,
ALA
c epy
Wetlands
Wetlandsof
ofCanada
Canadaand
and Greenland
Greenland
W.
W.A.
A. GLOOSCHENKO,
GLOOSCHENKO, C.
C. TARNOCAI
TARNOCAI,,
s.S.ZOLTAI
ZOLTAI AND
AND V.
V. GLOOSCHENKO
GLOOSCHENKO
Abstract
Abstract
Canada is
is aa vast
Canada
vast country characterized by a complex mosaic of climates and
physiography.
physiography. Climates
Climates range
range from
from cool
cool temperate
temperate to cold arctic
arctic.. In Canada,
6
an estimated 127.2
10 6 ha
wetlands occur,
occur, some
some 14%
14% of
of the
the surface
surface
an
127.2 x 10
ha of wetlands
area.
Peatlands
account
for
88%
of
area.
account for 88% of all
all wetlands.
wetlands. Five classes
classes of
of wetlands
wetlands are
found in
in Canada:
found
Canada: shallow
shallow open water,
water , marshes
marshes (both
(both freshwater
freshwater and
and salt),
salt),
swamps, fens,
fens, and bogs. Distinct
swamps,
Distinct regional
regional differences
differences occur
occur in
in seven
seven bioclimbioclimTemperate , Prairie,
Prairie , Mountain,
Mountain , and
and
atic
Arctic, Subarctic,
Subarctic , Boreal,
atic zones:
zones: Arctic,
Boreal, Temperate,
Oceanic (both Pacific
Pacific and Atlantic). Within
Within these
these zones,
zones ,major
majorfactors
factorsinfluinfluencing
encing wetland
wetland development
development include
include hydrology
hydrology,, water
water chemistry,
chemistry, time, nature of the
the terrain,
terrain ,and
andsedimentological
sedimentological processes.
processes.
activities including
including agricultural
agricultural development,
development, urbanization,
urbanization, peat
peat
Human activities
extraction,
projects, are
are leading
extraction, forestry,
forestry, and
and construction
construction projects,
leading to depletion
depletion of
of
wetlands in parts of Canada.
Canada. The
The rates
rates of
ofsuch
such losses
losses are
are being
being determined
determined
wetlands
by wetland inventories in many parts of the country.
country.
Greenland, wetlands
wetlands include
include shallow
shallow open
open water,
water, saltmarshes,
saltmarshes , fens,
fens,
In Greenland,
and bogs.
data are
are available
available on
on their
theirdistribution
distributionand
andecology.
ecology.
bogs. Limited
Limited data
Introduction
Introduction
Canada
Canada isis aavast
vastcountry
countryofof9,458,000
9,458 ,000km
km22 (Fig.
(Fig. 1).
1) . ItItisischaracterized
characterized by
by aa
range
range of
of climates
climates from
from cool
cool temperate
temperatetotocold
coldarctic
arcticwith
withcoasts
coastsmoderated
moderatedby
by
oceanic
influences.
Physiographically,
the
landscape
varies
from
the
rugged
oceanic influences. Physiographically, the landscape varies from the rugged
western
western Cordillera
Cordillera to the
the Canadian
Canadian Shield
Shield and
and adjacent
adjacent lowlands
lowlands to
to the
the
Appalachian mountains
mountains on
on the
the east
eastcoast.
coast.Arctic
Arcticconditions
conditionsprevail
prevailon
onthe
the
Appalachian
northern
northern mainland
mainland and
and the
the arctic
arcticislands.
islands. Approximately
Approximately the
the northern
northern oneonethird
of
the
country
is
underlain
by
continuous
permafrost
while
discontinuthird of the country is underlain by continuous permafrost while discontinuanotherone-third
one-third of
ofCanada.
Canada.The
Thecontinental
continental
ous permafrost
permafrost can
can occur
occur in
in another
ous
415
415
D.F.
D.F.Whigham
Whighametetal.
al.(eds.),
(eds.),Wetlands
Wetlandsofofthe
theWorld
WorldI,J,415-514.
415-514 .
©©1993
1993Kluwer
KluwerAcademic
A cademicPublishers.
Publishers .Printed
Printedininthe
theNetherlands.
Netherlands.
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otkaic
0.47.10
•
n
Figure 1.
showing provinces
provinces and territories.
territories .
Figure
1. Map of Canada showing
ice
Great Ice
Ice Age
Age modified
modified the
the landscape
landscape and
and their
their remnants
remnants
ice sheets
sheets of the Great
retreated to
to their
their current
current position
position some
some 6,000
6,000 years
years ago.
ago.
With
climatic and geological
geological diversity
diversity in mind,
mind, wetlands
wetlands become
become an
an
With this climatic
estimated 14%
area
important
landscape. An
important part
part of Canada's landscape.
An estimated
14% of
of the land area
6
(127.2
10 ha)
classified as
. Of
is peatland
peatland with
with at
ha) is classified
as wetland
wetland.
Of this,
this, 88%
88% is
(127.2 x 106
least
40 cm
cm thickness
thickness of peat
peat (Tarnocai
(Tarnocai 1983).
1983). Wetlands
Wetlands are
are unevenly
unevenly
least a 40
distributed as
as shown
shown in
in Table
Table 1 and Fig. 2.
distributed
2. Low
Low mountains
mountains of
of western
western and
eastern
the hilly
hilly regions
regions of
Ontario are too
too well
well
eastern Canada
Canada and
and the
of Quebec
Quebec and
and Ontario
drained to support extensive
Little precipitation
is present
present in the
drained
extensive wetlands.
wetlands. Little
precipitation is
prairies
British Columbia
Columbia and the
the provinces
provinces of Alberta,
Alberta, SaskatSaskatprairies of
of interior British
Here, wetlands
wetlands are
areconfined
confined to
to shallow
shallow depressions.
depressions.
chewan,
chewan, and Manitoba. Here,
Yet,
in wet
wet areas
areas such
such asascoastal
coastalBritish
BritishColumbia
Columbia and
andNewfoundland,
Newfoundland,
Yet, in
peatland can occur on relatively
relatively steep slopes.
slopes.
The
wetlands occur
extending from
The major wetlands
occur in
in an
an area extending
from central
central Labrador
Labrador to
south of Hudson Bay and northwest to the Mackenzie
Mackenzie River delta. This
This area
area
is
cool, moist
moist and
and characterized
characterized by
flat terrain.
terrain. Other
Other suitable
suitable areas
areas for
for
is cool,
by flat
417
417
1984).
(Tarnocai 1984).
Canada (Tarnocai
in Canada
wetlands in
of wetlands
Distribution of
Table 1. Distribution
Table
% of
land
of land
Total
Total
Provinces
Provinces
and
and
territories
territories
wetland
wetland
area
3
)
103)
(ha xx 10
Columbia
British Columbia
Alberta
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Manito ba
Manitoba
Ontario
Ontario
Quebec
Brunswick
New Brunswick
Scotia
Nova Scotia
Island
Prince Edward Island
Newfoundland—Labrador
Newfoundland- Labrad or
Territo ry
Yukon Territory
Territo ries
Northwest
Northwest Territories
Canada
/
/
/
./
/
/
within
within
designated
designated
area
% of
of
total
Canadian
Canadi an
wetlands
wetlands
3,100
3,100
13,700
9,700
9,700
22,500
22,500
29 ,200
29,200
12,200
550
200
4
6,800
1,500
27 ,800
27,800
33
21
17
17
41
33
99
8
33
1
18
33
9
22
11
11
8
18
23
10
11
11
11
55
11
22
127,200
14
100
AREAL DlSTRIIIUTl
DISTR/BUTION
ON
AREAL
OF WETLANDS
WETLANDS IN
CANADA
IN CANADA
Of
/
/
/
/
/
./
./
/
./
wetlands.
of wetlands.
distributions of
Map of Canada showing
showing general distributions
Figure2.
2. Map
Figure
0-5%
00-5%
0-25%
~ O-25%
Li
Ei
2e-so%
.20-50%
III 51-75%
.5'-75%
MI 76-100%
100%
.711-
418
wetland development
development include
include low,
low, poorly-drained areas that were
were formerly
formerly
by glacial
glacial lakes.
lakes.
occupied by
This paper will cover the wetlands of Canada in a regional context. Twenty
wetland regions have been delineated
delineated based
based on
on climate
climate and
andsimilar
similartopogratopogranutrient regime,
regime, as
aswill
will be
be discussed
discussed in
in more
more detail
detail later
later
phy, hydrology, and nutrient
in this
this paper.
paper. The
The vegetation
vegetation of
of the
thewetlands
wetlands will
will be
beemphasized
emphasized along
along
in
with
with major
major factors
factors controlling
controlling the
the vegetation
vegetation including
including hydrology,
hydrology. water
water
formation will
will be stressed due to interest
chemistry, and nutrient status. Peat formation
in this potential energy source and its value as a horticultural soil
soil amendment
(Rubec et
et al. 1988).
It is impossible
impossible to cover all
Canadian wetlands
wetlands
all the available literature on Canadian
in a paper of
of this
this length. Previous
Previous work
work has
has been
been limited
limited mainly
mainly to
to local
local and
and
regional aspects as opposed to the country as
as aa whole. For
For example,
example, aa review
review
paper with
with a broad
broad overview
overview of Canadian
Canadian wetlands
wetlands is that by
by Zoltai
Zoltai and
and
Pollett (1983). An example of a comprehensive review
review for a region of Canada
is the paper by Wells and Pollett (1983)
(1983) for Newfoundland,
Newfoundland, while
while an
an example
example
are the
the papers
papers
of a comprehensive
comprehensive review
review of
of aa wetland
wetland type,
type, the salt marsh, are
et al.
al. (1988).
of Glooschenko (1983)
(1983) and
(1988). The
The National Wetland
and Glooschenko
Glooschenko et
Working Group
Group has
has prepared
Working
prepared aa book
book on
on the
thewetlands
wetlands of
ofCanada
Canada which
which
covers
these topics
topics in
in aamore
morecomprehensive
comprehensive fashion
fashion (National
(National
covers many
many of these
Wetland
Working Group 1988).
1988). Also,
Also, several
several proceedings
proceedings have
have been
been pubpubWetland Working
lished
wetlands. These include both Canada in
in general
general (Rubec
(Rubec
lished on Canadian wetlands.
and
Overend 1988)
1988) and
Province of Ontario
Ontario (Bardecki
(Bardecki and
and Patterson
Patterson
and Overend
and the Province
1989). Papers
Papers on
on the
the wetlands
wetlands of Greenland are
1989).
are very
very limited;
limited; no
no comprehencomprehensive
found .
sive review was found.
Classification of wetlands
Definition
wetlands
Definition of
of wetlands
Wetland
or above
above the
the soil
soil
Wetland is
is defined
defined as
as land
land having
having the
the water
water table
table at, near, or
surface
promote wetland
wetland
surface or
or which
which isis saturated
saturated for
for a long enough period to promote
or aquatic processes as indicated by hydric
hydric soils,
soils, hydrophilic
hydrophilic vegetation,
vegetation, and
and
various kinds of biological
the wet
wet environment
environment
biological activity
activity which
which are
are adapted to the
(Tarnocai 1980).
1980).
Wetlands
by the
the accumulation
accumulation of plant
plant mamaWetlands include
include peatlands,
peatlands, formed
formed by
terials. Peatlands
Peatlands have
have more
more than
than 40 cm
cm of
of peat and
terials.
and are
are associated
associated with
with
organic
organic soils,
soils, excluding
excluding Folisols
Folisols (Canada
(Canada Soil Survey Committee 1978). Wetlands
influenced by excess
excess water
which, for
lands also
also include
include areas
areas that
that are influenced
water but which,
climatic,
These wetlands
wetlands
climatic, edaphic,
edaphic, or
or biotic
biotic reasons
reasons produce little or no peat. These
with Gleysolic
or the peaty
are associated
associated with
Gleysolic or
peaty phase
phase of
ofGleysolic
Gleysolic soils.
soils.
Shallow open
open water,
water, generally
generally less
less than
than 2 m
m deep,
Shallow
deep. is
is also
also included
included in
in
419
In certain
certain types
types of
of wetlands,
wetlands, vegetation
vegetation isis lacking
lacking and
and soils
soils are
are
wetlands. In
poorly developed
offrequent
frequentand
anddrastic
drasticfluctuations
fluctuations ofofsurface
surface
developed as aa result
result of
water levels
levels or of
of wave
wave action,
action , water
water flow,
flow, turbidity,
turbidity, or
or high
high concentration
concentration
of salts
salts or other
other toxic
toxic substances
substances in the water
water or
or in
in the
the soil.
soil. Such
Such wetlands
wetlands
can be recognized
surface water or
or saturated
saturated soil
soil at
at some
some
recognized by the presence of surface
during each
each year.
year. Wetland
Wetland also
also include
include areas
areas which
which are
aremodified
modified by
by
time during
which are
are tilled
tilled and
and planted
plantedbut
butwhich,
which,ififallowed
allowed
water control structures or which
revert, again
again become
become saturated
saturated for
for long
long periods
periods and
andare
areassociated
associated with
with
to revert,
(gleysols) and hydrophilic vegetation.
vegetation.
wet soils (gleysols)
Wetland classification
classification
revised Canadian
Canadian wetland
wetland classification
classification (National
(National Wetlands
Wetlands Working
Working
The revised
et al.
al. 1974,
Group
1987) has
has been derived
derived from
from several
several works
works (Jeglum
(Jeglum et
Group 1987)
1973, Zoltai
Zoltai and Tarnocai 1975).
et al.
al. 1973,
Tamocai
1970, 1974
1974 and
1975).
Tarnocai 1970,
and 1980,
1980, Zoltai et
(1976,
1978),
et al.
al.
Information concerning veneer
veneer bogs
bogs can
can be
be found
found in
in Mills
Mills et
of the
the marsh
marsh and
and shallow
shallow water
water classes
classes are mainly
mainly from
from G.
and the update
update of
D. Adams
Adams (personal
(personal communication
communication 1979).
1979).
