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Unit D:
Changes in
Living Systems
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Important Notes
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Topic 1: Habitat Matters
Term
Definition
Example
Biotic Factor
Abiotic Factor
Ecosystem
Habitat
Nutrient
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Case Study: Planting an Ecosystem on Mars (NASA Release May 6, 2015)
Taming the brutal environment of Mars for future human explorers to survive and thrive there may
demand a touch of “ecopoiesis” – the creation of an ecosystem able to support life.
The NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) Program is funding cutting-edge work by Eugene
Boland, chief scientist at Techshot Inc. of Greenville, Indiana. The scientist has been busy
working in the firm’s “Mars room,” which houses a test chamber capable of simulating the Red
Planet’s atmospheric pressure, day-night temperature changes and the solar radiation that
cascades upon the planet’s surface.
Inside the Mars room, Boland and his team are testing the viability of using ecosystem-building
pioneer organisms to churn out oxygen by using Martian regolith. Some organisms within the test
bed experiment planted on the Red Planet also could remove nitrogen from the Martian soil.
“This is a possible way to support a human mission to Mars, producing oxygen without having to
send heavy gas canisters,” Boland saaid. “Let’s send microbes and let them do the heavy-lifting
for us.”
Ultimately, biodomes on Mars that enclose ecopoiesis-provided oxygen through bacterial or algaedriven conversion systems might dot the Red Planet, housing expeditionary teams, Boland suggests.
But first things first.
Boland and his colleagues envision their test bed gear carried aboard a future Mars rover. At
carefully selected sites, the small container-like devices would be augured into the ground,
planted just a few inches in depth. Then the selected Earth organisms -- extremophiles like
certain cyanobacteria – would interact with the Mars soil that has been captured within the
container.
Yet another possible ingredient extracted from the Martian soil is in the form of subterranean
ice.
Boland says that NASA’s Curiosity rover now wheeling about on Mars has shown the pressure and
temperature on the planet “flirts at the idea” that liquid water may be possible on that distant
world.
In a form of “huff and puff” science, the sensor-laden container would detect the presence or
absence of a metabolic product -- like oxygen -- reporting the find back to Earth via a Marsorbiting relay satellite.
Boland adds that great care would be taken to craft the container to seal tightly, thereby
preventing the Earthly organisms from being exposed to the Martian atmosphere.
The NIAC-funded work is dedicated to opening the door to a biological solution to shipping
cylinders of breathable air to Mars at great expense, Boland says. It is another alternative to a
known problem of oxygen consumption for the human explorers NASA plans to send to Mars, he adds.
“I’m a biologist and an engineer. So I want to put those two things together to make a useful
tool,” Boland concludes.
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Brainstorm: What would NASA have to consider and implement in order to make Mars
Habitable for humans (including diverse populations)
• Think in terms of abiotic / biotic factors
o Habitat?
o Nutrients?
o Populations and relationships?
o Food chains and trophic levels
Atmosphere
Water
Weather
Abiotic
Factors
Nutrients
Soil
Plants
Sunlight
Habitat
Animals
Biotic
Factors
Bacteria
Decomposers
Abiotic factors support biotic factors
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Topic 2: Population Relations and Energy
Flow
Term
Definition
Example
Biomass
Ecology
Population
Biological
Community
Symbiosis
Mutualism
Commensalism
Parasitism
Predation
Competition
Producer
Consumer
Primary
Consumer
Secondary
Consumer
Tertiary
Consumer
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Herbivore
Carnivore
Omnivore
Scavenger
Decomposer
Trophic Level
Food Chain
Food Web
Exponential
Growth
Exponential
Curve (Jcurve)
Closed
Population
Open Population
Carrying Capacity
S-curve
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All organisms are
interconnected in a food
web
Demonstrating
relationships
Only 10% of energy is
transferred between
trophic levels. All other
energy is lost to heat and
waste
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#s decrease as you move
up the trophic levels
amount of biomass
decreases as you move up
the trophic levels
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Symbiotic Relationship Status
Relationship #1: Mosquitos and Humans
• Mutualism
• Commensalism
✓ Parasitism
• Competition
• Predation
Definition:
One organism derives benefit at the expense of another organism (host)
Explanation:
Mosquitos live off human blood, humans get itchy bumps 
Relationship #2: Wolf and Rabbit
• Mutualism
• Commensalism
• Parasitism
• Competition
✓ Predation
Definition:
One organism kills and eats another organism
Explanation:
Wolf eats a rabbit
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Relationship #3: Remora and Shark
• Mutualism
✓ Commensalism
• Parasitism
• Competition
• Predation
Definition:
One organism benefits, the other organism is neither helped nor harmed
Explanation:
Remoras eat the grime off sharks
Relationship #4: Bumble Bee and Flower
✓ Mutualism
• Commensalism
• Parasitism
• Competition
• Predation
Definition:
Organisms of both species benefit
Explanation:
Bees use pollen for honey and food, flowers get pollinated by bees
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Relationship #5: Lions and Hyenas
• Mutualism
• Commensalism
• Parasitism
✓ Competition
• Predation
Definition:
Two or more organisms compete for the same limited resource
Explanation:
Lions and hyenas eat the same prey, whomever gets to it first eats!
