Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity
Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 – 11 July 2007
Kamerling Onnes Building, room A144, Steenschuur 25, Leiden
Program
Monday 9 July 2007
8.30 – 8.50 hrs
Reception participants
8.50 – 9.20 hrs
Opening ceremony
Prof. dr Max Sparreboom, Director, International Institute for Asian Studies
Prof. dr Xu Daming, Director, Nanjing University Sociolinguistic Laboratory
Prof. dr Vincent J. van Heuven, Project director, Phonetic Institute, Leiden University
Prof. dr Li Yuming, Director-General Department of Language Information
Administration Ministry of Education China
Prof. dr Werner Kallmeyer, Head of Pragmatics Section, Institut für Deutsche Sprache
Chair: Dr Marinus van den Berg
9.20 – 10.05 hrs
Prof. dr Li Yuming
Director-General Department of Language Information Administration MOE China:
中国的语言规划
Language Planning in the People’s Republic of China
10.05 – 10.20 hrs
Coffee break
10.20 – 11.00 hrs
Prof. dr Abram de Swaan
University Professor Social Sciences, University of Amsterdam
Chinese in the Global Language System
11.00 – 11.40 hrs
Prof. dr Benjamin Tsou
Head of Research, City University of Hong Kong, China
Accelerated Urbanization, Triglossia and Language Shift. A Case Study from China
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
2
12.45 – 14.30 hrs
Lunch break
Special program presenters
Chair: Prof. dr Xu Daming
14.30 – 15.15 hrs
Prof. dr You Rujie
Chinese Department, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
A Real time survey of the Shanghai dialect vocabulary
15.15 – 16.00 hrs
Prof. dr Xue Caide
Chinese Department, Shanghai University, China
上海市大中学校学生语言生活状况的调查
A study of the language behaviour of high school and university students in Shanghai
16.00 – 16.20 hrs
Coffee break
16.20 – 17.00 hrs
Prof. dr Marinus van den Berg
Leiden University Centre for Linguistics, Leiden University
Language, Age groups, and Identity in Shanghai
A study of language use in one market and four department stores
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
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Tuesday 10 July 2007
Chair: Prof. dr Benjamin Tsou
9.00 - 9.45 hrs
Prof. dr Hans van de Velde
Utrecht Instituut of Linguistics OTS, Utrecht University
Regional Variation in Standard Dutch Pronunciation
9.45 – 10.30 hrs
Prof. dr Cor van Bree
Emeritus Professor Dutch Language, Leiden University
Randstad Dutch
10.30 – 10.50 hrs
Coffee break
10.50 – 11.35 hrs
Prof. dr Vincent J. van Heuven
Phonetic Institute, Leiden University
Mutual Intelligibility of Chinese Dialects: Results from Functional Tests
11.35 – 12.20 hrs
Prof. dr Jadranka Gvozdanović
Slavic Department, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität, Heidelberg, Germany
The role of urban vernaculars in identity-construction processes in Eastern Europe
12.20 – 14.00 hrs
Lunch break
Chair: Prof. dr Werner Kallmeyer
Overseas Chinese Session
14.00 – 14.45 hrs
Prof. dr Frank Pieke
Institute of Chinese Studies, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
Past and Present in Chinese Migration to Europe
14.45 – 15.30 hrs
Prof. dr Benjamin Tsou
Head of Research, City University of Hong Kong, China
Chinese Minorities in European Urban Settings
15.30 – 15.50 hrs
Coffee break
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
4
15.50 – 16.35 hrs
Prof. dr Guo Xi 郭 熙
华文学院 & 海外华语研究中心, 暨南大学
National Center for overseas Huayu Research, Jinan University, China
华语的向心化和当地化
16.35 – 17.20 hrs
Prof. dr Dipika Mukherjee
Affiliated Fellow, International Institute for Asian Studies
Language Choice of the Minority Indian Communities in Malaysia
17.30 – 18.30 hrs
Drinks at Oude UB
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
5
Wednesday 11 July 2007
Chair: Prof. dr You Rujie
9.00 – 9.50 hrs
Prof. dr Tang Zhixiang
Chinese Department, Shenzhen University, China
深圳：一座移民城市的语言态度与语言选择
The Language Attitude and Language Choice among Different Social Ranks in
Shenzhen
9.55 – 10.40 hrs
Prof. dr Ch’en Shu-chuan
Hsinchu Education University, Taiwan
台灣南投閩南語、國語語言活力的消長
The rise of Mandarin and the fall of Min dialect in Nantou, Taiwan: A report on the
language competence and use of Nantou students
10.40 – 11.00 hrs
Coffee break
11.00 – 11.45 hrs
Prof. dr Xu Daming
Director Nanjing University Sociolinguistic Laboratory, China
Optimality Theory and Variability: The case of Mandarin nasal rhymes
11.45 – 12.30 hrs
Prof. dr Qian Nairong
Emeritus professor Shanghai University, China
二十年里上海方言向奉贤南桥扩散的结果
The result of the spread of the Shanghai dialect toward Fengxian and Nanqiao
12.30 – 14.00 hrs
Lunch break
Chair: Prof. dr Vincent van Heuven
14.00 – 14.45 hrs
Prof. dr Richard VanNess Simmons
