewing machines. · But I loved that old car. I never heard the incessant rattle on a rough road, or the
squeakity squeak whenever I hit a bump; and as for the squeal of the tires around every
corner--well, that was macho. · The flies buzzing and whizzing around their ears kept them from finishing the
experiment at the swamp. · If you like the plop, plop, plop of a faucet at three in the morning, you will like this
record. Oxymoron: A paradox achieved by the juxtaposition of words which seem to contradict
one another, but actually make sense. · My favorite meal is jumbo shrimp. · Athletes sometimes rub Icy Hot on sore muscles. · He strained to hear any sound in the deafening silence of the cave. · The bookful blockhead, ignorantly read, / With loads of learned lumber in his head . . .
--Alexander Pope · Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical! -- Juliet referring to her husband, Romeo, after
learning he has slain her cousin, Tybalt · Dove-feather'd raven! wolvish-ravening lamb! – Juliet still angry with Romeo. !
· Devon was a group of trees, three dormitories, a circle of houses living together in contentious
harmony.
Paradox: A seemingly ridiculous or contradictory statement which is actually meaningful and
describes a truth.
· "War is peace." "Freedom is slavery." "Ignorance is strength." (George Orwell, 1984). · "'Take some more tea,' the March hare said to Alice, very earnestly.
'I've had nothing yet,' Alice replied in an offended tone, 'so I can't take more.'
'You mean you can't take less,' said the Hatter. 'It's very easy to take more than
nothing.'" (Lewis Carroll, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland) · "Some day you will be old enough to start reading fairy tales again."
(C.S. Lewis to his godchild, Lucy Barfield, to whom he dedicated The Lion, the Witch
and the Wardrobe) Pathos: Aristotle suggested that a legitimate form of persuasion includes proof based on motives
or emotions. Political advertisements often use the emotional appeal of fear. · The 1964 Johnson campaign for president used the infamous “Daisy Ad” to nuke the
republican opponent, Barry Goldwater. The ad generated fear that Goldwater would lead
the U.S. into nuclear war with the Soviets. · In 1988, the Bush campaign used the “Revolving Door” ad to suggest that democrat
Michael Dukakis was soft on crime, allowing parole for convicted murderer Willie
Horton, who then murdered a white couple. Note: Feel good ads play on emotions too: · “Reach out and touch someone.” – AT&T · “I’d like to buy the world a coke.” – Coca Cola · “Don’t squeeze the Charmin.” – Charmin. Personification: metaphorically giving an animal or inanimate object human attributes.
Ideas and abstractions can also be personified. England expects every man to do his duty – Lord Nelson
The ship began to creak and protest as it struggled against the rising sea.
This coffee is strong enough to get up and walk away.
Wisdom cries aloud in the streets; in the markets she raises her voice . . . .--Psalm 1:20
(RSV; and cf. 1:21-33) On the Devon School campus, the gym meditated behind its gray
walls. Pun: A humorous play on words to suggest different meanings. Supposedly, the ability to
make and understand puns is among the highest of language skills you can develop.
Below are 10 first place winners in the International Pun Contest plus some more ditties
from the Web: · A vulture boards an airplane, carrying two dead raccoons. The flight attendant looks at
him and says, "I'm sorry, sir, only one carrion allowed per passenger." · Two hydrogen atoms meet. One says "I've lost my electron." The other says "Are you
sure?" The first replies "Yes, I'm positive." · Mahatma Gandhi walked barefoot most of the time, which produced an impressive set
of calluses on his feet. He also ate very little, which made him rather frail and, with his odd diet, he suffered from bad breath. This made him a supercalloused-fragile-mystic-hexed-by-halitosis. · A pessimist's blood type is always b-negative. · When you dream in color, it's a pigment of your imagination · Reading while sunbathing makes you well-red. · Subdued: A guy who works on one of those submarines. · A bicycle can't stand alone because it is two-tired. · What's the definition of a will? It's a dead giveaway. · She had a boyfriend with a wooden leg, but broke it off. · If you don't pay your exorcist, you get repossessed. · When a clock is hungry, it goes back four seconds. !