This
system of classification
classification isis hierarchical
levels. At the
the
This system
hierarchical and
and has
has three
three levels.
highest level,
level, the class
highest
class level, the
the wetlands
wetlands are
are classified
classified according
according to their
their
genesis. At
At the
to their
genesis.
the wetland
wetland form
form level
level they
they are
areclassified
classified according
according to
their
surface morphology,
morphology, surface
surface pattern, morphology
ofthe
theunderlying
underlying mineral
mineral
surface
morphology of
At the
the lowest
lowest level,
level, the
the wetland
wetland
terrain,
hydrology, and
type of water. At
terrain, hydrology,
and the
the type
of the
the
type, the wetlands
wetlands are
are classified
classified according to the
the general
general physiognomy
physiognomy of
vegetation cover.
Wetland classes
of the
the wetland classes
classes (bog,
(bog, fen, marsh,
The definitions
definitions of
marsh, swamp,
swamp, and
and shallow
shallow
water) along with the associated wetland forms
forms are
are given
given below.
below.
A bog is
is a peatland which
generally has
has a high
water table. This water
Bog.
which generally
high water
Bog. A
is at or near the surface. The bog
bog surface is either raised above or level
table is
with the
the surrounding
wetlands and
and is virtually
by the nutrientwith
surrounding wetlands
virtually unaffected
unaffected by
nutrientrich
rich ground
ground waters
waters from:
from the
the adjacent
adjacent mineral
mineral soils.
soils. Hence,
Hence, the
the ground water
of the bog is
materials
is generally
generally acid
acidand
and low
low in
in nutrients.
nutrients. The dominant peat materials
are undecomposed
undecomposed Sphagnum
and moderately decomposed woody moss peat
are
Sphagnum and
underlain,
times, by moderately
moderately to
to well
well decomposed
decomposed sedge
sedge peat.
peat. The
The
underlain, at
at times,
associated
Organic Cryosols
Cryosols (Canadian
(Canadian Soil
Soil
associated soils
soils are
are Fibrisols,
Fibrisols, Mesisols, and Organic
(Black
Picea mariana
mariana (Black
Survey
Survey Committee
Committee1978).
1978).Bogs
Bogsmay
maybe
betreed
treed with
with Picea
spp.
and
Sphagnum
usually covered
covered with
with Sphagnum spp. and
Spruce)
Spruce) or
or tree-less
tree-less and
and they
they are usually
feather
mosses and ericaceous shrubs.
feather mosses
420
Fen . A fen
fen is
is aa peatland
peatland with
with aa high
high water
water table,
table. usually
usually at or
or above
above the
the
Fen.
surface.
surface. The waters
waters are
aremainly
mainly nutrient-rich,
nutrient-rich. minerotrophic
minerotrophic waters
waters from
from
adjacent mineral
mineral soils.
soils. The
The dominant
dominant peat materials
materials are
are shallow
shallow to deep,
deep.
adjacent
or woody
woody sedge
sedge peat.
peat. The
Theassociated
associated
well to moderately
moderately decomposed
decomposed sedge
sedge or
well
Mesisols. Humisols,
Humisols, and
and Organic
OrganicCryosols.
Cryosols.The
Thevegetation
vegetationconsists
consists
soils are Mesisols,
dominantly of sedges
sedges (Cyperaceae),
(Cyperaceae) . grasses
grasses (Poaceae),
(Poaceae), reeds
reeds (Juncaceae),
(Juncaceae) .
dominantly
brown mosses
mosses with
with some shrub cover and,
and . at
at times,
times, aascanty
scantytree
treelayer.
layer.
and brown
Marsh. A marsh
marsh isis aamineral
mineral wetland
wetland or
ora apeatland
peatlandwhich
whichisisperiodically
periodically
Marsh.
by standing
standing or
orslowly
slowly moving
moving waters.
waters .Surface
Surface water
waterlevels
levels may
may
inundated by
fluctuate
fluctuate seasonally,
seasonally, with
with declining
declining levels
levels exposing
exposing drawn-down
drawn-down zones
zones of
vegetation or
or mud
mud flats.
flats . The waters
waters are nutrient-rich.
nutrient-rich. The
The substratum
substratum
matted vegetation
or moderately
moderately to
towell
well decomposed
decomposed peat
peat
usually consists of mineral material or
The associated
associated soils
soils are
are Humisols,
Humisols, Mesisols,
Mesisols, and
and Gleysols.
Gleysols.Marshes
Marshes
deposits. The
show a zonal
characteristically show
zonal or mosaic surface
surface pattern of vegetation, comunconsolidated grass
grass and
and sedge
sedge sods,
sods ,frequently
frequentlyinterspersed
interspersedwith
with
prised of unconsolidated
channels
channels or pools
pools of
of open
open water.
water . Marshes
Marshes may
may be
be bordered
bordered by
by peripheral
peripheral
bands
trees and
and shrubs,
shrubs, but
butthe
thepredominant
predominantvegetation
vegetation consists
consists of aa
bands of trees
variety of emergent
variety
emergent non-woody
non-woody plants
plants such
such as
as rushes,
rushes, reeds,
reeds,reed-grasses,
reed-grasses,
and
sedges. Where
Where open
open water
water areas
areas occur,
occur, aavariety
variety ofofsubmerged
submerged and
and
and sedges.
floating aquatic plants
plants flourish.
flourish.
Swamp.
mineral wetland with
with standing or gently
Swamp. A swamp is a peatland or aa mineral
flowing
pools and
and channels.
channels. The
The water
water table
table isis usually
usually
flowing water
water in
in the form of pools
or near
nearthe
thesurface.
surface.There
Thereisispronounced
pronounced water
water movement
movement from
from the
the
at
at or
margins or other mineral
mineral sources,
sources, hence
hence the
the waters
waters are
are nutrient-rich.
nutrient-rich . IfIf peat
peat
is
well decomposed
is present, it is mainly well
decomposed woody
woody or
or amorphous peat underlain,
at times,
times, by
by sedge
sedge peat.
peat. The
Theassociated
associated soils
soils are
are Mesisols,
Mesisols, Humisols,
Humisols, and
and
Gleysols. The vegetation
vegetation isis characterized
characterized by
by aa dense
dense tree
treecover
coverof
ofconiferous
coniferous
or deciduous species and
tall shrubs
herbs , and
and mosses.
mosses.
and by tall
shrubs,, herbs,
Shallow
anent to permanent
pennanent standing
standing or
Shallow water
water isis semi-penn
semi-permanent
Shallow water.
water. Shallow
flowing
relatively large
expanses of
of open
open water
water which
which
flowing water
water with
with relatively
large and stable expanses
are
locally known
known as ponds,
ponds, pools,
pools, sloughs,
sloughs, shallow
shallow lakes,
lakes, bays,
bays, lagoons,
lagoons,
are locally
oxbows,
impoundments, reaches,
channels. Shallow
Shallow waters
waters are
are distindistinoxbows, impoundments,
reaches, or channels.
guished
waters by
by the
the upper
upper 22m
m limit,
limit, although
although depths
depths may
may
guished from
from deep
deep waters
occasionally
periods of
of abnormal
abnonnal flooding.
flooding. During
During
occasionallyexceed
exceed this
this during
during periods
droughts, low
low water
water or
or intertidal
intertidal periods,
periods,drawn-down
drawn-down flats
flats may
may be
be temportemporarily exposed.
exposed. Included
in this class
arily
Included in
class are all
all basins
basins in
in which
which summer
summer open
open
water
exceed 8 ha in size,
size, regardless
regardless of the
the extent
extent of
of bordering
bordering wetwetwater zones exceed
lands.
shallow water units are
are delineated
delineated from
from wetland
wetland complexes
complexes by
by
lands. These shallow
the outer border
border of
offloating
floating vegetation mats or by
by mid-summer
mid-summer surface
surface water
421
deep marsh
marsh emergents
emergents or
or shrubs.
shrubs. All
All
levels, usually expressed by peripheral deep
in area,
area,with
withsummer
summeropen
openwater
waterzones
zones
wetland basins
basins less
less than
than 88 ha
ha in
other wetland
occupying 75%
of the
the basin
basin diameter,
diameter,are
areclassed
classed as
asshallow
shallow water.
water .
occupying
75% or more of
orrooted
rootedemergent
emergentvegetation,
vegetation,including
including
margins may
may be
be unvegetated
unvegetated or
The margins
trees, confined
confined to aa narrow
narrow margin
margin occupying
occupying no
no more
more than
than 25%
25% of
of the
the basin
basin
trees,
diameter. Vegetation,
Vegetation, if
if present
present in
in the
the open
openwater
waterzone,
zone,consists
consists only
only of
of
diameter.
floating aquatic
aquatic plant
plant forms.
forms.
submerged and floating
(1949) described
classified the
the lakes,
lakes,including
including shallow
shallow water
water
Bocher (1949)
described and classified
in the
the Sondre
Sondre Stromfjord
Stromfjord area
areaofofwestern
westernGreenland.
Greenland.He
Heidentified:
identified:
bodies, in
in salt
salt (pH
(pH55toto6);
6);(2)
(2)lakes
lakeswith
with circumneucircumneuwater and
and low
low in
(1) lakes with acid water
water and
and low
low in
in salt
salt (pH
(pH 77toto7.5);
7.5);(3)
(3)lakes
lakeswith
withsaline
saline and
and alkaline
alkaline
tral water
to 9);
9); and
and(4)
(4)lakes
lakeswith
withsaline
salineand
andhighly
highlyalkaline
alkaline water
water(pH
(pH
water (pH 88 to
groups11and
and22have
havewell-vegetated
well-vegetatedshorelines;
shorelines;the
the
9.5) . The
The lakes
lakesiningroups
8.5 to 9.5).
and 44 have
have sparsely
sparsely vegetated
vegetatedor
orunvegetated
unvegetatedshorelines.
shorelines.
lakes in groups 33 and
by
Wetland
types. The wetland
wetland forms
forms are
are determined
determined primarily
primarily by
Wetland forms
forms and
and types.
the surface
surface morphology of the
the wetlands,
wetlands, the
themorphology
morphology of
of the
the underlying
underlying
et al.
al. 1973,
mineral
the distribution
distribution of
of'surface
waters (Zoltai
(Zoltai et
mineral terrain,
terrain, and the
surface waters
Tamocai
1970, 1980).
1980). Hydrotopographic
Hydrotopographic features such
such as rivers
rivers and
and lakes
lakes
Tarnocai 1970,
water (e.g.,
(e.g., fresh,
fresh, brackish,
brackish, or
orsalt)
salt) also
also play
play an
an important
important
and the type of water
the wetland
wetland forms.
forms.
role in determining the
In the classification,
classification, the wetland form
form terms
terms are
are attached
attached as
as modifiers
modifiers to
to
the wetland classes.
classes. The wetland
wetland forms
forms recognized
recognized in
in Canada
Canada are
are indicated
indicated
example, the
the flat
flat bog
bog wetland
wetland form
form refers
refers to
to an
an ombrotrophic.
ombrotrophic.
in Table 2. For example,
peatland
bog) having
having aa relatively
relatively level
level surface
surface with
with aarelatively
relatively level
level
peatland (a bog)
underlying mineral interface and
and with
with connotations
connotationsof
ofhydrology
hydrology and
and wetland
wetland
dynamics.
identifiable on
dynamics. These
These wetland
wetland forms
forms are readily identifiable
on the
the ground, from
the air, and on
on aerial
aerial photographs.
photographs.Typical
Typicalcross
crosssections
sections of
of fens
fens (Fig.
(Fig. 3)
3) and
and
bogs (Figs.
(Figs. 4 and 5) demonstrates
bogs
demonstrates the
the great
greatvariability
variability in
in wetland
wetland structure.
structure.
The term
The
term wetland
wetland type
type is
is used
used to
to describe
describe the
the wetland
wetland based
based on the
the
general physiognomy of the vegetation
vegetation cover
cover (Tarnocai
(Tarnocai 1980,
1980, National
National WetWetland
Working Group
1987). It isis not
notaaspecies
speciesdescription
description or
orvegetation
vegetation
land Working
Group 1987).
community, but
but a term such
community,
such as
as coniferous,
coniferous, hardwood,
hardwood, rush,
rush , or
or low
low shrub,
shrub,
to be used
to
used in
in connection
connection with
with the
the wetland
wetland form.
form . Eighteen
Eighteen types
types are
are recogrecognized,
discussed in
nized, but will
will not be discussed
in this
this paper.
Regional aspects
wetlands
aspects of
of Canadian wetlands
Wetlands exhibit
exhibit regional
regional differences
differences across
across Canada
Canada both
both in
in terms of abunWetlands
dance and
and development.
In general,
dance
development. In
general, there
there isis aanorth-south
north-south temperature
temperature
422.
422.
HORIZONTAL
2m
02
- PEAT
MINERAL SOIL
100
100
o
m
m
200
200
300
300
3 FLOATING
2m 1WATER
PE AT
MINERAL
SOIL
0
100
m
300
200
3 - SLOPING
~l SlOPING~ ~ . ~~~~ IS~O~T~AL
2-
m
_~
0-1-
PEAT
f':';==:-,
o
100
100
m
m
200
200
~~'~
MINERAL
SOIL
I
300
300
FLARK
RIDGE
R
m_~~ ~~"
o0
100
T11
m
200
300
Figure 3. Cross-section
Cross-section of
of typical
typical fens.
fens.
gradient
gradient and
and an
aneast-west
east-west precipitation
precipitationgradient
gradientwith
withdecreasing
decreasingprecipitation
precipitation
the west.
west. Superimposed
Superimposed on
on this
this are
arethe
themoderating
moderatinginfluences
influencesof
ofthe
the
towards the
Pacific
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans
Oceans upon
upon their
their coasts.
coasts.
National Wetland
Wetland Working
Working Group
Group has
has developed
developed the
the concept
concept of
of
The National
the "wetland
"wetland region".
region". This
Thisisisdefined
defined as
as"Areas
"Areaswithin
withinwhich
whichsimilar
similarand
and
the
characteristic wetlands
wetlands develop
locations that
that have
have similar
similar topography,
topography,
characteristic
develop in locations
hydrology, and
and nutrient
nutrient regime.
regime . Subdivisions
Subdivisions of
of these
these wetland
wetland regions
regions are
are
hydrology,
made based
based on
on the
thedistribution
distribution of
ofthese
these wetlands,
wetlands ,the
therelative
relativeabundance
abundanceof
of
made
the
the various
various kinds
kinds of
ofwetlands
wetlands (bogs,
(bogs, fens,
fens, swamps,
swamps, marshes,
marshes, and
andshallow
shallow
water), or
ordevelopmental
developmental trends
trends somewhat
somewhat divergent
divergent to
to those
those in
in the
therest
restofof
water),
the region"
region" (National
(NationalWetland
Wetland Working
Working Group
Group1987).