Chinese Department, Rutgers University, USA
Measuring Lexical Competition in the Four Contending Dialect Types of Jiītán County
14.45 – 15.30 hrs
Prof. dr Werner Kallmeyer
Head of Pragmatics section, Institut für Deutsche Sprache, Mannheim, Germany
Language variation, communicative social styles and social processes
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
6
15.30 – 15.50 hrs
Coffee break
15.50 – 16.50 hrs
Panel discussion: Concluding remarks and Planning
Fudan University project director: Prof. dr You Rujie [final panel]
Hong Kong City University project director: Prof. dr Benjamin Tsou [final panel]
Concluding session
Publication papers
Next conference
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
7
Collected abstract in Order of Presentation
Language Planning in the People’s Republic of China
Prof. dr Li Yuming
Department of Language Information Administration MOE China
The Language Commission of the People’s Republic of China
Language Planning: Three stages
In the first stage (October 1949 – January 1986) inherited problems were resolved
and the major tasks we set for ourselves were “the simplification of the Chinese
characters, the popularization of Putonghua, and the designing and implementation of
the Chinese Pinyin Scheme” (Zhou Enlai 1958). In the second stage (1986 –2005) our
work entered a new era and the tasks confronting us can be summarized as the
regularization, standardization and informationalization of languages and writing
systems. In the third stage (2006 -- ) we aim at “constructing a harmonious language
environment”.
Status Planning and Corpus Planning
The Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, The Law on the State-supported
Languages and Writing Systems of the PRC, The Instructions of the State Council on
the Popularization of Putonghua (February 6, 1956), etc. represent the achievements of
status planning. The main contents of the documents include: a) all nationalities are
equal and the ethnic minorities have the freedom to use and develop their languages and
scripts; b) Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters are for the use of the
whole country; c) Mandarin (the Northern Dialect) is designated the basis for Putonghua
while the pronunciation follows that of Beijing dialect; d) the status of other dialects is
not specified; e) the status of the traditional Chinese characters is not specified; and f)
the status of foreign languages is not specified.
Results of corpus planning in China include the creation of a corpus for many ethnicminority languages, the standardization of the pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar
of Putonghua, the standardization of the writing systems, and the publication of
authoritative dictionaries and other linguistic standards.
Function Planning
Function planning, which has grown out of status planning and corpus planning, is
the newurrent direction of language planning.. Function planning is to plan the social
functions of language. In other words, it is to determine the value and effects of a
language and writing system and all their varieties in the functional domains. The
functional domains include: a) national language (representing the state); b) official
languages (state and regional governments’ working languages), c) educational
languages; d) languages for the mass media (traditional, multi-medial, internet); e)
language services to the public; f) languages for social communications; g) language use
in the fine arts; h) regionally-used ethnic languages or Chinese dialects; i) language use
in daily communication (includes home language), etc. The language contents to fill the
functional slots include: Putonghua (including standardized Chinese characters), ethnic
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
8
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
minority languages (some with modern scripts, others not), Chinese dialects, foreign
languages, traditional Chinese characters, etc.
语言功能规划的基本任务就是填写下面这张表
甲
乙
丙
丁
戊
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
Language functional planning provides a theoretical basis for the construction of a
harmonious language environment. The government plans the language environment,
not the languages themselves. Multilingualism (the use of more than one language and
dialect) is the type of language life to be promoted. The dialectic unity of majority and
diversity is to be insisted on. We uphold the notion of language resources and treasure
human languages with its dialects. Through functional planning, we may find all
language varieties their positions and their appropriate functions and let them play out
all their specialties and potentials.
