Chapter 2: Studying Geography, Economics, and Citizenship
Lesson 2.1 – Studying Geography
I. Displaying the Earth’s Surface
A. A globe of the Earth best shows the sizes of continents and the shapes of landmasses and
bodies of water. They also show true distance and direction.
1. Maps are flat drawings that can shows small areas in great detail.
2. Maps can show many things, however they can’t show true size, shape,
distance and direction because they are flat drawings of a round object.
B. Globes and maps have some things in common.
1. Both are marked with imaginary lines that divide the Earth into hemispheres.
C. Hemispheres
1. The Equator divides the Earth into “half spheres” or hemispheres.
2. Everything north of the Equator is in the Northern Hemisphere, whereas
everything south of the Equator is in the Southern hemisphere.
1. _____________Hemisphere
3. _____________Hemisphere
4. _____________Hemisphere
2. _____________Hemisphere
3. The Prime Meridian divides the Earth into Eastern and Western hemispheres.
4. Everything east of the Prime Meridian is in the Eastern hemisphere and
everything west of it is in the Western hemisphere.
D. Finding Places on the Earth
1. Latitude and longitude lines cross, forming a pattern called a grid system.
2. Lines of latitude circle the Earth parallel to the Equator. They measure
distance north or south of the Equator in degrees.
3. Lines of longitude circle the Earth from Pole to Pole. These lines measure
distance east or west of the Prime Meridian.
4. The grid system makes it possible to find the absolute location of a place. This
is the exact spot where a line of latitude crosses a line of longitude.
E. From Globes to Maps
1. Mapmakers create different types of map projections to show the round Earth
on a flat sheet of paper.
F. Map Projections
1. A “Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area projection” map shows continents close to
their true shapes and sizes.
2. The Mercator projection shows true direction and land shapes fairly accurately.
It does not, however, show correct size or distance.
3. The Robinson projection is less distorted, and the Winkel Tripel projection
gives a good overall view of the continents’ shapes and sizes.
II. Five Themes and Six Essential Elements of Geography
To understand how our world is connected, some geographers have broken the study of geography into
five themes or six essential elements.
A. Five Themes of Geography
1. The Five Themes of Geography are: location, place, human-environment
interaction, movement, and regions.
B. Six Essential Elements
1. The World in Spatial Terms: Geographers first take a look at where the place is
located. By asking “where is it?” you begin to develop an awareness of the
world around you.
2. Places and Region: Place refers to where something is, but also what a place is
like. It might describe physical and/or human characteristics. To organize their
study, geographers often group places into regions
that are united by one or more
common characteristics.
3. Physical Systems: Geographers study how physical systems, such as
hurricanes, volcanoes, and glaciers, shape the Earth’s surface.
4. Human Systems: This refers to how people have shaped our world, and
geographers look at how borders are decided and why people settle in certain
places
5. Environment and Society: How does the relationship between people and their
natural surroundings influence the way we live?
6. The Uses of Geography: Geography helps us understand the relationships
among people, places, and environment.
III. Types of Maps
Geographers use many different types of maps. Maps that show a wide range of information are called
general-purpose maps. These are often collected into one book called an atlas.
A. Physical Maps
1. These maps show land and waters features. The colors used on these maps are
usually brown or green for land and blue for water. They may also use colors to
show elevation, or the height of an area above sea level.
B. Political Maps
1. These maps show the names and border of countries. They also show the
location of cities and other human-made features of a place.
C. Special-Purpose Maps
1. These maps show specific kinds of information, usually patterns such as
climate, natural resources, or population. A road map is an example of a
special-purpose map.
D. Reading Maps
1. An important step in reading a map is to study the map key. This explains the
lines and colors used on a map. It also explains any symbols, or signs and
pictures, used on a map.
2. The map scale is a measuring line that tells you the distance represented on the
map.
3. A map has a symbol called a compass rose that tells you the position of the
cardinal directions: north, south, east, and west. These directions help you to
explain the relative location of any place on Earth.
IV. Using Charts, Graphs, and Diagrams
Charts, graphs, and diagrams are tools for showing information.
A. Charts
1. Charts show facts in an organized way using rows and columns.
B. Graphs
1. Bar graphs use thick, wide lines to compare data.
2. Line graphs show changes over a particular period of time.
3. A climate graph, or climograph, combines a line graph and a bar graph. This
shows the long-term weather patterns in a place.
4. Pie graphs are circular graphs that show how the whole of something is divided
into parts.
5. Diagrams are special drawings. They show steps in a process, point out the
parts of an object, or explain how something works.
V. Population and Culture
Like geographers, historians study population, cultures, and the movement of people, ideas and goods.
Historians are interested in how these things change over time.
A. Population shifts
1. Geographers examine what sorts of people make up a population.
2. Geographers also study how fast a population grows or shrinks over time and
they measure population density, the average number of people living in a square
mile or square kilometer.