· Those who get too big for their britches will be exposed in the end. · When an actress saw her first strands of gray hair, she thought she'd dye. · Marathon runners with bad footwear suffer the agony of defeat. Rhetorical Criticism: According to Wikipedia, this is an approach to criticism which is
at least as old as Aristotle. Rhetorical criticism studies the use of words and phrases to
explicate how arguments have been built to drive home a certain point the author or
speaker intended to make. What is called "rhetorical criticism" in the Speech
Communication discipline is often called "rhetorical analysis" in English. In analysis of
visual media, such as posters, newspaper advertisements and cartoons, television
commercials and movies, the act of rhetorical criticism is often called "deconstruction,"
meaning the student distinguishes between denotative and connotative messages implied
by the images. Rhetorical Question: A question that it is not answered by the writer because the answer
is obvious. It is used for effect, emphasis, or provocation and may lead to further
discussion. · Is this the end to which we are reduced? Is the disaster film the highest form of art we
can expect from our era? · . . . For if we lose the ability to perceive our faults, what is the good of living on? -Marcus Aurelius · Is justice then to be considered merely a word? Or is it whatever results from the
bartering between attorneys? Rhetorical Shift: A change from one tone, attitude, etc. Look for key words like but,
however, even though, although, yet, etc. Rhetorical shifts are useful in both fiction and
non-fiction narratives: When Gary Soto wrote an essay detailing how he stole a pie when he was just six-yearsold, Soto said he knew about God, "In fact, I was holy in almost every bone. But,
boredom made me do it." After Ulrich and his enemy Georg were trapped beneath a fallen tree in Saki's short story,
"The Interlopers," Ulrich manage to sip some wine from his flask. "But what a heavensent draft it seemed! . . . he looked across with something like a throb of pity to where his
enemy lay . . . 'Could you reach this flask if I threw it over to you?' asked Ulrich." This
passage marks a turning point in deadly feud between two families that has lasted for
three generations. Political parties often accuse one another of rhetorical shifts that pander to disgruntled
voters:
A headline in the The Republican Coalition Newsletter claimed Democrats were
preparing to make a "Rhetorical Shift on Life Issues," to appear more pro-life in the 2006
election campaign. The Nuclear Mangos blog, sponsored by a former Harvard physics professor, accuses the
Bush Administration of intentionally shifting rhetoric on Iran, moving concerns about
nuclear programs to the back burner while decrying Iran's attacks on American soldiers in
Iraq. Sarcasm: A taunting but witty remark. The remark can be mocking, insulting,
contemptuous, or derogatory. It can also mean the opposite of what is said. According to
Merriam-Webster's online dictionary, this rhetorical strategy comes from the Greek word
sarkasmos, from sarkazein to tear flesh, bite the lips in rage, sneer; a mode of satirical wit
depending for its effect on bitter, caustic, and often ironic language that is usually
directed against an individual. It is often described as the lowest form of humor, but it
does require quick wits to be effective. · Sometimes I need what only you can provide: your absence. -- Ashleigh Brilliant · I feel so miserable without you, it's almost like having you here. -- Stephen Bishop · History teaches us that men and nations behave wisely once they have exhausted all
other alternatives. -- Abba Eban · I never forget a face, but in your case I'll be glad to make an exception. – Groucho
Marx · He was happily married - but his wife wasn't. -- Victor Borge · I didn't attend the funeral, but I sent a nice letter saying I approved of it. -- Mark Twain Attempting to play down the seriousness of enlisting for military service in World War II,
teenagers attending the Devon school in A Separate Peace use sarcasm at length: Gene: Enlist! What a nutty idea. It's just Brinker wanting to get there first again. I
wouldn't enlist with you if you were General MacArthur's eldest son." Brinker: "And who
do you think I am!"
Gene: "I wouldn't enlist with you if you were Elliott Roosevelt."