中国的语言规划（摘要）
中国国家语言文字工作委员会 李宇明教授
一、中国语言规划三阶段
第一阶段(1949 年 10 月－1986 年 1 月）：回答历史提出的语言文字问题。主要任务是
“简化汉字，推广普通话，制定和推行汉语拼音方案”。”（周恩来 1958 年《当前文字改革的任
务》）。第二阶段（1986 年－2005 年）：1986 年语言文字工作进入新时期。主要任务可以
概括为“三化”：语言文字的规范化、标准化和信息化。第三阶段（2006 年－）：“构建和谐的
语言生活”。
二、语言的地位规划与本体规划
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
9
《中华人民共和国宪法》、《中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法》、《国务院关于推广
普通话的指示》（1956 年 2 月 6 日）等，代表着中国语言的地位规划成果。其基本情况是：
1、各民族语言平等，少数民族有使用和发展语言文字的自由；2、普通话和规范汉字是国家通
用的语言文字；3、北京语音是普通话的标准音，北方话是普通话的基础方言。4、没有规定其
他方言的法律地位；5、没有规定繁体字的法律地位；6、没有规定外国语在中国的法律地位。
中国也做了大量的语言本体规划，如：一些少数民族语言的本体规划；普通话的语音、语
汇、语法标准，文字标准等；出版了一些重要字典，制定了一些规范标准。
三、语言功能规划
功能规划是语言规划的新进展，是语言地位规划和本体规划的结合与延伸。其任务是规划
各功能层次的语言作用，或者说是规划各种语言（包括文字）及其变体在各功能层次的价值与
作用。比如语言的功能层次有：A.国语（代表国家）；B.官方工作语言（国家、地方）；C.教
育；D.大众传媒（平面、音像、网络）；E.公共服务；F.公众交际；G.文化；H.民族或方言
区域内交际；I.日常生活交际（包括家庭）等。中国的语言现象主要有：甲、普通话（包括规
范字）；乙、少数民族语言：有现代文字的、无现代文字的；丙、汉语方言；丁、外国语；
戊、繁体字等。
语言功能规划的基本任务就是填写下面这张表
甲
乙
丙
丁
戊
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
语言功能规划，为构建和谐的语言生活提供了理论基础。政府主要规划的是语言生活，而
不是语言本身。要提倡“多言多语”生活，坚持主体性和多样性的辩证统一。树立语言资源观
念，珍爱人类的语言及其方言。通过功能规划，使各种语言及其变体各安其位，各得其用，各
展其长。
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
10
A real time survey of Shanghai dialect vocabulary
Prof. dr You Rujie
Fudan University
We are currently surveying the dialects spoken in urban and suburban district of
Shanghai. The survey involves phonology, vocabulary, syntax and the creation of
phonetic files. The main target is to describe linguistic differences by age grading. A
survey in the same districts was done 25 years ago with aged informants, so what we do
at present is a real time survey. The project will be finished next year. Followed is a
preliminary report.
In this paper I will illustrate some vocabulary differences with a time span of 25
years, statistics will be given and the data will be analyzed separately and synthetically.
The 5 young informants are from downtown Shanghai and suburban districts (Jinshan
and Songjiang). We prepared a word-list with more than 4000 words for investigation,
and the words are divided into the following 29 domains: 1.weather, 2.geography, 3.
season, 4. agriculture, 5.plants, 6.animals, 7. the house, 8. tools, 9. relatives,
10.occupations, 11.body-parts, 12.diseases, 13.clothing, 14. food, 15. customs, 16. daily
life, 17.public affaires, 18. social communication, 19. commerce and traffic, 20.culture
and education, 21 entertainment, 22. verbs, 23. positional words, 24.pronouns, 25.
adjectives, 26 adverbs, conjunctions and prepositions, 27. measure words, 28. particles,
modal words and interjections, 29. combinations of numerals and measure words. The
informants are asked to point out the words they use or understand, and provide the
synonyms not listed if they have.
The results show:
1) Many words are disappearing, and the percentage loss in the downtown area is
higher than in suburban districts, 40% against 20%. See table 1
2)The closed category e.g pronouns and particles is the most stable, and words
connected with weather and geography loss most rapidly. See table 2
3)We found three main reasons caused word disappearing, they are a) young people
prefer to choose the words from national language. b) Young people gave up the outdated
words. c) The words denotes the disappeared things lost naturally.
Table 1
Preserved % of urban and suburban
areas
preserved %
78%
80%
70%
62%
60%
50%
preserved %
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
urban area
Jinshan
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
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Table 2
90%
82%
80%
71%
69%
70%
60%
47%
50%
47%
lowest preserved %
highest preserved%
38%
40%
30%
20%
10%
ed
su
r
me
a
se
d
cl
o
on
it
i
po
s
ap
hy
og
r
er
ge
at
h
we
ag
ri
c
ul
t
ur
e
0%
上海市大中学校学生语言生活状况的调查（草稿）
上海大学 薛才德
【提要】本文在调查问卷基础上，对数据统计分析表明，上海大中学校的学生
在日常生活中普遍使用上海话和普通话两种方言，年纪越小使用普通话的频率越
高。有部分学生从小就习得上海话和普通话，还有一部分学生是先习得普通话，然
后再学会上海话的。在公共场所如商场、超市、书店等等地方，使用普通话的频率
超过上海话。在家庭场合，上海话仍然占据着优势，普通话也有很大的活动空间。
有三分之二分学生认为自己说的最流利的语言是普通话，绝大多数的学生认为自己
能说标准或稍带口音的普通话。绝大多数的学生喜欢看用普通话配音的电视剧。学
生认为最好听的话首先是普通话，其次才是上海话。对“将来方言会消亡，普通话
将成为全国的唯一通用语”看法，学生持不同意观点的人数大大超过持同意观点的
人数。笔者提出，现在也许已到应该考虑如何保护方言的时候了
关键词：调查问卷 语言习得 语言使用 语言态度
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
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Language, Age groups, and Identity in Shanghai
A study of language use in one market and four department stores
Prof. dr Marinus van den Berg
Leiden University
This paper provides data of actual language use in two areas in Shanghai It opens with
a discussion of language use in one street and one market in Shanghai’s Baoshan 宝山
district, and continues with an analysis of language use in four department stores in the
popular Xuajiahui 徐家汇 shopping area. The street data provide a clear picture of the
impact of PTH among members of the younger generation, and of its use as lingua
franca among multilingual groups, whereas the older generation seems almost
untouched by that language. The market data provided a first glimpse of the impact of
migrant workers in such a setting and the role they play in spreading the use of PTH as
a lingua franca. The Xujiahui study confirmed the association between life style and the
use of PTH, demonstrating that the level of PTH almost perfectly associates with the
price level and style of the department stores studied. The use of PTH is strongest
among the 31-40 age group, whereas the use of SHN is more strongly supported by the
teenage / young adult group of 16-20 years. We conclude that PTH moves through fours
stages; 1. acquisition, 2. identity formation in the younger generation and resistance to
PTH, 3. further adjustment to PTH in the work sphere and changes in self-presentation.