1987). The
Thedistribution
distributionofof
the
the 20
20 wetland
wetland regions
regions of
of Canada
Canada are
are given
given in
in Fig.
Fig. 66and
andTable
Table3.3.Some
Some
the
characteristics of subregions
subregions are presented
presented in
in Table
Table44including
includingcommon
common
characteristics
wetlands,
wetlands, climate,
climate, and
andpeat
peatdevelopment.
development.
Table 2.
2. Classification
Classification keys
keys to
to Canadian
Canadianwetlands.
wetlands.
Table
Part 1.I. Shallow
Shallowwater
waterwetland
wetlandforms
forms
Part
I. Inland;
Inland;fresh
fr~shtotosaline
salinewater
waterbodies
bodiesless
lessthan
than22mmdeep
deep
1.
2.
Associated
with
riverine
systems
2. Associated with riverine systems
in main
main water
watercourse
course ... . ........ .. ... .. .. . ... . . . ...... . ........ . ... Stream
Stream Water
Water
3. Water
Watercontinuously
continuouslyflowing
Howing in
3.
Waternot
notcontinuously
continuouslyflowing
Howing
3. Water
3.
4. Intermittent
Intermittentflowing
flowingwater
watertotodiscontinuous
discontinuoussurface
surfaceflow,
flow,confined
confinedtotoglacio-fluvial,
glacio·fluvial,
4.
Channel Water
Water
erodedspillways
spillways . ..... .. . ....... ... . . .. . ..... .. ... .. .. .... .. ... ........ . .. . ....... .. . . Channel
eroded
flow or
oroverbank
overbankflooding,
flooding, impounded
impoundedbehind
behindlevees
leveesor
orridges
ridgesof
ofalluvial
alluvial
Intermittentflow
4. Intermittent
deposits
deposits
On river
river floodplains
floodplains ... ... .... . ..... . . . .. . .. . .. . ... .. . . . .... ... .. . : .. . ... . . .. ... . ..... Oxbow
Oxbow Water
Water
5.
5. On
On deltas
deltas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . ... . ........ . .... . .... . ...... .. ... Delta
Delta Water
Water
5. On
5.
2. Not
Not associated
associated with
with riverine
riverinesystems
systems
2.
in topographically
topographically defined
defined basin
basin
6. Surface
Surface catchment
catchment in
6.
7.
Basin
not
affected
by
permafrost
7. Basin not affected by permafrost
Terminal Basin
8.
Basin at
at terminus
terminus of
of drainage
drainage system
. ......... .. . . .. . . . ....................... Terminal
Basin Water
Water
8. Basin
system ....
8. Basin
Basin not
not at
at terminus,
terminus, water
water passes
passes through
through the
the basin
basin
Shallow Basin
Basin Water
Water
9. Shallow,
Shallow, gently sloping
sloping basin
basin with
with relatively
relatively uniform
uniformdepth
depth . . . ... . . .... . ....... . .. ..... Shallow
Kettle
Water
deep,
bowl-shaped
basin
with
moderately
sloping
sides
.
...
..
..
.......
..
.
.
......
.
...
Kettle
Water
9. Relatively
Relatively deep, bowl-shaped basin with moderately sloping sides
7.
Basin affected
affected by
by permafrost
permafrost
7. Basin
Tundra Pool Water
10. Shallow
basin
Shallow basinwith
withstable,
stable,steep
steep shores
shores . ....... . .. .. ......... . ....... . . .. . . .. . ..... Tundra Pool Water
Thermokarst
Water
10.
... .. ... ... . .... .. .... ...... .. . . . . . Thermokarst Water
10. Shallow
Shallow basin
basin with
withunstable,
unstable,collapsing
collapsingshores
shores ...
in topographically
topographically defined
defined catch basin, occupying
occupying the
shallow shore
6.
Not in
6. Not
the shallow
shore zone
zone of permanent open
Shore Water
water
water bodies
bodies . ...... .. . . . . .... ..... . . . . .... ... ......... ... .... . .. . ...... . ..... . ............ Shore Water
1.1. Coastal,
or marine
marine water
water bodies
bodies less
less than
than 22 m
m deep
deep
Coastal, estuarine,
estuarine, or
11
.
Tidal
water
11. Tidal water
Estuarine Water
12.
12. Estuarine
Estuarine channels
channels or
or bays
bays periodically
periodicallyinundated
inundatedby
byfresh
freshand
andbrackish
brackishwater
water . ... ..... . .. .... ..... Estuarine Water
Tidal
12. Coastal
lagoons
or
bays
primarily
influenced
by
tidal
action
and
marine
salt
water
.........
.
.
.
....
.
....
Tidal Water
Water
Coastal lagoons or bays primarily influenced by tidal action and marine salt water
11
. Non-tidal
11.
Non-tidal water
water
Non-tidal Water
13. Fresh
zone
Freshtotobrackish
brackishwater
waterbodies
bodieslocated
locatedabove
abovemean
meanhigh-tide
high-tide
zone. ........ . .............. . ... . . Non-tidal Water
Table 2. Continued.
Continued .
Table
Pan 2.
2. Bog
Bogwetland
wetland forms
forms
Part
Surface raised
raised above
above surrounding
surrounding terrain
terrain
1. Surface
2. Surface
Surface convex
convex
2.
3. Core
Corefrozen;
frozen; abruptly
abruptly domed;
domed;usually
usually in
in fens
fens
3.
Over 11m
m high,
high. diameter
diameter up to 100m
100 m . . .. .. . .. .. . . ..... . .. ... .. . ... .... . . .. ... ... . . . .. . . . . . . ... Palsa
Paisa Bog
Bog
4. Over
Peat
Mound
Bog
4. Less than 11 m high.
diameter
up
to
3
m
.
.......
.
...
.
.
...
.
..
..
..
........
...
.
...
.
.
..
.
.
..
..
..
Peat
Mound
Bog
high,
3 3. Core
Core not
not frozen
frozen
5. Convex surface
surface small
diameter) ; occurring
occurring in fens
fens .... .. . .... . .. .. ... . . .... .... .. . ..... ... Mound
Mound Bog
Bog
small (1-3 m diameter);
5. Convex
Convex surface
surface often
often extensive;
extensive; not
not occurring
occurring in
in fens
fens . . ... . ........... . .... . ... . ..... . .... . ..... Domed
Domed Bog
Bog
2. Surface
Surface flat
flat to
to irregular
irregular
Core perennially
perennially frozen
frozen
6. Core
ofpolygonal
polygonalfissures
fissures
Surface with
with network
network of
7. Surface
Polygonal Peat,
Peat. Plateau
Plateau Bog
Bog
8. Surface
Surface even
even .. . . . .. . . . .... . . . . ..... ... ... . . ...... . .. .. . .. . .. . ..... . . . . . . . Polygonal
Lowland Polygonal
Polygonal Bog
Bog
Surface with
8. Surface
with high
high centres
centresininaapolygonal
polygonalnetwork
network . .... .. . .. ... .... . .. .. . .. . ... . .... Lowland
7. Surface
Surface without
without polygonal
polygonal fissures;
.... . .. .... . . . Peat
Peat Plateau
Plateau Bog
Bog
fissures; surface
surfaceabout
about 11mmabove
abovethe
thesurrounding
surroundingfen
fen ....
6. Core
Core not
not frozen
frozen
9. Bogs
Bogs generally
generally teardrop-shaped ...
.. .. ...... .. . . . .. .. . ........ .. .. . . . ........ . . ... .. Northern
Northern Plateau
Plateau Bog
Bog
Atlantic
Plateau
Bog
9. Bogs
Bogs not teardrop-shaped;
teardrop-shaped; abundance
. ..... . . ... ... . ....... . . ..... Atlantic
Bog
abundanceof
ofsurface
surfacewater
water ......
1.
Surface not raised
raised above
above surrounding
surrounding terrain
terrain
1. Surface
10.
relatively level
level
10. Surface relatively
Collapse Scar
11.
marginal peat walls
walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ......... . .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. ... ... . ... Collapse
Scar Bog
Bog
11. With abrupt marginal
11.
walls
11. Without marginal peat walls
12.
water bodies
bodies
12. Adjacent to water
13.
. ... . .. .... . ..... .. . .. .. . . . ....... . .... . ....... ..... .... . ... . ...... Floating
floating Bog
Bog
13. Floating
Floating ......
Shore Bog
13. Not
. .. . . .. .. ... . . .. . . . " ........
. .. . . . .. ..... .. . .. . . . .. . . ... Shore
Bog
Not floating
floating ...............
12.
water bodies
bodies
12. Not adjacent to water
14. Surface
Surface flat;
flat; topographically confined
Basin Bog
15.
Basin deposit;
. . .. . . .. ........... .. ... . . . . . .... ... . ... .. Basin
Bog
15. Basin
deposit; depth
depth greatest
greatest in
in centre
centre ......
15.
generally uniform
flat Bog
Bog
. . .. .. . . .. .... . .. ..... . .. . .... .. .. .... . .. . . . .... Flat
15. Flat
Flat deposit;
deposit; depth
depth generally
uniform ..
14.
appreciably sloping
14. Surface
Surface flat
flat to
to undulating.
undulating, often appreciably
16.
String Bog
Bog
16. Surface
Surfacepattern
patternof
ofridges
ridgesand
andpools
poolsdistinct
distinct . .. ... . ... . .. . .. .. ... . ......... . . .. ... . . . . String
16.
. . . . .. ... ... . .... .. . .... .. .. . Blanket
Blanket Bog
Bog
16. Surface
Surface pattern
pattern of
of pools
pools usually
usuallyabsent;
absent;extensive
extensive ........
to.
level; appreciably
appreciably sloping
stoping
10. Surface not level;
17.
Core not
not frozen
frozen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . ..... ... . ....... . .. Slope
Slope Bog
Bog
17. Core
Veneer
17.
Core perennially
perennially frozen
frozen . ... .. .. . . . . . . . ..... . .. . . .' .. .. . .. . . .. .. . . . . ... . . ... .. .. . . . . . . . ...... Venccr Bog
Bog
17. Core
Part
Marsh wetland
wetland forms
forms
Part 3. Marsh
1.
Influenced by tidal water
1. Influenced
2.
Water saline
saline
2. Water
3. In
In river
river estuaries
estuaries or
orconnecting
connecting bays
bays where
where tidal
tidal fiats,
flats, channels,
channels. and
and pools
pools are
are periodically
periodically
inundated by
by water
water of
of varying
varying salinity
salinity
4. Located
Located above
above mean
mean high-water
high-water levels;
levels ; inundated
inundated only
only at
at highest
highest tides
tides and/or
and/or storm
storm
Estuarine High Marsh
surges
Marsh
surges . . .. ... . .. . ... . . . . . ...... . . .... . .. . .. . . . .... . . .... .. . ... ... .. . . ... . ... .. . . Estuarine
. . . . .. ..... .... .. Estuarine
Estuarine Low
Low Marsh
Marsh
4. Located
high-water levels;
Located below
below mean
mean high-water
levels; frequently
frequently inundated
inundated . . ... . . . . .. ...
3. On
On marine
marine terraces,
terraces. flats,
flats . embayments,
embayments, or
or lagoons
lagoons behind
behind barrier
barrier beaches,
beaches. remote
remote from
from
or salt
salt water
water including
including
estuaries,
where there is
is periodic
periodic inundation
inundation by
by tidal
tidal brackish
brackish or
estuaries, where
salt spray
Coastal High
High Marsh
Marsh
5. Located
high-water levels;
Located above
above mean
mean high-water
levels; inundated
inundated only
only atat flood
flood tides
tides . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . Coastal
Coastal
Low Marsh
Marsh
5. Located
Located below
below mean
mean high-water
high-water levels
levels . . . .. ....... . .. . .... ... . . .. . . . . .... . . .. .... . . . .... Coastal Low
Water fresh
fresh . .. .. .. . . .. ... .. . . . .. . .. .. . . .... . . . .. . ... .. .... . . .. . .. . . .... .. . . . . .. .. .. Tidal
Tidal Freshwater
Freshwater Marsh
Marsh
2.
2. Water
1.
Not influenced
influenced by tidal water
1. Not
6. Located
Located in
in topographically
topographically defined
defined catch
catch basins
basins or
orvalleys
valleys
7. Associated
Associated with
with riverine
riverine or
or linear
linear systems
systems
orflooded
flooded by,
by,flowing
flowing water
water
8. Adjacent
Adjacent to,
to, or
9. Located
Located on
on active
active fluvial
fluvial floodplains
floodplainsadjacent
adjacenttotochannels
channels . .. .. . .... . . .. . . . . . ..
onfluvial
fluvial floodplains
floodplains
9. Not
Not on
10.
Occupying shorelines.
bars. streambeds,
streambeds, or
orislands
islands in
in continuously
continuously
10. Occupying
shorelines, bars,
flowing
flowing water
water courses
courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. ..... . . . . ..
10.
glacial meltwater
meltwater spillways,
spillways, intermittent
intermittent drainage
drainage
10. Occupying abandoned glacial
courses,
. . .. .. .. . . .... . .... ... . .......
courses, or
or open-ended.
open-ended, eroded
eroded channels
channels ..
8.
Located on
on river
river deltas
deltas
8. Located
11.
water circulation,
circulation . open
open connections
connections to
to river
river channels
channels and
and lakes,
lakes.
11. Unrestricted water
..
.
.
.
.
..
......
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
..
..
..
...
...
.
. . ... . .. ..
seasonally
inundated
seasonally inundated
11.
Restricted water
water circulation,
circulation, inundated
inundated only
only during
during infrequent
infrequent high
high river
river
11 Restricted
flows
flows or
or wind tides
. . .. . ... . . .. Floodplain
Floodplain Marsh
Marsh
. .. . .. . . . . ... . . Stream Marsh
M a r~h
... .. . . . . . . . . . Channel
Channel Marsh
Marsh
. .. . ..... , Active
Act ive Delta
Delta Marsh
Marsh
Table 2.