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Topic 3: Recycling of Matter
Term
Definition
Example
Algae
Harmful Algal
Bloom
Biogeochemical
Cycle
Photosynthesis
Cellular
Respiration
Carbon Sink
Peat
Ozone
Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrifying
Bacteria
Nitrification
Denitrifying
Bacteria
Denitrification
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Water Cycle
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Carbon - Oxygen Cycle
Fast cycling O2 and CO2
• Photosynthesis
• Cellular respiration
• Continuously cycling within the ecosystem
Slow cycling O2 and CO2
• Carbon sinks = stored carbon
o In fossil fuels, trees and peat
o Released through combustion and transferred into the fast
cycling
Too much carbon in the atmosphere = global warming due to the
greenhouse effect
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Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Fixation
• Converts atmospheric nitrogen to ammonium / ammonia
N2  NH4+
Nitrification
• Converts ammonium / ammonia to nitrates / nitrites in the soil which
is used by plants to grow and flourish
• Wildfires and fertilizers also add nitrates to the soil
NH4+  NO2- / NO3Denitrification
• Removes nitrates and returns N2 to the atmosphere
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Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is found in rock and only added to soil through erosion
Too much phosphate and nitrates enter the soil and get into ground water =
ALGAL BLOOM
• Overgrowth of algae dies and rots, removing oxygen from the water
and killing living organisms
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Topic 3 Practice Questions
1.
Explain the following statement: An effort to enhance the abiotic factors in a farmer’s field may have
negative impacts on both the biotic and abiotic factors essential to a nearby aquatic ecosystem.
Too much phosphate and nitrates enter the soil and get into ground water = ALGAL BLOOM
•
Overgrowth of algae dies and rots, removing oxygen from the water and killing living
organisms
2.
Identify 3 abiotic factors that have a major impact on agricultural crops. Describe the importance of these
factors to the crop’s growth.
Nitrates – plant health and growth
Water – plant and animal life
Carbon dioxide – plant photosynthesis
Phosphates – growth
3.
If approximately 78% of Earth’s atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, explain how there is a shortage of
nitrogen in some soils.
Nitrogen is not useful as N2. In order for nitrogen to be useful to plants, it must be as nitrates,
nitrites or ammonium and ammonia. Decomposers (bacteria) assist in this process.
4.
Explain the advantage of alternating wheat crops with legume crops within the same field
Legumes contain bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium which can then
be shared with plants and re-established into the soil.
5.
Sewage often contains high concentrations of nitrates that could be harmful if released directly into the
environment. Explain the role that denitrifying bacteria could play in sewage treatment plants.
Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrite and nitrate back into Nitrogen
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6.
2017
Explain why plants cannot use the air as a source of nitrogen
Plants can only use nitrogen in the form of nitrates / nitrites and ammonium
7.
Explain why many plants thrive in a post-fire habitat
The fire will decrease the acidity of the soil
The fire will return nitrates into the soil by heating atmospheric nitrogen AND combusting
plants containing nitrates.
The soil is warmer and therefore seed germination becomes easier and faster
8.
Since you cannot obtain the nitrogen you need from breathing, what is your source of nitrogen?