4. fully developed identities and the use of PTH as part of that identity.
Regional Variation in Standard Dutch Pronunciation
Prof. dr Hans van de Velde
UiL OTS
Utrecht University
The Netherlands and Flanders (the northern part of Belgium) share the same language
(Dutch), but it is generally accepted that in the course of the 20th century two
pronunciation standards have developed in the Low Countries: one in the Netherlands
and one in Flanders. This divergence was shown in a real time study of Dutch and
Flemish broadcast speech by Van de Velde, Van Hout & Gerritsen (1997).
However, it was observed that both in the Netherlands and Flanders (i) regional
characteristics were not uncommon in the formal speech of highly educated speakers
and (ii) some pronunciation characteristics from the core area were spreading to other
regions in the community. These observations were the basis for a new research project,
aiming at (i) a detailed inventory of pronunciation variation in standard Dutch, (ii) the
evaluation of this variation in terms of optimum and acceptability, (iii) the development
of protocols for the acoustic analysis of large field-work data sets, (iv) the analysis of
patterns of co-variation.
The corpus consists of 160 speakers (teachers of Dutch), stratified for community
(The Netherlands vs. Flanders), region (4 in each community), age (2) and sex (2). A
sociolinguistic questionnaire was developed to elicit different speech styles. In the first
part of the presentation it will be explained how the regions and speakers were selected,
and how the questionnaire was constructed. In the second part, we will present some
results of this study and demonstrate the existence of regional varieties of standard
Dutch, and their relationship.
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
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References:
Van de Velde, H., R. van Hout & M. Gerritsen (1997). Watching Dutch change: A real
time study of variation and change in standard Dutch pronunciation. Journal of
Sociolinguistics 1 (3), pp. 361-391.
Randstad Dutch
Prof. dr Cor van Bree
Leiden University
Randstad is the name for the conurbation (Amsterdam, The Hague, Rotterdam etc.) in
the western part of the Netherlands (Holland in the strict sense of the word). It is the
region in which Standard Dutch came into being in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.
However, this does not mean that in Holland Standard Dutch is spoken by everyone in
all situations: there are also substandard and even superstandard Dutch. There is a
subtle interplay between these varieties and the standard language as will be
demonstrated by phonological examples.
Randstad is de naam voor de stedelijke agglomeratie ( ) in het westelijk deel van
Nederlands (Holland in de strikte zin van het woord). Het is de regio waarin StandaardNederlands ontstond in de 16e, 17e en 18e eeuw. Dit betekent echter niet dat in Holland
Standaard-Nederlands door iedereen in alle situaties wordt gesproken: er bestaat ook
substandaard en zelfs superstandaard Nederlands. Er is een subtiele wisselwerking
tussen deze variëteiten en de standaardtaal zoals aan fonologische voorbeelden zal
worden aangetoond.
Mutual Intelligibility of Chinese Dialects
Results from Functional Tests
Chaoju Tang* & Prof. dr Vincent J. van Heuven
Phonetics Laboratory, Leiden University Centre for Linguistics. the Netherlands
*Also at Chongqing Jiaotong University, P. R. China
It has been claimed that mutual intelligibility between Chinese dialects cannot be tested
in any valid way (Cheng 1997). Last year, however, we reported the results of a largescale study on mutual intelligibility among 15 Chinese dialects, using intelligibility
judgments given by native listeners of these dialects. Since judgments (opinion scores)
are not necessarily a valid reflection of true mutual intelligibility (after all, the
judgments may be wrong), we will now present a follow-up study, in which we tested the
actual mutual intelligibility for the same set of dialects using so-called functional
methods.