Table
2. Continued.
7. Associated
Associated with
with defined
defined basins
basins having
having poorly
poorly integrated
integrated surface
surface drainage,
drainage. fed
fed by
by local
local
groundwater
runoff or groundwater
12
the terminus
terminus of
of an
an internal
internal drainage
drainage system,
system. may
may be
be flat
flat or
or concave
concave in
in
12.. Located at the
topographically low
. . . .. . .. . .... . .. . .... Terminal Basin
Basin Marsh
Marsh
topographically
low areas.
areas, no outflow ...........................
12.
Located along an
an internal
internal drainage
drainage system;
system; surface
surface or
or underground
underground water
waterpasses
passes
12. Located
the basin
basin
through the
13.
Shallow. gently
gently sloping
swales or that
that
13. Shallow,
sloping depressions
depressions that
that occur as natural swales
occupy intervening
intervening areas between ridges
ridges or
or undulations
undulations on
onlow-relief
low-relief
occupy
Shallow Basin Marsh
.... . . ..... . ......... . . .... . . . ... . . . ............ . ..... . . . ...... Shallow
Marsh
landforms .....
landforms
13.. Sharply defined.
defined, bowl-shaped
catch basin.
basin, usually
located in
in high
13
bowl-shaped catch
usually located
high or
intermediate topographic
topographic positions
positions on
on moderatemoderate- totohigh-relief
high-reliefhummocky
hummocky
Kettle Marsh
moraine.
glacio-lacustrine or
or glacio-fluvial
glacio-fluvial landforms
landforms ...
.. . . ....... .... . .......... . ......... Kettle
Marsh
moraine, glacio-lacustrine
in topographically
topographically defined
defined catch
catch basins
basins
6. Not
Not located
located in
14.
Occupying groundwater
.. ..... . .. . .... Seepage
Seepage Track
Track Marsh
Marsh
14. Occupying
groundwaterdischarge
dischargesites.
sites,usually
usuallyononororatatthe
thebase
baseofofslopes
slopes ...
14
O ccupying the
permanent lakes,
lakes. receiving
recei ving water
water from
from lake
lake
14.. Occupying
the shores of semi-permanent or permanent
flooding
ff . .. . . .... . ......... . . . .... . ................................ . ... . Shore Marsh
Marsh
flooding or
or surface
surface runo
runoff
PUrl
Part 4.
Fen wetland
wetland forms
forms
Fen
in low
low hummocks
hummocks and
and ridges
ridges
I1.. Surface
Surface not raised
raised above
above surrounding
surrounding terrain
terrain except
except in
2.
Surface pattern of
of ridges
ridges and
and depressions
depressions
2. Surface
of ridges
ridges and
and furrows
furrows
3.
Subparallel pattern of
3. Subparallel
4.
Broad pattern;
pattern; often
often very
very extensive
extensive
4. Broad
5.
Northern regions;
regions; lowland
lowland drainage
. .. . ......
.. . . . ....... . . . .. . . . Northern
Northern Ribbed
Ribbed Fen
Fen
5. Northern
drainage;; peat
peat deep
deep .........
. . . .. . . .. . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . .... Atlantic
Atlantic Ribbed Fen
Fen
5. Atlantic
Atlantic regions;
regions; mainly
mainly upland
upland drainage;
drainage; peat
peat shallow
shallow ...
Ladder Fen
. .. . .... . ........ . . . . . . .. . ... . . .. . ...... Ladder
4. Narrow
Narrow ladder-like
ladder-like pattern
pattern;; along
along bog
bog flanks
flanks ..........
.. . . .. .... . . . .. . . .. . . . .......
. .. . . ... . . .. . ..... . ... . .......... . ... Net
Net Fen
Fen
3.
Reticulate pattern
3. Reticulate
patternof
ofridges
ridges ...
2.
Without pronounced
pronounced surface
surface pattern
pattern
2. Without
6.
Featureless. adjacent to water
water bodies
bodies
6. Featureless,
. . . . .. . . ... . . . .. ... .. .. .... . . . . . ....... Floating
7.
Floating ...
Floating Fen
.. . . . .. . . ..... . ... . .. . . . ... . ... . .....
7. Floating
7.
Not floating
floating
7. Not
8.
Located in
along banks
banks of
ofcontinuously
continuously flowing
flowing or
or
main channel
channel or along
8. Located
in main
Stream Fen
semi-permanent
. . . . . .... . . .. . ..... . . .. ... . Stream
. . . .. . . . ... . . .. . . .. . .... .. , .........
semi-permanent streams
streams ..
Shore Fen
8.
8. Located along shores
shores of
of semi-permanent
semi-permanentor
or permanent
permanent lakes
lakes . ... . . .. . . . . ....... ... . . ... . . ...... . . Shore
Collapse Scar
Scar Fen
Fen
6.
thaw hollows
; not
. ....... .. .. . . Collapse
6. Depressed thaw
hollows with
with high-water
high-watercontent
contentpeat
peat;
notadjacent
adjacenttotowater
waterbodies
bodies ....
Surface raised
raised above
above surrounding
surrounding terrain
terrain
1. Surface
Surface sloping
sloping appreciably
appreciably
9. Surface
10. With
With frozen
frozen core
core
10.
11 . Mounds
Mounds in patterned fen
fen ... .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . . . ... .. ....... ... . .... ......... ..... ... . .. . Palsa
Paisa Fen
Fen
11.
Snowpatch
11. Surface regular but sloping .... . ........ . . .. . . . . . ... . . .. .. ... .. . .. . .. . . . . .. ............. Snowpatch Fen
Fen
Without frozen
frozen core
core
10. Without
12. Water from
from underground
underground discharge
discharge ... . .. . . . ... ... . . ...... . ..... . . .. . . .. ..... .. . .. . .... . . ... Spring
Spring Fen
Fen
12. Water
Water from
from overland
overlandflow
flow
12.
13. Surface
Surface with
with parallel
parallel drainage-ways
drainage-ways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . ...... .. . .... . . . . .. .... Feather
Feather Fen
Fen
13.
13. Surface
Surface smooth or with irregular tracts .. . . . .. ..... ....... . . .. ... . . . . . .... . . . ..... . .......... Slope
Slope Fen
Fen
13.
Surface flat
flat or
or depressional
depressional
9. Surface
14. Core
Core perennially
perennially frozen,
frozen, surface
surface with
with network
networkof
ofpolygonal
polygonalfissures
fissures . . ....... .. ... ....... . .. Lowland
Lowland Polygonal
Polygonal Fen
Fen
14.
14.
Core not
not frozen,
frozen ,surface
surface without
without pronounced
pronounced surface
surface pattern
pattern
14. Core
15 . Basin
Basin part
part of
of regional
regional drainage
drainage system
system
15.
plains . .. .. .. ... . . . . . . . . .. ... .. ... . .. . . . ... ... .. .... . . .. Horizontal
Horizontal Fen
Fen
16.
Occupying broad depressions
depressions or plains
16. Occupying
16.
well-defined, often
Fen
16. Occupying well-defined,
often eroded
eroded channels
channels . .. ........... . . . . . . . ....... . ... . ...... . . . .... Channel Fen
15
Basin does not receive
receive regional
regional drainage
Basin Fen
Fen
. ... . . . ... .. . . ..... .. . .... .. ... ... ... . . ... ... .. Basin
15.. Basin
drainage water
water ..
428
428
A4
.^.A•zt
PLATEAU
d
EL
W.
lit
..%
t
.•
DOMED
-..
.q.
A~~
PLATE~~----. -==
a;
PLATEAU
i
~
~
' ''K:=7"-14
BASIN
SLOPE
1
BOWL
BOWL
.--------.
~?:::::-:-~
-------------„
BLANKET
-,x, •
FLAT
Cross-section of
of representative
Figure
representative bogs in
in areas
areas of
ofno
nopermafrost.
permafrost .
Figure4.
4. Cross-section
Wetland
Wetland regions of Canada and Greenland
Low Arctic Wetland
Wetland Region
Region (AL)
This
This wetland
wetland region
region covers
covers most
most of
of the
the continental
continental arctic
arctic of
of Canada
Canada and
and part
of
(Fig. 6).
6). Its
Itssouthern
southernlimit
limitcoincides
coincides with
with
of the
the southern coast of Greenland (Fig.
the
is continental
continental with
with the
the exception
exception
the arctic tree line. The climate of this region is
of
of areas
areas along
along the
the arctic
arctic coast
coast of
of mainland
mainland Canada
Canada and Greenland where the
climate
(1954) in
climate isis marine-modified
marine-modifiedcontinental
continental (Table
(Table 3). Bocher (1954)
in Greenland
Greenland
differentiated
oceanic and
and continental
continental vegetation
vegetation sub-regions
sub-regions
differentiated between
between the
the oceanic
using
25°C annual
using the
the 2,500
2,500mm
mmannual
annual precipitation
precipitation and
and the 25°C
annual mean
mean range of
temperature
boundary. The
The arctic
arctic continental
continental climate
climate isis characterized
characterized
temperature as
as a boundary.
by short
short cool
cool summers,
summers, long
long cold
cold winters,
winters, and low precipitation
(Table 3).
3).
by
precipitation (Table
land surfaces.
surfaces. The
The seasonal
seasonal thawed
thawed active
active
Pennafrost
Permafrost isis present
present under
under all land
layer is
is approximately
approximately 40
40cm
cm deep
deep under high centre
centre polygons,
polygons. 60
60 to
to 80
80 cm
layer
under
fens, and
and 90
90 to
to 180
180 cm
cm under
under marshes.
marshes. The
The usual
usual maximum
maximum
under wet
wet fens,
429
POLYGONAL PEAT PLATEAU
Ii
A
e,`er
FROZEN PT:AT
m o-
1- 110211-4 kilt-FERAL
.0i,
-I
5
15
0
1.11
07 PEAT
0-,
PEAT PLATEAU
6-1
61
-i~l~~?~~t~'~~ ';J:~:~::, :'~',~ ,~:"': " , '" "
1T1
Ittli4.1 1,-tiii-,1_,
- --ro r- en ' 7 "
-
2—
0-
___,* ) Itue't N AND/01111111111,21 II
m -2-
P.U11111AI 1.011
o
I
.T00
JOO
1
200
1
100
100
n
m
MOUND
05
05
I'(AI
P [Al
7.-
m
TIT
fFROZEN
1I010< ('to ~I
o0-
-- Utllll()Zll<
1'1..\1
uti111021.N 11
-05+----,-- -- - , - - -- , --- ,
-0 5 3
2
o
m
J
m
o
-1 · ------ - .. 1" .. - - - - -- , --
o
50
100
_. _-
--- - - I
-~
I~O
m
m
Cross-section of
of representative
representative bogs in areas of
Figure 5.5. Cross-section
of permafrost.
permafrost.
Figure
thickness
approximately 1.5
1.5 m
high centre
centre polygons
polygons but only
only
thickness of
of peat is approximately
m on high
50
polygonal fens.
Marshes have
surface peat
peat layer.
layer. Fredskild
Fredskild
50cm
cm on
on polygonal
fens. Marshes
have no surface
(1961)
peat thicknesses
thicknessesup
uptoto19
19cm
cm are
are associated
associated with
with wetlands
wetlands
(1961) reported
reported that peat
in
western part of Greenland.
in the western
In
Low Arctic
Arctic Wetland
Wetland Region,
Region, lowland
lowland polygon
polygon fens
fens and
and bogs
bogs are
are
In the Low
by
far
the
most
widespread
wetlands
(Zoltai
and
Tarnocai
1975,
Zoltai
and
by
most widespread wetlands (Zoltai and Tarnocai 1975, Zoltai and
Pollett
1983, Tarnocai
and Zoltai
Zoltai 1988).
1988). Marshes
Marshes are
are common
common along
along the
the
Pollett 1983,
Tarnocai and
coast
the deltas
deltas while
while shallow
shallow water, aa common
common phenomenon
phenomenon of the
the
coast and in the
tundra,
also prevalent.
prevalent. Other
Other wetlands
wetlands occurring
occurring in
in this
this region
region are
are peat
peat
tundra, is also
mound bogs (Fig.
(Fig. 5) and horizontal
horizontal fens
fens with
with peat
peat cushions.
cushions. Although
Although peatpeatextreme western
western parts
partsof
ofthe
theregion,
region.they
theyare
arescarce
scarce
lands are common in the extreme
elsewhere.
peatlands occur mainly
mainly in
in depressional
depressional areas where
where the
the
elsewhere. These
These peatlands
precipitation
runoff or
or by
by small
small creeks.
creeks. Large
Large
precipitation isis concehtrated
concentrated either
either by runoff
expanses
covered with
with tussock-forming
tussock-forming graminoid
graminoid species
species such
such as
as
expanses of tundra, covered
are
not
considered
to
be
wetCarex
bigelowii
and
Eriophorum
vaginatum,
are
considered
to
wetCarex bigelowii and Eriophorum vaginatum,
lands
year (Zoltai and
and Pollett
Pollett
lands since
since they
they are
are not water-logged
water-logged throughout the year
430
Figure
regions of Canada.
Canada . Abbreviations
Abbreviations are described in the text.
text.
Figure 6.
6. Map of wetland regions
1983).
bogs in
in Siberia
Siberia
1983). This
This view
view isis in
in agreement
agreement with
with the definition of tundra bogs
used by Botch
used
Botch (1974).
(1974) .
A sequence
sequence of
of lowland
lowland polygon
polygon development
wetland
development isis apparent
apparent in this wetland
region. In the
the frozen
frozen fens
fens polygonal
polygonal cracks develop as a result of the intense
cold.
Ice wedges
wedges begin to form
form in
in these
these cracks,
cracks, growing
growing thicker
thicker and
and deeper
deeper
cold. Ice
year
year. The
The soil
soil displaced
displaced by
by the
the ice
ice wedges
wedges isis elevated
elevated along
along the
the
year after year.
crack.
forming aa polygonal
polygonal trough
the initial
initial low
low
crack, forming
trough and
and shoulder
shoulder pattern
pattern.. In the
centre forms the
the shoulders
shoulders enclose
enclose small,
small. shallow
shallow ponds,
ponds. giving
giving itit aa paddypaddylike
appearance. As
peat is deposited
deposited in
centre of
of the
the polygon,
polygon. itit isis
like appearance.