Brinker: "First cousin, once removed." Finney: "He wouldn't enlist with you if you were Madame Chiang Kai-shek." !
Gene: "Well, he really is Madame Chiang Kai-shek."
Finney: "Who would have thought that! Chinese. The Yellow Peril, right here at Devon."
Satire: A poem, skit, literary work, or drama used to ridicule human ignorance, folly, or vice
(politics, religion, art, etc.). Saturday Night Live, Mad Magazine, Harvard's National Lampoon,
The Simpsons, South Park, and the work of most modern comediennes can be classified as satire.
The Onion web site (http://www.theonion.com/content/node/32076) is devoted to satire.
· Our meetings have become disorganized and sprawling, and far too much time is lost
to non- actionable items. As you all know, production is down 7 percent company-wide,
and I think we can attribute this to working hard and not working smart. So let's plan to
have a few ad hoc powwows next week to discuss the meeting situation. Please bring a
minimum of 15 topics to discuss, with a focus on "how to minimize wasted work." Of
course, more ideas are always welcome. · HOUSTON—Dozens of wrongful arrests were brought to light Saturday, as longtime
Houston Police Department sketch artist Daniel Lampert confessed that for years he had
used his artistic skill to indict innocent people who had angered him. "Remember that
serial rapist eight years ago? That was a sketch of my neighbor," Lampert told reporters.
"Jerk wouldn't leash his dog." · BRONX, NY—After months of public anticipation, the Bronx Zoo finally opened its
new loitering-teens exhibit Saturday. According to Bronx Zoo director of exhibits John
Gilkey, the zoo's 15 loitering-teen specimens appear to enjoy their new home and are
responding well to their three daily feedings of Meximelts and Mountain Dew. "They're
really adjusting nicely," Gilkey said. "They've already started to spit, and I think that,
within a couple of weeks, they'll be just about ready to start asking for spare change." Simile: An explicit comparison between two things, generally using 'like' or 'as', but there
are exceptions as noted below: When you compare a noun to a noun, the simile is usually
introduced by like: I see men, but they look like trees, walking. --Mark 8:24
After such long exposure to the direct sun, the leaves of the houseplant looked like pieces
of overcooked bacon. The soul in the body is like a bird in a cage. Let us go then, you and I,
While the evening is spread out against the sky,
Like a patient etherized upon a table. -- T. S. Eliot, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" When a verb or phrase is compared to a verb or phrase, as is used: They remained constantly attentive to their goal, as a sunflower always turns and stays
focused on the sun. Finny picked feathers out of the shuttlecock, distastefully, as though removing ticks from
a dog. My love is as a fever, longing still
For that which longer nurseth the disease -- Shakespeare, Sonnet CXLVII Reason is to faith as the eye to the telescope -- D. Hume
Often the simile precedes the thing likened to it. In such cases, so usually shows the
comparison: The grass bends with every wind; so does Harvey. The seas are quiet when the winds give o're; / So calm are we when passions are no more.
--Edmund Waller Occasionally, the simile word can be used as an adjective: The argument of this book utilizes pretzel-like logic. This gear has a flower-like symmetry to it.
Similes can be negative, too, asserting that two things are quite different: My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun. -- Shakespeare
John certainly does not attack the way a Sherman tank does; but if you encourage him, he
is bold enough. Syllogism: A deductive scheme of a formal argument (logic) consisting of a major and a
minor premise and a conclusion Note: By introducing the idea that arguments can be translated into syllogisms, Aristotle
brought scientific thought into a new dimension -- it became possible to predict
consequences by applying logic. · Every virtue is laudable (Major premise) · Kindness is a virtue (Minor premise) · Therefore kindness is laudable (Conclusion) !
Note: A less formal method of reasoning typical of rhetorical discourse is called enthymeme. The
enthymeme is sometimes defined as a "truncated syllogism" since either the major or minor
premise found in that more formal method of reasoning is left implied. The enthymeme typically
occurs as a conclusion coupled with a reason.
· We cannot trust this man, for he has perjured himself in the past.