We ran functional intelligibility tests on the level of isolated words (using 150
endogenous core words that commonly exist in the 15 Chinese dialects) and 60 SPIN
(Speech Perception in Noise) sentences (Kalikow, Stevens & Elliott, 1977) translated
into (Standard Mandarin) Chinese. In the SPIN test the listener has to write down only
the final word of a sentence, which can be recognized better as the listener recognizes
more of the earlier words in the sentence, as in He wore his broken arm in a sling (target
word underlined).
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
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We collected data for each dialect by playing the word part and the sentence part
(both were recorded from one male and one female native speaker for each of the 15
dialects) spoken in 15 Chinese dialects to 15 listeners in each dialect (in all 15 × 15 = 225
combinations of speaker and listener dialects). Word intelligibility was determined by
having listeners perform a semantic categorization task whereby words had to be
classified as one of ten different categories such as body part, plants, animals, etc.
Sentence intelligibility was estimated by having the listener translate the target word in
each sentence into his/her own dialect. The experiments were designed such that (i) each
listener heard each of the words and sentences only once, (ii) each of the 15 listeners in
one dialect group heard each version of a word in a different dialect, while (iii) at the
same time every listener heard one-fifteenth of the materials in each of the 15 dialects
(stimuli were blocked over listeners in a Latin square design). This was done to make
sure that earlier recognition of a word in one dialect would not unduly facilitate the
recognition of the same word in one of the other dialects, and to make sure that every
listener contributed equally to his/her peer group.
In total we collected 47,250 data (15*150*15 for the word part + 15*60*15 for the
sentence part). We also had at our disposal structural similarity measures (lexical
similarity, phonological similarity) for each pair of the 15 Chinese dialects published by
Cheng (1997), as well as our own earlier judgment scores (see above). The results show
that functional (mutual) intelligibility is better predicted from structural similarity by
intelligibility tests at the sentence level than at the level of isolated words. Furthermore,
the genealogy tree generated from the isolated word scores is more similar to that
generated from the objective similarity tree in that most southern dialects group
together except Meixian, while the tree based on sentence intelligibility almost perfectly
reflects the clear split of Northern group and Southern group agreed with the traditional
classification of Chinese dialects, and it agrees to the split of dendrogram tree from
objective PCI (phonological Corresponding Index) except Changsha dialect (Tang & van
Heuven, 2007). The scatterplots illustrate that the word scores and sentence scores are
reasonably highly correlated (r2 = .69). Also, both the sentence scores and the word
scores moderately correlate with the intelligibility judgment scores (with melody; see our
previous judged/opinion test) at r2 = .59 and r2 = .52, respectively. Crucially, the
objective distance measures (PCI, LSI) afford better prediction of functional
intelligibility scores than of judgment scores. Tree structures based on functional
intelligibility data correspond better to traditional genealogies of Chinese dialects than
do tree structures based on our earlier judgment data. Although judgment scores have
often been advanced as a shortcut to intelligibility testing, our results show that there is
nothing better than the real thing, i.e. intelligibility tested functionally.
References
Cheng, C.C. (1997), Measuring Relationship among Dialects: DOC and Related
Resources, Computational Linguistics & Chinese Language Processing 2.1, 41-72.
Kalikow, D. N. and K. N. Stevens, L. L. Elliott (1977). ‘Development of a test of speech
intelligibility in noise using sentence materials with controlled word predictability’.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 61, 1337 - 1351.
Tang, C. and V.J. van Heuven (2007). Predicting mutual intelligibility in Chinese
dialects. In W. Barry and J. Trouvain (eds) Proceedings of the 16th International
Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Saarbrücken (in press).
Industrialization, Language Contact, and Identity Formation in China and Europe
Leiden, the Netherlands
9 - 11 July 2007
15
The Role of Urban Venaculars in Identity-construction Processes
in Eastern Europe
Prof. dr Jadranka Gvozdanović
Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg
The presentation focusses on three distinct cases of urban vernaculars in Eastern
Europe (the capitals of Russia, the Czech Republic, and Croatia), each with a different
historical-dialectal and social background, different acceptance of regional vernacular,
and different processes of identity construction. In the changing Eastern Europe of the
past decennia, identity construction can be shown to depend on ideological factors next
to sociolinguistic ones.
Past and Present in Chinese Migration to Europe
Prof. dr Frank Pieke
University of Oxford
Migration from China has fundamentally changed in the past 25 years. Much has been
written on the benefits and threats of different types of Chinese migration flows for
receiving countries. Almost equally much has been written about the many forms of
Chinese transnationalism and cosmopolitanism brought forth by the new Chinese
migration. This paper discusses the new types of migratory flows emanating from China
with a focus on ethnic identity formation, competition and cooperation between different
migrant Chinese groups, both new and old, in different settings in Europe, North
America and Africa. The paper concludes with some observations on future changes in
the pattern of Chinese migration and their impact on the world migration order.