Animals eat plants and meats that contain nitrogen. Specifically, proteins contain large amounts
of nitrogen.
9.
Identify the key forms in which carbon and oxygen will occur within both the oxygen cycle and carbon
cycle.
Carbon Dioxide = CO2 and Glucose = C6H12O6
Oxygen gas = O2 and Water = H2O
10. Cellular respiration is said to be an exothermic reaction because energy is released. If photosynthesis is an
endothermic reaction because energy is required, identify the source of energy for photosynthesis
All energy originates from the sun.
11. The fossil record suggests life did not colonize land until the atmospheric concentrations of oxygen
reached adequate levels. Suggest 2 reasons why it was essential to have the atmospheric oxygen
concentration at adequate levels before life could begin on land.
Organisms require oxygen for cellular respiration
Oxygen is required to react with atmospheric nitrogen to form nitrates which allow plant
growth
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12. Decomposition, combustion, cellular respiration, volcanic activity and wildfires all have something in
common when it comes to the carbon cycle. Identify the common feature.
Both reactions release carbon dioxide back to the atmosphere and are exothermic reactions
(release heat)
13. Prescribed burning is a practice in which forestry personnel deliberately set small, controlled fires (under
ideal conditions). This strategy attempts to mimic the historical pattern of more frequent, low-intensity
burns that are integral parts of the forest ecology. Explain how this practice may actually enhance public
safety and ensure long-term health of the forest.
Increased nitrates in the soil due to combustion.
The fires get rid of major decomposition and potential dangers
The fires allow carbon sinks (trees) to return carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
14. Water is often applied to lawns and gardens to keep plants healthy and green. Why is it more effective to
water lawns in the early morning rather than in the middle of the afternoon?
Afternoon is often very warm. This will increase the evaporation of water, meaning the lawn
will receive less water and more water is evaporated (wasted).
15. For organisms that live in the forest floor’s soil, identify at least 2 abiotic factors significantly affected by
wildfires.
Soot / Ash (Carbon)
Water in soil and air
Carbon dioxide is increased
Nitrates and ammonium are replaced in the soil
Phosphates are returned to the soil
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Topic 4: Succession
Term
Definition
Example
Lichen
Endangered
Species
Habitat
Fragmentation
Habitat
Destruction
Biodiversity
Invasive Species
Primary
Succession
Pioneer Species
Humus
Terraforming
Secondary
Succession
Sustainable
Development
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Topic 4 Practice Problems
1.
Why do you think scientists chose the term pioneer species for certain organisms? What
characteristics do these pioneer plant species possess that allow them to be categorized as pioneer
species?
They are the first to “settle” in an area. They are tough with simple root systems so they don’t
need a lot of soil.
2.
List the benefits that a pioneer species would experience.
No Competition
Simple structure
3.
Describe the process of primary succession
The process of developing bare soil  climax community through breaking the soil  humus 
grass  trees ☺
4.
List 4 examples of disturbances that could cause the process of secondary succession to begin
Fire, Pollution, Disease, Deforestation, Flood
5.
Explain two ways in which the process of secondary succession differs prom the process of primary
succession.
More nutrients available for pioneer species. Faster succession occurs
6.
Define carrying capacity
Maximum number of organisms an ecosystem can support
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Topic 5: Adaptations
Term
Definition
Example
Generation
Morphology
Gradualism
Punctuated
Equilibrium
Gene
Mutation
Variation
Adaptation
Theory of
Evolution
Theory of Natural
Selection
Darwinian Fitness
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The KEY difference between gradualism and punctuated equilibrium is
gradual change vs spurts of change followed by long periods of stability.
An important characteristic that helps a
snail avoid predators like birds is the ability
to blend into its surroundings. Snails can
show considerable variation in their band
pattern on their shells. Research has
determined that the color and pattern of
banding on snail shells are traits that are
inherited from their parents.
How can variation lead to gradualism?
Variation will allow slight changes over time if it is genetically transferred,
with survival of the fittest. For example, if green bugs and black bugs are
both in trees, green bugs will live to reproduce and the population will
gradually become more green.
Is it possible variation could also lead to punctuated equilibrium? Explain
Yes. If bighorn sheep are only able to be hunted if they have a full ring horn,
the smaller horned sheep will reproduce, causing the population to have
smaller horns overall.