As peat
in the centre
gradually filled
often contains
contains mineral
mineral soil
soil which
which has
has
filled in
in with
with peat.
peat. This peat often
by cryoturbation.
cryoturbation . Once
Once the
the centres
centres are
are filled,
filled. the
the surface
surface
been mixed into itit by
becomes relatively well
well drained and peat-forming
peat-forming plants
plants can
can no
no longer
longergrow
grow
of
there. In
In time,
time, the
the polygonal
polygonal troughs
troughs may
may become
become deeper
result of
there.
deeper as
as a result
thermal subsidence
subsidence or
erosion. leading
leading to aa high
high centre
centre appearance.
appearance. Such
Such
thermal
or erosion,
high centre
centre polygons,
polygons, if
protected by
by vegetation
vegetation cover, are
are eroded
eroded by
by
high
if not protected
this stage,
stage, the
the high
high centre polygons
polygons are
wind or by oxidation of the
the peat. At this
functionally
functionally no longer wetlands.
wetlands.
431
431
Table 3.
3.Mean
Meandaily
dailytemperature
temperatureand
andmean
meanprecipitation
precipitationvalues
valuesininthe
thewetland
wetlandregions
regions(Fig.
(Fig.6)6)
Table
ofCanada
Canada (Wetland
(Wetland W.G.
W.O .1984).
1984).
of
Mean
Mean
Mean annual
annual
Mean
Mean
Meandaily
dai ly
Mean daily
daily
Mean
annual
total
annual
January
July
total
July
January
snowfall
precipitation
snowfall
temperature
temperature
precipitation
temperature
temperature
Wetland Region
Region
Wetland
(0C)
(°C)
(0C)
(°C)
High Arctic-AH
Arctic-AH
High
Mid Arctic-AM
Arctic-AM
Mid
Low Arctic-AL
Arctic-AL
Low
High Subarctic-SH
Subarctic-SH
High
Low Subarctic-SA
Subarctic-SA
Low
Atlantic Subarctic-SA
Subarctic-SA
Atlantic
High
Boreal-BH
High Boreal-BH
Mid Boreal-BM
Boreal-BM
Mid
Low Boreal-BL
Boreal-BL
Low
Boreal-BA
Atlantic Boreal-BA
Continental Prairie-PC
Prairie-PC
Continental
Prairie-PI
Intermountain Prairie-PI
Temperate-TE
Eastern Temperate-TE
Pacific Temperate-TP
Pacific
Atlantic Oceanic-OC
Oceanic-OC
Pacific
Oceanic-OP
Pacific Oceanic-OP
Mountain-MC
Coastal Mountain-MC
Mountain-MI
Interior Mountain-MI
Rocky Mountain-MR
Eastern Mountain-ME
Mountain-ME
- 33
-33
- 29
-29
-29
-29
-29
-29
- 29
-29
-5to
- 15
-5
to -15
-23 to
to -25
- 25
-23
- 20
-20
-13
-13
-5 to
to -20
- 20
-5
- 15 to
to -20
- 20
-15
-7
-9
-3
-3
-3
2 to 33
- 4to
- 19
-4
to -19
-8
to -27
-27
-8 to
-13 to
to -28
--23
23
55
77
99
13
13
15
15
12-15
12-15
13-16
13-16
17-19
17-19
18
18
13-18
13-18
13-18
13-18
19
20
16
14
14
13-17
13-18
14-15
12
(cm)
(cm)
10
10
20
20
15
15
35
35
50
50
85-130
85-130
40-70
40-70
50-80
50- SO
95
95-135
95-135
35-45
35
95
155
135
195-305
30-105
30105
30-50
3050
70
(cm)
(cm)
70
70
110
110
80
SO
190
190
310
310
270-460
270- 460
160-260
160-260
120-280
120-280
250
250
190-450
190- 450
110-120
110- 120
120
210
70
190
110
130-270
130270
120-250
120-250
155-250
155250
370
Floodplain
floodplains adjacent
Floodplain marshes occur in active floodplains
adjacent to river channels.
They
usually occupy
occupy the low-lying
low-lying alluvial
alluvial islands
islands which
which are flooded
flooded frefreThey usually
quently
river channels.
channels. Active
Active delta
delta marshes
marshes occur
occur in
in
quently and
and areas adjacent to river
river
with open drainage
drainage resulting
resulting from
from unrestricted
unrestricted connection
connection to
to
river deltas
deltas with
active
active channels.
(Carex
The
vegetation cover
low centre
centre polygons
polygons is
is mainly
mainly sedges
The vegetation
cover on
on low
sedges (Carex
Calliergon
spp.) with
with mosses
mosses such
such as
as Calliergon
spp.)
(Eriophorum spp.)
spp.) and
and cotton
cotton grasses
grasses (Eriophorum
also being
being present.
present. The polygonal
giganteum
polygonal
Drepanocladus revolvens
revolvens also
and Drepanoc/adus
giganteum and
shoulders
better drained
drained portions
portions of the high
high
shoulders(along
(alongthe
the trench)
trench) and
and the
the better
and ericaceous
ericaceous shrubs.
shrubs.
Betula glandulosa
glandulosa and
centre
centre polygons
polygons are
are colonized
colonized by
by Betula
The
water-filled trenches,
especially near
level,
The shoulders
shoulders of
of the water-filled
trenches, especially
near the water level,
spp.
Some
high
centre
polygons
are
being
erare
colonized
by
Sphagnum
spp.
Some
high
centre
polygons
are
being
erare colonized by Sphagnum
oded
, mainly
have only
only aa scattered
scattered vegetation
vegetation cover.
cover. The
oded,
mainly by
by wind,
wind, and
and have
vegetation
vegetationassociated
associatedwith
withfloodplain
floodplainmarshes
marshesisisdominantly
dominantlyofofthe
the grass
grass-Equisetum
associated with
type.. Flooded
Flooded active
active delta
delta marshes
marshes are
are associated
with the
the grassgrassEquisetum type
sedge
less frequently
frequently inundated
sedge and
and willow-sedge
willow-sedgetypes
typesof
of yegetation.
vegetation. The
The less
portions
active delta
marshes are associated
associated with
with low
low willows
willows and
portionsof
of the
the active
delta marshes
and
patches
of
the
sedge
type
of
vegetation
.
patches of the sedge type of vegetation.
Table 4.
4. Wetland
Wetland regions
regions of
of Canada.
Canada .
Table
Wetland region
region
Wetland
Climate
Climate
Common
Common wetlands
wetlands
Peat
Peat development
development
High Arctic
Arctic
High
AH
AH
Cold. short
short summers.
summers. Very
Very
Cold,
winter. Very
Very low
low precipiprecipicold winter.
tation . Permafrost
Permafrost under
under
tation.
wetland.
wetland.
Basin
or without
without lowland
lowland
Basin fen with
with or
polygon
polygon development. Peat
Peat mound
mound
hog.
bog . Coastal
Coastal marshes.
marshes. Shallow
Shallow
water in
in low-lying
low-lying areas.
areas.
Minimal,
Minimal, 0.5
0.5 m
m average
average
thickness
thickness
Mid-Arctic
Mid-Arctic
AM
AM
Cold. arid.
arid. Permafrost
Permafrost under
under
Cold,
wetlands.
wetlands.
Horizontal fens.
fens . Basin
Basin fens.
fens. Small,
Small.
elevated peat mound
mound bogs.
bogs. Low
Low centre
centre
polygonal
polygonal bogs.
bogs . Active
Active high
high centre
centre
polygonal
polygonal bogs rare.
rare . Coastal
Coastal marshes.
marshes .
Shallow
Shallow water in
in low-lying
low-lying areas.
areas .
Peat
Peat 1.5
I .S m
m in
in peat
peat mounds
mounds
and
in fens.
fens .
and 0.5
O.S m
m in
Low Arctic
Arctic
Low
AL
AL
Cold. cool
cool summers
summers and
and low
low
Cold,
Permafrost
precipitation. Permafrost
lakes.
except close
close to lakes.
Lowland
fens, both low
Lowland polygonal
polygonal fens.
low
and high centres. Spring
Spring fens.
fens .
coastal
coastal marshes.
marshes . Shallow
Shallow water.
water.
1.5 m
m in
in high-centre
1.S
high-centre polygons,
polygons .
0.5 m
m in
O.S
in polygonal
polygonal fens.
fens .
High
Suoarctic
High Subarctic
SH
SH
Cool
summers . Low
Low precipitation.
precipitation.
Cool summers.
Permafrost
except close
close to lakes.
lakes .
Permafrost except
Polygonal peat
peat plateau hogs.
Polygonal
bogs . Basin
Basin and
and
shore fens.
shore
fens . Small
Small palsa
paisa hogs.
bogs . Coastal
Coastal
zone fens
zone
fens extensive.
extensive . Stream fens.
fens .
Shallow
Shallow waters.
2m
m average.
average .
Low
Subarctic
Low Subarctic
SL
SL
Cold
moderately
Cold winters and moderately
cool
precipitation
cool summers.
summers. Low precipitation
in
east.
in west
west but
but higher in east.
Permafrost
peats.
Permafrost under peats.
Peat plateau bogs.
Peat
bogs . Palsa
Paisa bogs
bogs mostly
mostly
east of Nelson
Nelson River. Ribbed
Ribbed and
and
east
horizontal pens. Marshes
horizontal
Marshes and
and shallow
shallow
water common
common in
in Hudson Bay
water
Bay lowland.
lowland.
2-3 m average.
average .
Atlantic
Atlantic
Subarctic
Subarctic
SA
SA
Cool
relatively
Cool wet
wet summers
summers and relatively
cool
cool winters.
winters. High winds and
extreme
extreme exposure
exposure.. No permafrost.
Atlantic plateau
plateau bogs
Atlantic
bogs with palsa
paisa hogs
bogs
in Labrador.
Labrador. Peat
in
Peat mound
mound bogs
bogs and
basin bogs
bogs.. Rihbed
Ribbed fens
fens at
at high
basin
high
elevations. Some
Some slope
slope fens.
elevations.
fens.
1-2 m
m in
in bogs
hogs.. Fens
1-2
Fens up
up to
to 22 m.
m.
High
High Boreal
Boreal
BH
BH
Cool
Cool winters.
winters, moderately cool
summers.
summers. Low
Low precipitation in
west
west increasing
increasing eastwards.
Sporadic
Sporadic permafrost.
permafrost.
Peat plateau
plateau bogs.
Peat
bogs . Palsa
Paisa bogs.
bogs . String
bogs. Ribbed
Ribbed fens
fens.. Veneer bogs
bogs.
bogs in
in
northern areas.
areas. Coastal
Coastal marshes.
marshes,
northern
horizontal fens
fens and
and shallow
shallow water
water near
horizontal
Hudson Bay.
Hudson
2-4 m.
m, thickest
thickest peat
peat in
2-4
in
plateau hogs.
plateau
bogs .
Mid-Boreal
Mid-Boreal
BM
BM
Cold winters
winters and
andwarm
warmsummers
summers
Cold
in
west
to
mild
winters
and
in west to mild winters and
cool summers
summers in
in east.
east.PrecipPrecipcool
itation
highest
in
east
.
No
itation highest in east. No
permafrost.
permafrost.
Tree
Tree bogs
bogs and
and fens.
fens .Raised
Raisedbogs
bogsinin
humid
humid east.
east. Floating
Floating fens
fens and
and shore
shore
swamps
swamps bordering
bordering lakes
lakes and
and ponds.
ponds.
Marshes
Marshes and
and fens
fens locally
locally common.
common .
Domed,
Domed. flat
flat and
and basin
basin bogs
bogs in
in humid
humid
areas.
areas . Horizontal
Horizontal and
and ribbed
ribbed fens
fens in
in
continental
continental areas.
areas .
4-5
4-5m
mexcept
except ininareas
areastransitransi tional
tional to
to Prairie
Prairie Region
Regioninin
south
south where
where 2-3
2- 3m
m less
less peat
peat inin
fens
fens and
and minimal
minimal peat
peat inin
swamps
swamps and
and marshes
marshes
Low Boreal
Boreal
Low
BL
BL
Cold winters
winters and
and warm
warm summers
summers
Cold
with high
high precipitation
precipitation
with
especially in east. No
No permapermaespecially
frost.
frost.
Bowl
Bowl bogs,
bogs. treed and
and often
often surrounded
surrounded
by
by peat
peat margin
margin swamps.
swamps. Some
Some basin
basin
swamps
swamps and fens
fens in
in depressions.
depressions.
Bog
Bog and
and fen
fen pears
peats average
average
55 m.
Swamps
exceed
m. Swamps seldom
seldom exceed
50
cm..
50cm
Atlantic Boreal
Boreal
Atlantic
BA
BA
mild winters.
winters . Cool
Cool
Relatively mild
persistent fog.
fog .
summers persistent
ranges from
from 950
950
Precipitation ranges
to 1,500mm
1.500 mm annually.
annually . No
No
permafrost .
permafrost.
Domed bogs. Peat
Peat Plateau
Plateau hogs.
hogs .
String
String bogs.
bogs . Atlantic ribbed
rihbed fens.
fens .
Slope
Slope fens.
fens. Stream fens.
fens . Stream
Stream
swamps. Basin swamps. Salt marshes
marshes
on coast. Freshwater
Freshwater marshes
marshes along
along
streams and floodplains.
streams
floodplains .
5-10
m in
in domed
domed hogs.
hogs .
5- !O m
8-10
m
in
plateau
8-lO m in plateau hogs.
hogs .
1-22 m
1m in
in fens.
fens .
Continental
Prairie
Continental Prairie
PC
PC
Cold
winters and
and hot
hot summers.
summers.
Cold winters
Semi-arid.
No
permafrost.
Semi-arid. No permafrost.
Marshes including
including saline
saline ones. Shallow
Marshes
Shallow
water, both fresh
water.
fresh and
and saline.
saline .