华语的向心化和当地化
郭 熙 Prof. dr Guo Xi
暨南大学 Jinan University
华文学院 & 海外华语研究中心
National Center for overseas Huayu Research
本文从语言传播的角度，在全球化下的本土化(glocalization)的背景下， 讨论围绕“华语”
所展现的有关问题。作为全球华人的共同语的华语有许多变体，学界逐步形成了“全球华语”
（Global Huayu）的概念。拿这个概念跟所谓的 WE(World Englishes)现象进行对比观照，
会发现许多不同：它既不像 WE 那样，差别很小，也看不出会像历史上有的语言那样分化成
不同的方言或不同的语言。从语言传播的角度审视这些现象，有助于对全球华语的形成和发展
的机制的认识。
观察发现，无论是华语的多名，还是各地华语尽管有异却“疏而不离”，都可以看出影响语
言因素的多样性。政治，国家、民族和文化认同，语言本体及其介质，语言接触等等，无一不
在影响着华语的发展，而不同情况下各种因素影响的比重会有一定程度上的差异。
从各地华语及其使用的情况看，向心化和当地化这对孪生兄弟将会一直形影不离。然
而，由于语言政策、语言地位、语言规划和语言环境的不同，由于国家、民族和文化认同上的
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差别，向心化和当地化的主导方向会有所不同，但从根本上说，核心区语主的“实力”（包括如
经济、人口、文化认同、汉字为介质下的共同书面语等）将是影响华语发展方向的主导因素。
另一方面，核心区的绝对支配力可能并不存在。核心区华语传播得越广，使用华语的人越
多，华语变异和变化的机会就越大。华语的所谓“方言化”现象等，并不意味着华语的“污染”，
在某种意义上却是华语生命力的表现。中国大陆（包括方言区地方普通话和民族地区的普通话
民族变体）、香港、澳门、台湾、新加坡、马来西亚等地各自的华语变体的事实促使我们在研
究不同的语言变异和变化的问题时，除社会语言学常用的调查分析外，充分考虑到所研究语言
自身的特点和不同的视角。
Language Choice of the Minority Indian Communities in Malaysia
Prof. dr Dipika Mukherjee
International Institute for Asian Studies
Language in immigrant communities is characterized by the dialectic of persistence and
adaptation, and the socio-political forces behind these choices among Malaysian-Indian
communities is what I explore in this paper. This paper will focus on the code-choice
among multilingual Bengali women in Malaysia and examine the connections between
their language choices and identity, and then draw a comparison with other minority
Indian groups in Malaysia The languages in contact within the Malysian-Bengali
community are primarily Bengali, English and Malay, but some speakers are also fluent
in Tamil or Hindi.
The study of language as a political or economic entity becomes even more salient in a
country like Malaysia which is undergoing rapid economic growth and industrialization
so that language and job opportunities are interlinked, but at the same time the strong
Asian value systems that link languages to religion are also something that cannot be
discounted. The political system is such that there is a dominant Malay race and its
language is enforced on the other races through the government policy on education.
Though the politics of language enforcement is within a framework of a benign quasidemocratic system, there is some spillover political and interracial tension which affect
the language choices of the different migrant communities in different ways.
深圳：一座移民城市的语言态度与语言选择
汤志祥
论文提要：
深圳是中国一座典型的移民城市。目前全市 1300 万人口（包括常住居民、暂
住居民以及流动人口）占压倒性的绝大多数是来自全国各地的移民。
虽然深圳地处粤客方言区，而且周边的大城市香港、广州、东莞、澳门都是通
行着粤语，但是急促的城市生活节奏使得这些原本说着中国各地的方言的城市居民
无法慢慢融入原本当地的粤语社区的语言生活，在日常工作以及生活中他们都自觉
地或者不自觉地说普通话，使得这座城市成为了岭南地区唯一的一座通行普通话的
地区。
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为了调查近年来这座城市移民的语言态度与语言选择，我们自 2004 年至今连
续三年关注各行业的，包括工业、商业、服务业、旅游业以及大中学校的语言情
况。调查结果显示：上个世纪 90 年代以来普通话已经逐渐代替了广州话，成为了
这座城市的第一语言。然而在这座新兴的工商业城市里，广州话依然有着它的生命
力。
The Language Attitude and Language Choice among
Different Social Ranks in Shenzhen
Prof. dr Tang Zhixiang
Shenzhen University
The great majority of currents residents now in Shenzhen are from nearly all parts of the
country, who are speaking different main 7 dialects of Chinese language. A research was
been made during the past three years to investigate their language attitude and language
choice among different social ranks, including industrial, business, education, service and
tourist trades and so on..
The survey focuses on the language attitude and choice between two main languages:
Putonghua (Mandarin) and Cantonese when people use them in their routine work or
daily life. The conclusion tells that Putonghua has already become the first language in
this city instead of Cantonese now.