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An ADAPTATION is any structural trait or behavior that improves an organism’s success at
surviving and reproducing in a particular environment.
**This picture shows camel SHADOWS! The small white figures are the actual camels; the black figures are the shadows! This is an award
winning National Geographic Picture taking in 2016. **
List and explain physical AND behavioral adaptations of a desert camel
Hump = fat filled sack that can be used in times of lack of water and
nutrients
Eyelids = double eye lids for protection from blowing sand
Feet = broad, flat feet to distribute weight and improve ability to walk on
sand
Fur = thick fur to stay warm at night and cool in the day
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Topic 5 Practice Problems
1.
Processes that occur over time as a species adapts to its environment are adaptations, mutations and
variations.
a. Design a flowchart that shows the order in which these processes occur
b.
Concisely explain the flowchart you constructed (in 1 sentence)
Gradualism occurs over time. Punctuated equilibrium is a drastic change followed by periods of
no change.
2.
What process is responsible for the variation seen in the coloring and banding of snail shells?
Gradualism
3.
Explain why it is a useful adaptation for snails to blend with their surroundings?
Protection from predators.
4.
Explain how the advantage of being a darker color also becomes a disadvantage in terms of predation for
high climbing snails.
As they get higher, the environment gets lighter and therefore they do not blend in as well
5.
Is it always clear-cut that a trait is an advantage or disadvantage? Justify your answer using examples.
No, often times traits are both advantageous and disadvantages! (see snail example)
Topic 6: Evolution Theory
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Based on 3 observations:
1. Organisms usually produce
more offspring than can
survive
2. There is variation among
individuals with respect to
any trait in a population
3. Organisms within a
population compete for
limited resources
THE BEST ADAPTED INDIVIDUALS IN
THE POPULATION WILL BE ABLE TO
SURVIVE, BREED AND PASS ON THEIR
TRAITS TO OFFSPRING
Homologous
Structures
Embryo
Similarities
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Darwin's
Theory of
Natural
Selection
Biochemical
Evidence
Lamarck'
Theory of
Adaptation
Vestigial
Features
Evolution of
Behaviour
ORANISMS CHANGE DURING THEIR
LIVES TO EET THE CHALLENGES OF
THE ENVIRONMENT AND THESE
CHANGES WILL BE PASSED ON TO
OFFSPRING.
Biogeography
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https://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/pepperedmoth.html
Life Cycle of the Peppered Moth
1.
Why are these moths called "peppered moths?"
They have spots as if they are covered in pepper
2.
What animals eat the peppered moth?
Hawks and birds
3.
What is a lichen?
Lichen is a pioneer species similar to moss
4.
What do the larvae of the moth eat?
Leaves of willow and oak trees
5.
How do peppered moths spend the winter?
Change into pupae (cocoons)
6.
Moths that have more dark spots than the average moth are called what?
Carbonaria
Impact of Pollution
7.
Where was the first black form of the moth found?
Centre of Manchester
8.
What was the Industrial Revolution?
Factories being built that ran on coal
9.
What was causing the different colors in the moths?
Genetic variation in populations
10. What is natural selection?
The theory that organisms evolve through survival of the fittest
11. Who suggested that peppered moths were an example of natural selection?
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J.W. Tutt
12. What is industrial melanism?
Moths darkening over time due to pollution in forests causing the trees to become black
Kettlewell's Experiments
13. What is an entomologist?
A scientist who studies insects
14. How do scientists test theories?
Create a hypothesis and test (or find proof) of the theory.
1.
Write down ONE of Kettlewell's predictions.
Heavily polluted forests will have mostly dark peppered moths
2.
Dark moths were found in what parts of the country?
Industrial cities with pollution
3.
How did Kettlewell directly study the moths?
He placed both dark and light colored moths on the trunk of a tree and studied them
4.
Why did dark moths have a survival advantage?
They were camouflaged into the tree trunk and pollution, so they were less visible
5.
When Kettlewell recaptured the marked moths, what did he find?
If a Moth’s color matched the environment were more likely to survive
6.
Where did Kettlewell publish his findings?