Note: In this enthymeme, the major premise of the complete syllogism is missing:
* Those who perjure themselves cannot be trusted. (Major premise - omitted) * This man has perjured himself in the past. (Minor premise - stated) * This man is not to be trusted. (Conclusion - stated) Synecdoche: Figure of comparison in which a word standing for part of something is
used for the whole of that thing or vice versa; any part or portion or quality of a thing
used to stand for the whole of the thing or vice versa -- genus to species or species to
genus. · "Good evening. Elvis Presley died today. He was 42. Apparently, it was a heart attack. He was
found in his home in Memphis not breathing. His road manager tried to revive him -- he failed. A
hospital tried to revive him -- it failed. His doctor pronounced him dead at three o'clock this
afternoon. – NBC Nightly News with John Chancellor and David Brinkley
Note: In this case, the whole (hospital) stands in for one of its parts (the attending physician and
health care workers).
· "Give us this day our daily bread." – Matthew 6:11
Note: In this case, the part (bread) stands in for the whole (food and perhaps other necessities of
life)
· "And I began a little quiet campaign of persuasion with certain editors, seeking to show the
unlimited possibilities for education and amusement. One would have thought that we would find
willing ears on the part of the newspapers." – Lee De Forest
Note: Two instances of synecdoche. The first uses a part (willing ears) to stand for the whole
(persons in charge of making the decisions). The second uses a part (newspapers) to stand for the
whole (newspaper companies).
Syntax: The order or arrangement of words. Writers can control pacing, tone, and
characterization by the way words are arranged in a sentence. Horse race announcers are
infamous for their syntax when describing the position of jockeys and horses coming around the
far turn. Notice in the actual-quote narrative below how the announcer varies the length of
sentences to match the pace of the running horses. Notice too, the excitement in the announcer’s
voice (denoted by the exclamation marks) as Secretariat becomes the first Triple Crown winner
in 25 years:
· “Sham is dropping back. It looks like they'll catch him today, as My Gallant and Twice a Prince
are both coming up to him now. But Secretariat is all alone! He's out there almost a sixteenth of a
mile away from the rest of the horses! Secretariat is in a position that seems impossible to catch.
He's into the stretch. Secretariat leads this field by eighteen lengths, and now Twice a Prince has
taken second and My Gallant has moved back to third. They're in the stretch. Secretariat has
opened a twenty-two length lead! He is going to be the Triple Crown winner! Here comes
Secretariat to the wire. An unbelievable, an amazing performance! He hits the finish twenty-five
lengths in front! It's going to be Twice a Prince second, My Gallant third, Private Smiles fourth,
and Sham, who had it today, dropped back to fifth.” – Chet Anderson, 1973 Belmont Stakes.
Note: Most of the time, syntax refers to the actual order of the words in the sentence:
· In Star Wars, the Jedi Master, Yoda, said to the young Luke Skywalker, "Strong is
Vader. Mind what you have learned. Ave you it can." Yoda also said, "Stopped they must
be; on this all depends. Only a fully-trained Jedi Knight, with the Force as his ally, will
conquer Vader and his Emperor." · In Lord of the Rings, the murderous Gollum (who had a split personality) said, "Oh
cruel Hobbit. It does not care if we be hungry." The Rhetoric: This was a treatise of Aristotle’s notes from lectures to his students in the
fourth century BC. Aristotle may not have intended to publish these notes, but the
Rhetoric is generally credited with influencing the development of rhetorical theory from
ancient through modern times. Rhetoric is regarded by many rhetoricians as "the most
important single work on persuasion ever written," and some communications theorists
contend that "all subsequent rhetorical theory is but a series of responses to issues raised"
by Aristotle's Rhetoric. Understatement: deliberately expresses an idea as less important than it actually is,
either for ironic emphasis or for politeness and tact. Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her
person for the worse. --Jonathan Swift You know I would be a little disappointed if you
were to be hit by a drunk driver at two a.m., so I hope you will be home early. War is not
healthy for children and other living things. !