台灣南投閩南語、國語語言活力的消長
--南投學童的語言能力及語言使用的調查研究
台灣國立新竹教育大學語文學系 陳淑娟
南投過去是傳統的閩南語區，台灣推行國語運動半世紀以來，對各地的語言生態造成很
大的影響，本研究要探究現在南投各語言的活力消長及語言變遷。我們以南投縣的國小五年級
以及國中的學童為調查對象，採用問卷調查法，調查 2479 人，瞭解南投學童的語言能力及各
場域的語言使用。
南投國中、小學童的第一語言有 88%是國語，39.6%是閩南語，其中 27.6%的第一語言是
閩南語和國語，由此可以看出國語變成南投學童最主要的第一語言。對照他們現在說得最流利
的語言，只有 8.4%的南投學童認為閩南語說得最流利，88%的學童認為國語是最流利的語
言，自認為最流利的語言是閩南語和國語的有 6%。第一語言是閩南語的學童有 39.6%，然而
現在最流利語言是閩南語的只剩下 14.4%，從這裡我們看出南投閩南語的活力在快速衰退。而
在各領域的語言使用中，國語也成為南投學童最常使用的語言。各場域中，家庭及宗教是相對
比較常使用閩南語的場域，然而在家庭最常使用閩南語的比例只有 19.1%，祭拜時最常使用閩
南語的比例也只有 19.4％。其他場域最常使用閩南語的比例都很低，在學校最常使用閩南語的
只有 2.3%，與朋友交談最常使用閩南語的只有 5.8%，去商店買東西最常使用閩南語的只有
2.6%。而在家庭場域中，南投學童與不同年齡層的家人使用閩南語的比例也呈現很大的差異，
他們與祖父母最常使用閩南語的比例還有 63.4%，然而與爸爸、媽媽最常使用閩南語的比例卻
降到 18.9%與 14.6%，與兄弟姊妹最常使用閩南語的比例只有 10.8%。
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由南投學童的第一語言、最流利的語言以及各場域的語言使用，我們發現國語活力最
強，國語已經取代閩南語，成為南投學童的第一語言、最流利語言以及各場域最主要使用的語
言。南投過去最主要使用的閩南語已經逐漸退出各場域，下一個世代南投即將變成國語區。
關鍵詞：南投、閩南語、國語、語言能力、語言使用
The rise of Mandarin and the fall of Min dialect in Nantou, Taiwan
--A report on the language competence and use of Nantou students
Prof. dr Ch’en Shu-chuan
National Hsinchu Education University
Nantou used to be a traditional Min language district. The linguistic ecology has
been significantly affected since the Mandarin Chinese popularization campaign was
implemented in Taiwan half a century ago. This research is to investigate the rise and
fall as well as the changes of the languages in the district. The investigation is carried
out in the form of questionnaire to 2479 students attending fifth grade elementary
schools and junior middle schools. The purpose is to find out their language competence
and performance on different social occasions.
Of all the subjects, 88% are native speakers of Mandarin, 39.6% are native speakers
of Min, and 27.6% are native speakers of both languages. It indicates that Mandarin
has become the first language of most students in Nantou. When asked which language
they are most fluent in, only 8.4% consider it to be Min; 88% hold it for Mandarin; 6%
hold it to be both. The decrease from 39.6% to 14.1% (8.4% and 6%) shows that the vigor
of Min is declining. As for language use in various occasions, Mandarin has become the
most frequently used language. Of all fields, families and religious occasions are
comparatively more frequent fields for Min. Even so, the percentage is only 19.1% in
families and 19.4% on religious occasions. In other fields, it is even lower. In school only
2.3% of the subjects use Min most frequently; only 5.8% use Min in conversations with
friends; 2.6% use it in shopping. In families, the percentage of the subjects’ use of Min
Nan language also varies when they speak to families members of different ages. 63.4%
use Min more frequently with their grandparents; only 18.9% and14.6% when talking to
parents; only 10.8% speak it to their siblings.
Judging from the percentage of Nantou students’ first language, their most
frequently spoken language and language use on different occasions, we conclude that
Mandarin is more vigorous. It has already replaced Min in being the first, the most
fluently spoken and the most frequently used language. Min, which used to be the most
frequently-used language, is gradually retiring from all occasions. For the next
generation, Nantou is going to be a Mandarin-dominant district.
key words: Nantou, Min, Mandarin, language competence, language use
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Optimality Theory and Variability: The case of Mandarin nasal rhymes
Prof. dr Xu Daming
Nanjing University
The attempts of applying Optimality Theory (OT) to phonological variations (Kiparsky
1993, Anttila 1997, Anttila & Cho 1998, Attila 2002, among others) have gained
moderate successes. The problems with those studies include the assumption of
“multiple-grammar” and the functionally-vacuous operations for the generation of
variants. However, the critical vulnerability of such proposal in OT lies among its
heritage from the generative grammar, i.e., “well-formedness” condition and the “free
variation” assumption.