1959 Scientific America
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Birdseye View
21. Open the simulation and play the role of the bird in both the dark and the light forest. Try to behave as a bird
would behave, choosing the moths that are the most obvious. At the end of each simulation, record the percent of
moths captured in the table below.
Final Analysis
22. Explain how the color of the moths increases or decreases their chances of survival.
If the color of the moth and the color of the trunk match, the moth is camouflaged and more likely to survive. If
the color did not camouflage, the moth was more likely to be eaten.
23. Explain the concept of "natural selection" using your moths as an example.
Based on 3 observations:
1. Organisms usually produce more offspring than can survive
2. There is variation among individuals with respect to any trait in a population
3. Organisms within a population compete for limited resources
THE BEST ADAPTED INDIVIDUALS IN THE POPULATION WILL BE ABLE TO SURVIVE, BREED AND PASS ON THEIR
TRAITS TO OFFSPRING
24. What would happen if there were no predators in the forest? Would the colors of the moths change over time?
Defend your answer?
The moth population would explode as long as the habitat could handle it. There would be multiple variations and
colors of moth present.
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Topic 7: Sexual Reproduction
Term
Definition
Example
Sexual
Reproduction
Asexual
Reproduction
Dominant Allele
Recessive Allele
Homozygous
Heterozygous
What is the benefit of sexual reproduction?
Variation in species, allowing for better chances of survival
How could sexual reproduction lead to evolution?
THE BEST ADAPTED INDIVIDUALS IN THE POPULATION WILL BE ABLE TO SURVIVE, BREED AND
PASS ON THEIR TRAITS TO OFFSPRING
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Every organism who reproduces sexually receives genetic material from both partners (mother
and father). The likelihood of one gene to be demonstrated in the organism depends on the
dominance of that specific gene.
In order to demonstrate a dominant trait, an organism only requires 1 dominant allele (as it
overpowers the weaker allele). In order to demonstrate a recessive trait, an organism must
contain 2 recessive alleles (known as homozygous recessive).
One of the easiest ways to calculate the mathematical probability of inheriting a specific trait
was invented by an early 20th century English geneticist named Reginald Punnett. His
technique employs what we now call a Punnett square. This is a simple graphical way of
discovering all of the potential combinations of genotypes that can occur in children, given the
genotypes of their parents. It also shows us the odds of each of the offspring genotypes
occurring.
Dominant
Eye Color
Vision
Brown eyes
Far-sightedness
Normal Vision
Dark Hair
Non-Red Hair
Curly
Widow’s peak
Dimples
Unattached Earlobes
Freckles
Broad Lips
Extra digits
Fused digits
Short digits
Fingers lack 1 joint
Limb dwarfing
Clubbed thumb
Double jointed-ness
Immunity to poison ivy
Normal pigmented skin
Normal hearing
Normal hearing and speak
Hair
Facial Features
Appendages
Other
Recessive
Grey, green, hazel, blue eyes
Normal Vision
Near-sightedness
Night blindness
Blonde, light, red hair
Red hair
Straight hair
Normal Hairline
No dimples
Attached earlobes
No freckles
Thin lips
Normal number
Normal digits
Normal digits
Normal joints
Normal proportion
Normal thumb
Normal joints
Susceptibility to poison ivy
Albinism
Congenital deafness
Deaf mutism
Example: Determine the % probability that a mother with blue eyes and a father with
heterozygous brown eyes have a blue eyed child.
B
b
b
b
Bb - brown
bb - blue
Bb - brown
bb- blue
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2/4 chances of having blue eyes
50% chance
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Topic 7 Practice Problems
1.
Using Darwin’s theory of natural selection, explain how giraffes acquired long necks.
Over time, the giraffes with longer necks were able to reach more food, thus surviving to reproduce. These longer
necks were passed on to offspring, where the shorter necked giraffes died and were not able to reproduce.
2.
A body builder spends a lot of time at the gym lifting weights to acquire a muscular body. He is convinced
that this behavior will cause him to have muscular children. Is his opinion consistent with Darwin or
Lamarck’s theory?
Lamarck believed an organism changes and passes these traits on… it’s not true ☺
3.
Certain dog breed have their tails cut short at birth. What would Lamarck predict would happen to this
breed’s tails after several generations?