3. A choropleth uses colors to show population density.
4. The movement of people from one place to settle in another place is called
migration. Throughout history there have been many migrations of human being.
B. Culture and Change
1. Culture is the set of beliefs, behaviors, and traits shared by the members of a
group. Scholars study cultures by examining the language, religion,
government, and customs of different groups.
2. Throughout history, different peoples have met through exploration,
migration, and trade. These meetings often lead to cultural diffusion. This is
when each group shares part of its culture with the other.
Lesson 2.2 – Exploring Economics
I. What is Economics?
A. Resources and Production
1. In order to make goods and offer services, people need resources: land, labor,
capital, and entrepreneurship.
2. Land includes the surface of the Earth and its natural resources.
3. Labor is the ability of people to do work.
4. Capital is money and goods used to help people make or do things.
5. Entrepreneurship is the act of running a business and taking on the risks of
that business.
6. Technology is using knowledge in a practical way to accomplish a task.
B. Supply and Demand
1. Supply is the amount of a good or service that a producer wants to sell. The
law of supply says that the higher the price you can charge for a good or service,
the more of it you will want to sell.
2. Demand is the amount of something that a consumer wants to buy. The law of
demand says that the lowers the price of a good or service, the more of it people
will want to buy.
3. Scarcity, or lack of a resource, affects supply and demand. When not much of
a needed resource is available, then the demand for it will grow. The higher the
demand will raise the price.
4, Opportunity cost also impacts supply and demand. This is what you give up to
make it or buy it.
II. Managing and Measuring Economies
A. Economic Systems
1. A traditional economy is based on custom. In this economy, members of a
family or tribe make goods for the rest of the group.
2. In a command economy, a central government decides what goods will be
make and who will receive them.
3. In a market economy, the individual makes choices about what to make, sell
or buy.
4. In a mixed economy, the government has some control over what and how
much is made.
B. Measuring Economies
1. When the economy grows quickly, it is often called a boom. When the
economy grows very slowly or shrinks, it is called a recession.
2. Rising prices are a sign of inflation. High inflation means that money buys
less.
III. Trade in World History
A. Why Do People Trade?
1. Countries trade with each other when both sides can gain something from the
exchange. Exports are goods shipped out of a county and sold somewhere else,
and imports are goods and services that a country buys from other countries.
2. Early civilizations often traded by bartering.
B. Barriers to Trade
1. Conflict can stop trade. Geography can make it hard to travel between two
places. Sometimes a country chooses to cut off contact with other peoples. And
nations may try to limit or ban trade that hurts producers in their own country.
C. Global Trade
1. Today, most of the world’s countries take part in some form of international
trade. This is known as globalization.
2. The goal of free trade is a world market where people are free to choose what
to buy and sell.
3. Globalization has increased the ties among the world’s economies.
Lesson 2.3 – Practicing Citizenship
I. Principles of Government
A. The United States has a representative government
1. This means that citizens vote for officials who serve the will of the people.
2. The government must act in the people’s interests and protect their rights.
B. The Constitution created a federal system of government.
1. This means that the central, or federal, government is the highest authority.
2. It also shares some powers with the state governments.
C. Separation of powers
1. The federal government is split into three equal parts, or branches, with their
own specific powers, an idea called “separation of powers”.
2. This was created so that no one branch could become too powerful.
3. Each branch limits the power of the other branches using a system of checks
and balances.
4. The legislative branch is known as the U.S. Congress. It passes laws for the
whole country.
5. The executive branch includes the office of the U.S. President. This branch
ensures that the nation’s laws are carried out.
6. The judicial branch includes the U.S. Supreme Court and various lesser courts.
The judges in the judicial branch use the Constitution to interpret laws.
II. What is Citizenship?
The system of government in the United States provides many freedoms, however it also needs citizens
to carry out certain duties and responsibilities. This idea is called civic participation.
A. Rights of Citizenship
1. All Americans have the right to seek life, liberty, and happiness.
2. They have the right to freedom of expression, meaning they can speak and
write openly.
3. They can also attend peaceful gatherings and petition the government to
address their needs.
4. The Constitution also protects the right of people to worship as they choose.
Also, people accused of a crime have the right to receive a fair trial by a jury of
their peers.
5. Citizens also have the right to vote for public officials and to serve in public
office.
B. Duties and Responsibilities of Citizenship
1. Obeying all federal, state, and local laws is one of the first duties of
citizenship. Citizens also have to pay their taxes to federal, state, and local governments.
Citizens must serve on a jury if the government asks them to. Finally, citizens must be
ready to defend the United States and the Constitution.
C. Being a Global Citizen
1. Being a global citizen means taking care of the environment, and
understanding how people live in other countries.
2. Being a globally citizen does not mean giving up your duties and
responsibilities as a citizen of the United States. It means thinking about how
you can make the world a better place by your actions.