The present study, while accepting the basic assumptions of OT, such as constraint
ranking and the relativity of grammaticality, proposes a new model of OT to account for
language variations. This new model also uses a hierarchy of constraints to evaluate the
grammaticality of the candidates for output. While it can select the optimal output, as
the previous models do, the new model has the additional function of evaluating the
degree of grammaticality of all candidates.
The sociolinguistic investigations usually yield naturally-occurring language data
and the data include typically variably-realized phonological forms. In this study we use
this kind of data to test the new model of OT. The linguistic variable is the realization of
the nasal rhymes in Mandarin Chinese. The community under investigation is the
Kundulun District of the Baotou City, which is located in the northwestern part of China.
Over 6 000 tokens of nasal rhyme realizations were transcribed from spontaneous
speech taken from a sociolinguistic corpus collected through the community
investigation.
Eight different forms of realization of Mandarin nasal rhymes were identified from
the performance data, which correspond to the results of previous analyses in phonology
and phonetics (Cheng 1973, Barale 1982, Xu 1992, Fang 2004, among others). However,
the different forms are found to have different rates of occurrence in the natural-speech
data. As this is a persistent characteristic of linguistic variation, we propose to designate
the frequency-based ranking of the variants “realizability”. Consequently the eight forms
of Mandarin nasal rhymes are all ranked in realizability.
An OT tableau is designed including all the eight variants as the candidates for
evaluation. However, it is different from the conventional tableaus in that the
candidates are already ranked by their realizability and none is labeled failure by the
application of the constraints. The tableau is conventional in the constraint part and
three constraints are included: *VCC>>*adjust nucleus>>*delete segments>>*insert
segments. The results are that the hierarchy of the constraints explains not only the
position of the best candidate, which is at the top of the realizability rank, but also all
the rest positions in the rank.
By replacing the “well-formedness” condition with realizability, which has a better
empirical basis, the OT model enhances the explanatory power of the theory.
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Measuring Lexical Competition
in the Four Contending Dialect Types of Jiītán County
Prof. dr Richard VanNess Simmons
Rutgers University
Jīntán County in Southern Jiāngsū is historically a Wú speaking region whose
native dialect shares many similarities with that of Dānyáng to the north and
Chángzhōu to the east. But displacement of the population that occurred in the wake of
the Tàipíng rebellion in the mid 19th century followed by an influx of large numbers of
speakers of Southern Jiāng-Huái Mandarin from north of the Yangtze River, dotted the
county with villages of speakers of northern Chinese, forming numerous Mandarin
dialect islands (Simmons 1999, and Simmons, Shi & Gu 2006). Though the Mandarin
spoken in these dialect islands differs markedly from the Northern Standard based on
the Běijīng dialect, the prestige of the latter in the form of Pǔtōnghuà has fostered a
powerful influence in the former in recent times. This has led to the development of a
hybrid Mandarin dialect in the county seat, which has displaced the native Wú dialect
as the language of common, local currency in this growing urban center. The result is a
situation in which four distinct dialect types are in contention: the conservative native
countryside dialect (Wú in origin), the conservative city dialect (Wú in origin), the
northern migrant dialect (Jiāng-Huái Mandarin in provenance), the new city dialect (a
hybrid Mandarin dialect). Through a comparison of a sampling of the basic lexicon of
representative speakers of these four different dialect types, the present study analyzes
the makeup of the new--and still developing--city dialect with regard to how much it
shares with each of the other contending dialects as well as with Pǔtōnghuà (Standard
Chinese). We look at the specific Mandarin and Wú composition of the dialect and gauge
the shape it has taken in the competitive environment of language contact seen in
Jīntán county. The resulting picture is of a newly forming language that is clearly
Mandarin in nature, that is strongly drawn to the national standard of Pǔtōnghuà, and
that eschews clearly native Wú elements, but which still retains a strong local character.
Language variation, communicative social styles and social processes
Prof. dr Werner Kallmeyer
Institut für Deutsche Sprache
The aim of this paper is to show some general features of the interplay between
linguistic and social dynamics in processes of social incorporation and exclusion. The
paper is based on a series of case studies on the German as well as the migrant
population of Mannheim, a German city of about 300.000 inhabitants in the middle of a
densely populated region. The languages and varieties involved are, at least, varieties of
German which cover the range from standard German to the local dialect, migrant
languages such as varieties of Turkish and Italian and specific mixed language practices
which symbolize migrants’ situation in between two cultures. It will be shown that both,
language competence and communicative social styles are to be considered as crucial
elements of self and other definitions of social identities and of social positioning in
relation to different social worlds. Observations of this type may help us to understand
ongoing linguistic and social processes such as, e.g. changes in the role of dialect in the
communication practices of young Germans and changes in migrants’ ways of handling
repertoires of German and home languages.
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