Over time, dogs would stop producing long tails, as their “chopped” tails would be passed on to their offspring.
4.
There are several First Nations legends that tell the story of how the beaver once had a round and fluffy
tail, but acquired a flat tail by having a rock or tree fall onto it. Is this explanation more like Lamarck or
Darwin?
Very similar to Lamarck
5.
A common variety of banana reproduces by cloning rather than by sexual reproduction – tiny seed in the
banana are sterile. A disease has been infecting banana trees and has destroyed many populations. Why
would banana growers be more concerned about the future of this popular banana variety than they
would about other types of fruit that experience the disease?
Because they reproduce asexually, there is no variation among banana organisms, and thus they would all be
susceptible to this disease.
6.
F
F
A father who is homozygous for freckles has a child with a mother with no freckles. Determine the
percent likelihood that their children will have freckles.
f
f
Ff - freckles
Ff – freckles
Ff - freckles
Ff – freckles
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4/4 chances of having freckles
100% chance
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Unit Review
1.
Complete the following chart.
Adaptation
Speed
How It Makes Organisms More
Successful
Easier to catch prey and escape
predators
Example of Organism with
Adaptation
Cheetah or pronghorn
Easier to hide from predators
Chameleon
More attractive to mates
Peacock
Dangerous to predators
Porcupine
Easier to catch prey and escape
predators
Snake / Spider
Stays warm / cool in habitat
Llama
Easier to compete with other males
(for reproduction)
Big horn sheep
Camouflage
Bright Colors
Sharp Spines
Produces Poison
Thick Fur or Hair
Horns or Antlers
Deer
Safe from predators
2.
Close to where you live, a strip mine was started 100 years ago. The miners removed all the soil and
exposed the raw bedrock as they removed the mineral ore. The soil and much of the broken rock
were trucked away to be used for construction material. The miners worked progressively outward
from a central point over a period of 50 years.
a.
What type of organisms would you expect to find at the centre, oldest part of the mine?
Early organisms like bacteria and small organisms who do not require sunlight
b.
What type of organisms would you expect to find at the outer edges, youngest part of the mine?
Variety of organisms, diverse and advanced
c.
What type of organisms would you find in the surrounding area that was not mined?
Variety of organisms, diverse and advanced
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3.
2017
A camel is an example of an organisms that is perfectly adapted for the desert. How do the following
camel adaptations help it to survive in the desert environment? Complete the table below.
Adaptation
Reason for Advantage
2 sets of long eyelashes
Protect from sun and blowing sand
Wide, padded feet
Stay on top of sand without sinking
Nostrils that can open and close
Protect from blowing sand
A hump on its back that is a reservoir
for fat
In times of drought and famine, camels can use their stores for
nutrients
Thick, tan colored fur
Protection from strong sun and winds. Camouflage into sand
A tough mouth and strong teeth
To break down desert plants they eat
4.
Hypothesize why so many plants that first colonize in open areas of secondary succession might have
sharp thorns, barbs, or noxious taste
To protect from animals that are looking for easy eating (as there is not many plants present)
5.
A biologist is studying the habitat of a small, isolated Artic island. The island has populations of
carnivorous Artic foxes, a herbivorous bird called a ptarmigan and a few insects in the summer. The
only vegetation that grows well are small shrubs, lichens and grasses.
a.
List the abiotic factors that may affect survival on the island
Water availability, poor soil, cold climate
b.
List the island’s biotic factors
Animal and plant populations
c.
Describe a relationship that may exist on the island
Predator Prey – Fox and Ptarmigan
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d.
Sketch a likely food chain for the island
e.
Sketch a likely energy pyramid for the island
f.
Suppose hunters kill Artic foxes to the point of extinction, how would this affect the population
of remaining island species?
Ptarmigan would likely flourish, leading to depleted plant populations.
6.
Mosquitoes can be so annoying that it’s tempting to wish they could somehow be completely
eliminated from the environment. Comment on the possible negative consequences of removing
mosquitoes from the biosphere.
Removing mosquitoes would remove a food source for organisms like birds and bats. This would deplete the
availability of nutrients, and cause these organisms to potentially die. This could lead to a decrease in organisms at
the next trophic level, as less biomass and thus energy is available.
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