Mostly absent
absent;; if
Mostly
if present,
pre sent .
50 cm..
50cm
Intermountain
Prairie
Intermountain Prairie
PI
PI
Mild
hot summers.
summers .
Mild winters
winters and hot
No
permafrost .
No permafrost.
Marshes.. Emphemeral or semisemiMarshes
permanent shallow
shallow water.
water, both fresh
permanent
fresh
and
and saline.
Peat absent
Peat
absent
Eastern
Eastern Temperate
Temperate
TE
TE
Mild
warm summers.
Mild winters
winters and
and warm
High
precipitation .
High annual
annual precipitation.
Basin and
and stream swamps with
Basin
harbours basin
basin and
and flag
bogs bare.
flag bogs
harbours
Shore
marshes,
stream
marshes
and
Shore marshes. stream marshes and
fens along
along water
water bodies.
fens
bodies .
m in
in swamps
swamps and
and 33 m
m in
in bogs.
bogs .
22 m
Pacific
Temperate
Pacific
Temperate
TP
TP
Mild
Mild winters
winters and
and warm
warm summers.
summers.
High
High annual
annual precipitation
precipitation..
Horizontal fens
fens.. Basin swamps.
Horizontal
Flat and
and basin
basin bogs. Marshes
Flat
Marshes in floodflood plains and
and deltas
deltas.. Coastal
Coastal marshes.
plains
marshes .
4-5 m
m in
m in
4-5
in swamps,
swamps, 22 m
in bogs
bogs
and
up
to
4
m
in
fens.
and up to 4 m in fens .
Atlantic
Atlantic Oceanic
Oceanic
BA
BA
Cold
Cold winters
winters and
and cool
cool summers.
High
High precipitation
precipitation..
Blanket bogs
bogs.. Small
Small slope
slope fens
fens and
and
Blanket
slope bogs
bogs.. Some
Some ribbed
ribbed fens
fens..
slope
Less than
than 22 m.
m
Less
~
w
w
Tahir 4.
.J. Continued.
('()ntinllcd~
Table
Climate
Climate
Common wetlands
wetlands
Peat development
development
cool summers.
summers.
Mild winters and cool
precipitation.
High precipitation.
Flat bogs.
and
bogs . Slope
Slope hogs.
bogs. Horizontal
Horizontal and
stream fens.
fens . Swamps.
Swamps. Coastal
Coastal marshes.
marshes .
1-4
1-4 m
m in
in bogs.
bogs . 1-2
) -2 m
m in
in fens.
fens.
Coastal Mountain
Mountain
MC
MC
Cool climate with
with moderate to
to
high precipitation.
precipitation .
high
Flat bogs and horizontal
horizontal fens
fens in
in
valleys.
valleys . Small
Small basin bogs and
and fens
fens in
in
alpine areas. Marshes
and
Marshes along
along lakes
lakes and
deltas.
deltas .
1.5
m or
or less
1.5 m
less
Interior Mountain
Mountain
Interior
MI
MI
Cool to
10 cold with
with moderate to
to
Cool
10
low precipitation.
precipitation.
to low
Flat
Flat and basin
basin bogs.
bogs. Horizontal
Horizontal fens
fens
in
south. Palsa
in south.
PaIsa and peat
peat plateau
plateau bogs
bogs
in
in north.
north . Marshes
Marshes along
along lakes
lakes and
and deltas.
deltas .
2-3 m
m in
in central
central to
to northern
northern
areas
areas and 1-2
1-2 m
m in
in south.
south .
Cool
Cool to cold with moderate to
low
Permafrost
low precipitation. Permafrost
under wetlands in northern areas.
areas.
Flat and basin bogs
Flat
bogs in south.
south . Palsa,
Paisa ,
peat plateau, and
peat
and veneer
veneer hogs
bogs in
in north.
north .
Marshes along
along lakes
lakes and
and on delta.
delta .
Marshes
Usually less
less than
than 1-15
1-15 m.
m.
Usually
cool summers.
summers.
Cool
Cool winters and cool
Low
Low precipitation.
Slope
fens.
Slope fens.
fens. Ribbed fens.
10-20 cm..
JO-20cm
Wetland region
region
Pacific Oceanic
Oceanic
Pacific
OP
OP
Rocky Mountain
MR
Eastern
Mountain
Eastern Mountain
ME
ME
435
WeIland Region
Region (AM)
(AM)
Mid-Arctic Wetland
wetland region
region covers
covers the middle
middle tier
tier of
of arctic
arctic islands
islands of Canada
Canada and
and
This wetland
the coast
marinecoast of
of central
central Greenland
Greenland(Fig.
(Fig.6).
6) .The
Theclimate
climateofofthis
thisregion
regionisisaamarineby short
short cool
cool summers,
summers, long
long cold
cold
modified continental
continental type,
type, characterized
characterized by
modified
is present
present under
under
and very
very low
low precipitation
precipitation (Table
(Table 3).
3). Permafrost
Permafrost is
winters, and
The active
active layer
layerisis about
about30
30 cm
cm deep
deep in
in peatlands
peatlandsand
and40
40cm
cm
all land surfaces.
surfaces. The
under wet
wet fens.
fens. The
The thickness
thickness of
of the
the peat
peat isis less
less than
than 150
150 cm on peat
peat
deep under
fens . Marshes
Marshes are not
not associated
associated
and usually
usually less
less than 50
50 cm on the fens.
mounds and
with peat.
peat.
with
Mid-Arctic Wetland
Wetland Region
Region the
the most
most common
common wetlands
wetlands are
are lowland
lowland
In the Mid-Arctic
Some
fens . Lowland polygon bogs are rare except in eroding forms. Some
polygon fens.
in depressions
depressions and
and on
on seepseepalso present,
present, especially
especially in
small horizontal fens are also
associated with
with snowbanks.
snowbanks. These
These fens
fens are
are often
often associated
associatedwith
with
age slopes associated
elevated
elevated peat mounds
mounds (Zoltai
(Zoltai and
and Pollett
Pollett 1983).
1983). Horizontal
Horizontal fens
fens are also
also
to basins
basins which
which
common
confined to
to poorly
poorly drained
drained lowlands
lowlands or to
common but
but are confined
receive
runoff
water
from
the
surrounding
mineral
terrain.
Salt
marshes
are
receive runoff water from
mineral terrain.
common along
along the
the low-lying
low-lying coastal
coastal lowlands.
lowlands.
Low centre lowland
lowland polygons
polygons occur
occur locally
locally but
but high
high centre
centre lowland
lowland polypolygons are rare. The
The strongly
strongly eroded
eroded high
high centre
centre polygons
polygons found in this region
region
developed under a former climate and are considered to be relict phenomena.
phenomena.
Horizontal
fens and basin fens are similar,
similar, the
the major
major difference
difference being
being that
that
Horizontal fens
basin
fens are
are confined
confined and
protected and
and receive
receive more
more runoff
runoff from
from the
the
basin fens
and protected
cm
surrounding
mineral terrain. Peat
Peat mounds
mounds may
may be
be raised
raised as
as much
much as
as50
50cm
surrounding mineral
above the fen surface, elevated by
by ice
ice accumulation in
and may
may be
be
in the peat, and
the continuous
continuous permafrost
permafrost zone
zone (Washburn
(Washburn 1983a,b).
1983a,b).
regarded as palsas of the
spp. with
spp. and
and Eriophorum
Eriophorum spp.
Carex spp.
The
vegetation cover
with
The vegetation
cover on
on fens
fens is
is Carex
Drepanocladus revolvens
revolvens also
mosses such
such as
as Aulacomnium
mosses
Aulacomnium turgidum
turgidum and
and Drepanocladus
and S. nemoreum
occurring.
occurring. Small
Small isolated
isolated cushions
cushions of
of Sphagnum
Sphagnum fuscum
fuscum and
may occur
occur on
on these
often occur
may
these fens.
fens. These
These sphagnum
sphagnum mosses
mosses often
occur on rocks
rocks
cushions coalesce
coalesce to form
submerged
cases the Sphagnum
Sphagnum cushions
submerged in
in fens.
fens. In some cases
peat mounds. The
The peat
peat mounds
mounds are
arecovered
coveredby
bylichens,
lichens, sphagnum
sphagnum mosses,
mosses,
High centre
centre polygons
ericaceous shrubs, and dwarf birch (Betula
(Betula glandulosa)
glandulosa).. High
by wind
wind and
and are
are entirely
entirely devoid
devoid of
of vegetation
vegetation cover.
cover.
are commonly
commonly eroded by
High Arctic
Arctic Wetland
Wetland Region
Region(A1-1)
(AH)
This wetland region covers most of the high arctic islands
islands of
of Canada,
Canada, including the
the northern and northeastern
as the north
ing
northeastern parts
parts of
of Baffin
Baffin Island
Island as well
well as
higher elevation
elevation areas
areas below
below the
the glacial
glacial ice
ice
coastal
coastal strip
strip of Greenland and higher
on
climate of
of this
this region
region isis aamarine-modified
marine-modified continental
continental
on Greenland. The climate
type,
characterized by
summers. long cold winters, and very
very low
low
type, characterized
by short cool summers,
436
precipitation (Table
(Table 3).
3). Permafrost
is present
present under all
all land
land surfaces.
surfaces. The
The
precipitation
Permafrost is
active layer
layer is
is about
about 20
cm deep
deep in peatlands
20 to 30
30 cm
peatlands and
and 30
30 to
to 40
40 cm
cm deep
deep
active
under
fens. Peat
Peat development
development is
is minimal
minimal with the
the average
average thickness
thickness of
under wet fens.
peat
being about
about 50
50 cm.
None of
of the
the marshes
marshes are
areassociated
associated with
with peat.
peat.
peat being
cm. None
Because
aridity of the high
high arctic,
arctic. wetlands
wetlands are
are scarce;
scarce: they
they occur
occur
Because of
of the
the aridity
mainly in
in poorly
poorly drained lowlands
lowlands and along the coastal
coastal lowlands.
lowlands.
mainly
types in
in this
this wetland region are low
The common
common wetland
wetland types
low centre lowland
lowland
polygons,
with shallow
(shallow water),
peat
polygons, fens,
fens, often
often with
shallow tundra
tundra ponds (shallow
water), and peat
mounds. Peat accumulation
is very
very slow. The low
low centre
centre lowland
lowland polygons
polygons
mounds.
accumulation is
of the
the polygons.
polygons. Active
Activehigh
high
often enclose shallow pools within the shoulders
shoulders of
centre lowland
are non-existent.
centre
lowland polygons
polygons are
non-existent. The strongly
strongly eroded
eroded high
high centre
centre
polygons found
found on the high
polygons
high arctic
arctic islands
islands developed under
under aaformer
formerclimate
climate
and are considered
and
considered to be
be relict
relict phenomena.
phenomena. Peat
Peat mounds
mounds similar
similar to
to those
those
occurring in
in the Mid-Arctic
Wetland Region
Region can
can be found here.
occurring
Mid-Arctic Wetland
here. As
As aa result
result
of ice
peat mounds
mounds may
may be
be elevated
elevatedas
asmuch
much
ice accumulation
accumulation in
in the
the peat these peat
50 cm
cmabove
above the
the surrounding
surrounding surface.
surface. Because
Because of
of their
their internal morphology
as 50
in the form
and since
since the ice
ice occurs
occurs primarily
primarily in
form of
of segregated
segregated ice,
ice, these
these peat
peat
mounds may be regarded as palsas of the continuous permafrost
permafrost zone
zone (Wash(Washburn 1983a,b).
1983a,b). Seepage fens
fens occur on slopes
slopes where
where continuous
continuous moisture
moisture is
is
available throughout
throughout the
the growing
growing season.
season. The
The source
source of the
available
the moisture
moisture is
is
usually late-thawing
late-thawing snowbanks.
snowbanks. Horizontal
Horizontal fens
fens are
are also
usually
also common
common but are
are
confined to poorly drained lowlands
confined
lowlands or to
to basins
basins which
which receive
receive runoff
runoff water
water
from the surrounding
surrounding mineral
mineral terrain.
terrain. Along
Alongthe
thecoast
coastand
andininlow-lying
low-lying areas,
areas,
marshes and shallow water are common.
marshes
The vegetation
vegetation on
basin and
and horizontal
horizontal fens
mainly Carex
on basin
fens is
is mainly
Carex spp.
spp. and
is similar
similar to that
Drepanocladus revolvens.
revolvens. The vegetation
vegetation on seepage
seepage fens
fens is
found on basin and horizontal fens, with other
other mosses
mosses such
such as Bryum cryophilum and
and Catoscopium
Catoscopium nigritum also
lum
High centre
centre polygons
polygons are
also being present. High
actively eroding
peat mounds
mounds are
are
unvegetated because
because of their actively
unvegetated
eroding nature.
nature. The peat
associated with
with the lichen and moss
associated
moss types of vegetation.
vegetation.
Although
wet lowlands
lowlands occupy
the High
High Arctic,
Arctic,
Although wet
occupy only
only aa small
small portion
portion of the
they constitute the most
most productive
productive parts
parts of
of the
the landscape
landscape (Muc
(Muc 1977).
1977). The
The
annual
of the
the bryophyte
layer, based
based on
on Messia
bryophyte layer.
triquetra
annual production
production of
Messia triquetra as .
77 ggm
m- 2z in a sedge meadow (Vitt
marker species, was 77
(Vitt and
and Pakarinen
Pakarinen 1977).
1977).
fen, had
offen,
hadan
anaverage
averagetotal
totalbiomass
biomassofof202.7
202.7gg m- 2
The same wetland,
wetland, aa type
type of
in the above-ground
above-ground layer,
layer, and
and 1,366.8
1,366.8 gg m
m -2
-2 in the below-ground layer (Muc
1977).
net primary
primary production
productionwas
was165.1
165.1ggm1977). The total net
m -22 (45.4gm(45.4 g r11 -22 aboveground
ground and
and 128.7
128.7gg cm
cm -2
-2 below-ground) in this wetland community, the
the most
most
productive of the habitats
habitats studied.
studied.
437
Arctic salt marshes
Salt
various parts of the coastal areas of the arctic
arctic regions
Salt marshes
marshes occur
occur in
in various
of Canada
Canada and
and Greenland.
Greenland. Since
Since few
few major
majorrivers
riversinfluence
influence these
these coastal
coastal
areas, most marshes are of
of the
the coastal
coastal type
type as
as opposed
opposed to
to estuarine
estuarine marshes.
marshes.
The marshes
marshes are characterized
characterized by
by the
the turf-forming
turf-forming grass
grass species, Puccinellia
(1948) has
Hudson
phryganodes. Polunin (1948)
phryganodes.
has described
described salt
salt marshes
marshes in
in northern Hudson
Bay.
several Carex
Carex species includPuccinellia phryganodes,
phryganodes, several
Bay. There,
There, he
he found
found Puccinellia
ing
(mainly
various grasses (mainly
glareosa, various
ing C.
C. subspathacea,
subspathacea, C.
C. ursina,
ursina, and
and C.
C. glareosa,
Dupontia
assorted forb
forb species.
species. Jefferies
Jefferies (1977)
(1977) studied
studied arctic
arctic
Dupontia fisheri),
fisheri), and assorted
salt marshes
community to
marshes and
and found
found the pioneer community
to be
be dominated
dominated by
by PuccinelIn more shel/ia
Stella ria humifusa, and
lia phryganodes,
phryganodes, Stellaria
Cochlearia officinalis.
officinalis. In
and Cochlearia
tered areas, common
common species
species were Arctophila
fisher;, HipHipArctophila fulva,
fulva, Dupontia fisheri,
puris tetraphylla, and
Such marshes are of low productivity.
and Carex
Carex ramenskii.
ramenskii. Such
The net annual primary production of Puccinellia
Puccinellia phryganodes
phryganodes growing along
the Arctic Ocean coast
coast of
of Canada
Canada was
was estimated
estimated atat10
10gg m-2.
m- 2 •
Greenland has
has limited
limited salt
salt marsh
marsh development.
development. Such
Such marshes
marshes are
are restricrestricted to protected
protected coastal
coastal areas
areas such
such as
as river
river mouths
mouths where
where fine-grained
fine-grained sedisediments
Disko area
area on
on the
thewest
westcoast
coast(Vestergaard
(Vestergaard 1978).
1978).
ments occur,
occur, such
such as the Disko
Dominant
species include
Carex glareosa, C.
C. subsubDominant species
include Puccinellia
Puccinellia phryganodes,
phryganodes, Carex
ria humifusa.
occur either in
in
spathacea,
Potentilla egedii,
spathacea, Potentilla
egedii, and
and Stella
Stellaria
humifusa. These
These occur
distinct
commonly, as patches.
patches. Freshwater
Freshwater marshes may
may be
distinct zones
zones or,
or, more commonly,
Carex rartflora,
present
the salt
salt marshes
marshes with
with such
such species
species as
rariflora, C.
C.
present behind
behind the
as Carex
aquatilis var.
var. stans,
aquatHis
Equisetum arvense,
arvense, Polygonum
Polygonum viviparum,
viviparum, and
and Salix
stans, Equisetum
glauca.
Wetlands
SA)
Wetlands of
of the
the Subarctic
Subarctic Region
Region (SH, SL, SA)
The
uplands of
of the
the subarctic
subarctic regions
regions are
arecharacterized
characterized by
by open-canopied
open-canopied
The uplands
woodlands
ground lichen
lichen cover.
cover. The
The wetwetwoodlands of coniferous
coniferous trees with abundant ground
lands
are mainly
mainly bogs
bogs and
and fens,
fens, many
many affected
affected by
bypermafrost.
permafrost. Subarctic
Subarctic
lands are
1066 km
wetland
wetland regions
regions occupy
occupy about
about 1.5 x 10
km22 of Canada, occurring as a broad
belt
between the treeless
treeless arctic regions
regions to the north
north and
and the
the closed-canopy
closed-canopy
belt between
is restricted
restricted to
to
boreal
forests to
south. In
In Greenland
Greenland the
the subarctic
subarctic zone
zone is
boreal forests
to the south.
the
southwestern coastal
the island,
island, generally
generally south
south of
of Godthaab
Godthaab
the southwestern
coastal part
part of the
of the
theoriginal
originaltreed
treedvegetation
vegetation(Bocher
(Bocher1938).
1938).
where
remnants of
where there are remnants
The climate
climate on the
the Canadian
Canadian continent
continent isischaracterized
characterized by
by cold
cold winters
winters
and moderately warm, but short,
short, summers,
summers, and
and low
low amounts
amounts of
of precipitation.
precipitation.
In the coastal
coastal areas
areas of eastern
eastern Canada the temperatures are more moderate,
but
precipitation is higher
higher (Table
(Table 3).
3). In
In southwestern
southwestern Greenland
Greenland the
the
but the precipitation
is modermodersummers
the continent
continent and
and precipitation
precipitation is
summers are
are much
much cooler
cooler than on the
ate.
438
438
The physiography
physiography of
of this
this region
region isis gently
gently undulating
undulating in
in the
the Interior Plains
The
and hilly
hilly on
on the
the Precambrian
The entire region
and
Precambrian Shield.
Shield. The
region has
has been
been glaciated
glaciated
during the
the latest
latest Pleistocene
glaciation.. The
The glaciers
glaciers have
have removed
removed most
most of
during
Pleistocene glaciation
the unconsolidated
unconsolidated soils
soils from
from the
the Precambrian
Precambrian bedrock
bedrock area,
area, leaving
the
leaving bare
bedrock with
with only
only aa thin
thin morainic
cover. Elsewhere,
Elsewhere, the
the till
till can
can be thick.
bedrock
morainic cover.
thick.
Plains and
and broad
broad valleys
occur throughout
throughout the
the region,
in areas
Plains
valleys occur
region, mainly
mainly in
areas of
of
post-glacialmarine
marine submergence
submergenceor
or within
within the
the former
former beds of glacial
post-glacial
glacial lakes.
Although wetlands
wetlands are
are most
most extensive
extensive in
in such
such areas
areas of
of low
Although
low relief,
relief, they are
are
abundant
in
all
parts
of
the
subarctic.
It
is
estimated
that
about
40%
of
the
abundant in all
subarctic.
estimated
40% of the
land in
in the subarctic region
land
region is
is occupied by
by wetlands.
wetlands.
In
regions the characteristic
characteristic and common
common wetlands
wetlands
In the subarctic wetland regions
are bogs
bogs and
and fens
fens (Zoltai
(Zoltai et
et al.
al. 1988).
are
nearly all affected
affected by
by
1988).The
The bogs
bogs are
are nearly
permafrost.
permafrost develops,
develops , the
the bog
bog surface
surface is
is elevated
elevated above
above
permafrost. As
As the permafrost
the regional
regional water
water table
table.. The surface
is therefore
therefore well
well beyond
beyond the
the reach
reach of
the
surface is
the minerotrophic waters of the surrounding fen. The
the
The surface
surface of
of the peatlands
peatlands
elevated by permafrost becomes dry and peat
elevated
peat accumulation
accumulation virtually
virtually ceases.
ceases.
Disturbances such as wildfires
wildfires may
layer, causcausmay destroy
destroy the insulating surface layer,
ing the
the permafrost
ing
permafrost to thaw
thaw within
within the peat.
peat. This
This triggers
triggers aa collapse
collapse of
of the
the
elevated peatland as the
elevated
the surface
surface bog
bog levels
levels sink into the
the surrounding
surrounding fen.
fen.
Different
wetlands occur
different portions of the
the subarctic
subarctic
Different kinds
kinds of wetlands
occur in
in different
region, and the
region,
the subarctic
subarctic has
has been
been divided
divided into
into wetland
wetland regions
regions and
and subresubregions
basis. In the
the colder,
colder, more
more northerly
northerly belt,
belt, the
theHigh
HighSubarctic
Subarctic
gions on
on this
this basis.
Wetland Region
Region (SH)
(SH),, all wetlands
Wetland
wetlands are
are underlain
underlain by
by permafrost
permafrost and ice
ice
wedges have
have developed
developed inin some
some peatlands.
peatlands. In
In the
the continental
part of the
wedges
continental part
somewhat less cold Low Subarctic Wetland Region (SL),
(SL), permafrost
permafrostisiswidewidespread, but
the fens
fens are
are free
free of
of permafrost
permafrost and
and ice
ice wedges
wedges are
are rare
rare in
in
spread,
but the
peatlands.
peatlands. In the
the coastal
coastal Low
Low Subarctic
Subarctic Wetland Region
Region (SL),
(SL), as
as well
well as
as in
in
Greenland,permafrost
permafrostisis sporadic
sporadic in
in wetlands,
wetlands, and
andititisis absent
absentfrom
from
southern Greenland,
the Atlantic Subarctic
Subarctic Wetland Region (SA).
(SA).
The following
following is aa description
description of
of the
the five
five most
most commonly
commonly occurring
occurring wetwetsubarctic regions.
regions. Although
Although these
these wetlands
wetlands are
are characteristic
characteristic of
of
lands in the subarctic
both in
in the
the configuration
configuration and
and vegetation
vegetation of
of wetlands
wetlands
these regions, variations both
do occur.
occur.
Peat
Peat plateaus
plateaus
Peat
Peat plateaus
plateaus (Fig.
(Fig. 5)
5) are
are peatlands
peatlands that
that have
have aapermafrost
permafrost core.
core. They
Theyare
are
level of the
the surrounding
surrounding fen.
fen. Their
Their surface
surface isis
elevated about 11 m above the level
generally level,
level , but small
small damp depressions do occur.
occur . Peat
Peat depth
depth isis 22 to
to 33 m,
m,
generally
frozen
frozen beneath
beneath the
the seasonally-thawed
seasonally-thawed active
active layer.
layer. The
The permafrost
permafrostextends
extends
into
into the
the underlying
underlying mineral
mineral soil.
soil. The water
water content
content of
of the
the frozen
frozen peat
peatisis
439
similar
that of the
the unfrozen
unfrozen peat
peat and
and ice
ice lenses
lenses or
or layers
layers are
are generally
generally
similar to
to that
absent. Some ice accumulations may occur
peat-mineral soil
soil interface.
occur at the peat-mineral
Peat plateaus vary in size from
few square metres to
to hundreds
hundreds of
of square
square
from a few
kilometers.
kilometers. The smaller ones occur as somewhat raised plateaus in wet fens,
often
with a melting,
melting, collapsing
collapsing edge.
peat plateaus
plateaus often
often have
have
often with
edge. The
The large peat
small,
surface : Peat
Peat plateaus,
plateaus, when
when occuroccursmall, unfrozen
unfrozen fen
fen depressions
depressions on their surface.
ring on a slight slope, have a well-defined surface drainage system
system of seasonal
rivulets.
plateaus are the
the most
most common
common wetland
wetland form
form in
in the
the subarctic
subarctic
rivulets. Peat
Peat plateaus
wetland
the
wetland regions,
regions, being
being especially
especiallywidespread
widespreadinin the
the western
western pan
part of the
region.
Peat
plateaus are
are characterized
characterized by
Peat plateaus
by scattered,
scattered, stunted
stunted growth
growth of
of Picea
mariana trees (Horton et
low shrub layer
layer
1979). There
There is
is a well developed low
et al.
al. 1979).
of
Ledum
groenlandicum
or
L.
palustre.
The
sparse
herb
layer
consists
sparse
herb
layer
consists
of
of Ledum groenlandicum or L. palustre.
Most of the
Vaccinium
vitis-idaea, and
chamaemorus. Most
Vaccinium oxycoccus,
oxycoccus, V.
V. vitis-idaea,
and Rubus chamaemorus.
Cladonia rangferina,
ground
covered by lichens,
lichens, such
such as Cladonia
rangferina, C. mitis,
mitis,
ground surface
surface is covered
C.
alpestris, and
nemoreum occur in
S. nemoreum
uncialis. Sphagnum
Sphagnum fuscum
fuscum and
and S.
C. alpestris,
and C.
C. uncialis.
low cushions.
The peat plateaus
plateaus often
often contain
contain collapse
collapse scars
scars which
which are
are surrounded
surrounded on
on
all
are not
not connected
connected to
to the
thesurrounding
surrounding fens.
fens .
all sides
sides by
by the
the peat plateau and are
In such
such cases
the
collapse
scars
receive
drainage
from
the
peat
plateau
and
cases
collapse scars receive drainage from
plateau and
Carex paupercula,
paupercula, C.
are
poor in
in nutrients.
nutrients. The
The dominant
dominant vegetation
vegetation isis Carex
C.
are poor
(Horton et
aquatilis,
S. jensenii,
jensenii, and
angustifolium (Horton
aquatilis, Sphagnum
Sphagnum riparium,
riparium, S.
and SS.. angustifolium
al.
al. 1979).
Fires
sweep across
across the
dry, raised
raised peat
peat plateaus,
plateaus, destroying
destroying the
the
Fires often
often sweep
the dry,
living
unburned (Jasieniuk
(Jasieniuk and
and Johnson
Johnson
living vegetation,
vegetation, but
but leaving
leaving the
the peat unburned
1982).
fire consists of species such as Ledum groenland1982). The
The vegetation after fire
icum, Polytrichum
Polytrichum juniperinum,
juniperinum, Pohlia nutans, and CeratC?don
Ceratodon purpureus that
can
readily regenerate
from rhizomes
rhizomes and gemmae. These
These are
are followed
followed by
by
can readily
regenerate from
lichens
well defined
defined successional
successional sequence following
following the fire.
fire.
lichens which
which show
show a well
followed by
by C.
deformis and
The
initial lichens
The initial
lichens are
are Cladonia
gracilis, followed
Cladonia deformis
and C.
C. gracilis,
mitis,
rangiferina, C. alpestris,
alpestris, and
and Cetraria
mitis, C.
C. coccifera,
coccifera, C.
C. amaurocrea,
amaurocrea, C.
C. rangiferina,
nivalis.
two species
species are
found on peat
peat plateaus
plateaus that
that have
have not
not
nivalis. The
The latter two
are found
burned for a long
long time
time and therefore
therefore indicate
indicate aa stable
stable vegetation
vegetation cover.
cover.
in northern
northern
The development of
of a peat
peat plateau-palsa
plateau-paIsa complex
complex was
was studied
studied in
Quebec (Couillard and Payette 1985).
1985). They found that peat
peat deposition
deposition began
began
about
fen that later
later progressed
progressed to
treed fen
fen
about 3,700
3,700 years
years BP
BP in
in an
an open
open fen
to a treed
stage.
and palsas
palsas were
were formed
formed as
as bog
bog vegetation
vegetation became
became estabestabstage. Peat plateaus and
lished
fen after
after 2,700
2,700 years BP. Later
Later the
the perennially
perennially frozen
frozen
lished on
on parts of the fen
peatlands
1,400, 1,100,
1,100, 700, and
peatlands expanded
expanded during
during distinct
distinct periods
periods at about 1,400,
150
Collapse scars
formed after aa fire
fire around
around 1,100
1,100 years
years
150 years
years BP.
BP. Collapse
scars were
were formed
BP,
at 340
340 years
years BP and at
at the
the present
presentdue
duetotoclimatic
climatic warming.
warming.
BP, and later at
440
440
Figllre 7.
Aerial view
view of a polygonal
polygonal peat
pea t plateau.
plateau . High
H i!!h Subarctic
Subarcti c Wetland
W e tland Region
R q!ion near
I1ca rGreat
Cireat
Figure
7. Aerial
15
m.
Slave
Lake.
Th
e
diameter
()f
pO!Yi!on::.
is
approximately
I:'
In.
y
Slave Lake. The diameter of polygons is approximatel
p ea t plateaus
plateaus
Polygonal peat
These perenniall
perenniallyy frozen
froze n peat landforms
landform s are
arc similar
similar to
to peal
peat plateaus
plJ teau s in
in being
be in g
fiat
surface.
The
ele
vat e d above
n levels
levels aand
nd having
havin g aa ge
ne rally 11at surface. Th e \'y arc
arc
generally
elevated
above the
the fe
fen
distin
g
uish
ed
fro
m
peat
platea
us
by
the
prese
nce
of
a
\\'C
II
-d
eve
Jope
d
polygdistinguished from
plateaus by the presence of a well-developed polygoonal
na l system
tre nc hes (Fig.
(Fig. 5) which
which arc
a rc underlain
und e rl a in by
by ice
icc wedges
we dges (Zohai
(Zolllli
system of
of trenches
in
and
1975). The
lygo ns aare
re irreg
ul ar in
with diameters
diameters ill
and Tarnocai
Tarnocai 1975).
The po
polygons
irregular
in shape.
shape. with
the
10 to 30
30 m
ge (Fig.
7). The
T he pol
po lygonal
to 22 in
III wide
wid e and
and
y gonal trenches are 11 to
the 10
m ran
range
(Fig. 7).
are
50 em
w the
level. The
Th eyy are
arc usuall
usuall y moist.
moi st. but
but some
some
are about 50
cm belo
below
the plateau level.
may
n water.
excavati o ns rev
e aled that
ere is
is an
a n ice
ice
rnay contai
contain
water. Corings
Corings and
and excavations
revealed
that th
there
trench. These
are about
wedge
each pol
po lygo
nal trench.
These ice
ice wedges
\\ec! ges arc
about I1m
m wide
wide
wedge under
under each
y gonal
at
th e top,
top, becoming
becom ing narrower
narro wer with
wi th depth.
de pth . The
The ice
ice wedges
wedges are
are usuall
lI su;:dlyy in
in
at the
mineral
sod
substrate.
y ing min
xcess oof
f 33mmlong,
xte ndin g we
ll into
e underl
un der lying
e ra l so
il su
bs trate.
eexcess
long, eextending
well
into th
the
Po
re common
common in
in the High
Hi gh Subarctic
Subarctic Wetland
W e tl a nd Re
R\..' peatt plateaus
plateaus aare
Pollygonal
y gonal pea
gion
re th
ey can
ca n occupy
occupy entire
e nt ire basins
basin s of several
severa l square
sq uare kilometers
kilom e ters in
in
gion whe
where
they
size.
They
may
be
associated
wi
t
h
sm
all
fen
s
in
draina
ge
track
s:
in
thi
s
reg
io
size. They may be associated with small fens in drainage tracks: this regionn
even
ns arc
und e rl ai n b
byy permafrost.
permafrost .
even the
the fe
fens
are underlain
The
a wed ac
tive laye
r is
with a maximum
maximum thaw
th aw depth
depth
The seasonally
seasonally th
thawed
active
layer
is thin.
thin, with
of
e dry
pcat is
is an
an effective
effective thermal
th e rm a l barrier.
barrier.
of SO
50em
cm (Dredge
(Dredge 1979(1),
1979a). as
as th
the
dry peat
Howeve
r , in
in sta nces th
e ice
icc wedges
we d ges may
may thaw.
thaw . tillin
fillingg the
t he trenches
tre nches
However,
in some
some instances
the
with
a ter (Dredge
lo\,is th
e peat
th e centre
cen tre of
of polygons
polygon s
with \vwater
(Dredge 1975Jb).
1979b). This
This alallows
the
peat in
in the
to
become sa
turated with
with water.
wat e r, losing
losing , its
it s insulating
in sulatin g qualities.
q ualities. The
Th e surface
surface
to become
saturated
441
figure 8.
8. Ground aspect
Figure
aspec t of:polygonal
0," polygonal peat plateau
plmeau showin
showingg junction oof
polygon trenches
trenches marked
mark ed
f polygon
by Care.v
tussocks.
Site located
located ne
near
Greatt Slave
by
Care.\" tussoc
ks. Site
:l r Grea
Slaw Lake.
Lak e.
subsides as
as the
the permafrost
and thermokarst
subsides
pe rmafrost thaws
thaws and
therrnokarst ponds
pond s aare
re formed.
formed. This
This
process
can be accelerated
process can
acce lerated by
by man-caused
rnan-eaused disturbances
disturbances of the natural
natural land
land
surface.
The vegetation
ygonal peat
The
vegetation of pol
polygonal
peat plateaus
plat eaus is
is dominated
dominated bbyy terricolous
lichens.
Trees
are
usually
absent,
although
a
few
lichens. Trees are usu ally absent, although a few scattered
scattered individuals
individuals of
of
stunted
mariana ma
stunted Piece
Picea mariana
mayy occur.
occur. There
There isis aa low
low(20
(20 cm
em high)
higb) shrub
shrub layer,
layer.
consisting
con sisting of Ledum
Ledwn aecumbens
deculllh ens and
and Benda
Bent/a glandulosa.
accilliwn
glanduleca, along
along with\/
with Vaccinium
viti.s-idaea
vitis-idaea and
and Rulms
Rubus chamaemerus.
clzamaemorus. The
The dominant
dominant lichen
lichen la
laye
consi sts
yerr consists
mostl
y
of
mostly of Cladonia
Cladonia nubs,
miris . C.
C. alpestris,
alpestris . C.
C.rangiferina,
rang(ferina .Ceti-aria
CeTraria nivalis,
Ilivalis, C.
C.
cucullata,
ochroleuca. In
cli clIllaw , and Alec:feria
AleclOria ochrolellca.
trench es Sphagnum
Sphagnum baha
balriclil/7
and
In the trenches
um
Priophorum
Eriophorwn russeo/wn
russeolum are usually
usually present (Fig.
(Fig. 8).
8) .
The
history of
of a polygonal
The developmental
dev elopm e ntal history
pol ygo nal peat
pea t plateau,
platea u , as
as shown
shown by
by
pollen.
pollen, macrofossil
macrofossil and matrix
matrix composition,
composition, shows
shows a hhydroseral
sllccession
y droseral succession
(Ovenden 1982).
1982) . The initial
initial deposits
deposits showed aa progression
progression from
from aa pool
pool to
to aa
marsh.
marsh , then
the n to
to aa fen,
fen,and
andfinally
finally totoa abog
bogcommunity.
community.Permafrost
Permafrostaffected
affec ted
the
the peatland
pearland some
some time
time after
after 9,600
9,600 yrs
yrs BP.
BP, after
after Sphagnum
Sphagnwn became
became the
the
dominant vegetation.
vege tatio n.
Palsas
Pa/sas
Palsas
Palsas (Fig.
(Fig. 5)
5) are
are peat
peat mounds
mounds that
that have
have aaperennially
perennially frozen
frozen core.
core. The
The
diameter
diameter of
of the
the mounds
mounds seldom
seldom exceeds
exceeds 100
toO m,
m, and
and their
their height
heightma
may
reach
y reach
442
Figllre 9.
Figure
Small palsa
paisa with
with unfrozen
un frozen fen
9. Small
fen in
in foreground.
fo regroun d.I Located
Loca ted ininLOW
Low Subarctic
Subarc tic Wetland
We tla nd
Regio
n , Mackenzie
\1 ackenl.ic Valley.
Region,
Valley
44 Ill
Th e y are
m.. The
are situated
situate d as
as islands
isla nds or
o r peninsulas
pe ninSUl as in
in very
ve ry wet
we t fens
fen s (Fig.
(Fi g. 9).
9).
Th
e
y
appe
a
r
to
go
throu
gh aa period
pe riod of
o fgrowth,
They appear to go through
final
growt h , followed
foll o we d by
by erosion
eros ion and
a nd fin al
co
ll apse ((Railton
R ailton and Spading
Sparli n g 1973.
1973 . Kershaw
Ke rsh aw and
collapse
a nd Gill
G ill 1979).
1979). They
Th e y originate
o ri gin a te
und
e r Sp
under
hagnu m cushio
Sphagnum
n s whe
re small
sm a ll lenses of
o f seasonal
cushions
where
season al frost
frost may
m ay persist.
pe rsist .
As
th
e
frost
e
le
vates
the
sm
all
moss
As the frost elevates the small moss cushion.
cushi o n , it'becomes
it ' be com es drier
dri e r and
and better
be tter
insula
tin g, result
ing in
ra ted growt
insulating,
resulting
in accele
accelerated
growth.
Water
is
drawn
into
the
frozen
h. V-la te r is drawn into th e fro zen
pe
at and
and accumulates
acc umula tes as
in layers.
laye rs . After
peat
as ice
ice in
Afte r aa certain
ce rt ain size
size is
is reached,
reJche d. the
the
peat
ma y crack
cr ack op
e n and
a nd bare
bare peat
pea t patches
pa tches may
peat may
open
leading
to
accelerm ay appear,
a ppe ar , leadin g to acce le rated wind
\vind and
and thermal
the rm a l erosion.
e ros ion . Finally,
F in all y, the
th e palsa
ated
paIsa may
m ay disappear
disapp ea r completely.
co mpl e te ly .
Thi
s
proce
ss m
ay take
take over
ove r 1,000
1,000 years
This process
may
1979),
ye ars (Kershaw
( Ke rshaw and
a nd Gill
Gill 1979), but
but may
m ay
occur
in
less
than
200 years
yea rs (Railton
occur less
200
(R ailto n and
a ndSparking
Sparli ng 1973).
1973).
Th
e palsas
pa lsas are
are composed
compo se d of aa frozen
froze n peat
The
peat core
core covered
cov e red by
by aaseasonally
season all y
th
awed
ac
tive
layer
40 to
to 70
70 cm thickness.
thawed active layer of 40
thic kness . The
Th e permafrost
perm afrost extends
ex te nd s well
well
into
th e underlying
und e rl yin g mineral
min e ral soil.
into the
There
ma
so il. The re m ayy he
be some
so me thin
thin (10
00 to
to 20
20 cm)
cm ) ice
ice
la
ye
rs
in
th
e
pea
t.
but
thick
iceaccumulations
acc umul a tio ns occur
layers in the peat, but thick ice
occur at
at the
th epeat-mineral
pea t-min e ral
interfa
ce aand
nd in
e up
pe r part
part of the
th e mineral
interface
in th
the
upper
min e ral soil.
so il. Thus,
Thu s, the
the height
he ight of
of the
th e
palsas
is
du
e
to
ice
acc
umul
atio
n
as well
palsas is due to ice accumulation as
we ll as
as to
to volume
vo lum e expansion
e xpa nsio n as
as water
\va te r
cha
nges to
icc . Palsas
Pa lsas occur
th e Low
Lo w Subarctic
changes
to ice.
occur in
in the
as
well
as
in
the
High
Su ba rcti c as we ll as in th e Hi gh
Bo
re al Wetland
W e tland Regions.
Boreal
R egio ns. The
Th eyy may
m a y be
be locally
loca lly numerous,
num e ro us , but do not
no t cover
co ve r
large
large areas.
The
vegeta ti o n of
o f palsas
pa lsas changes
cha nges with
v,Jith the
The vegetation
th e stage
stage of
o f their
th e ir development
d eve lo pm e nt
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- --
-
- - - - ---_._-----
443
Sphagnum fuscum
fuscum domin(Railton and
and Sparling
Sparling 1973).
1973). In the youthful stage, Sphagnum
and
occasional
Kalmia
polifolia
ates
the
vegetation
,
with
low
shrubs
of
Kalmia
polifolia
and
occasional
ates
vegetation, with low shrubs of
Vaccinium oxycoccus,
oxycoccus, Drosera
Picea
seedlings. The
The herb
herb layer
layer has
has Vaccinium
Picea mariana
mariana seedlings.
In the mature stage there are low stunted
rOlundifolia,
cespitosus. In
rotundifolia, and Scirpus cespilOsus.
Ledum groenlandicum
groenlandicum shrubs.
Picea
mariana
trees
on
the
paisa.
with
palsa, with some Ledum
Picea mariana trees
alpestris, C.
The surface,
surface , however,
however. is
is dominated by
by lichens
lichens such
such as
as Cladonia alpeslris.
Polytrichum
The moss
moss Po/yrrichum
pyxidata.. The
rangiferina
arbuscula . C. gracilis,
gracilis. and C. pyxidala
rangiferina,. C. arbuscula,
juniperinum
occurs
on
peat
exposed
by
erosion.
juniperinum occurs
Northern ribbed
ribbed fens
fens
These minerotrophic
minerotrophic wetlands
wetlands (Fig.
(Fig. 3)
3) are
are characterized
characterizedby
bylow
low(70
(70 cm
cm high)
high)
and
wide) ridges
ridges that
fens at right
right angles
angles to
to
and narrow (3 m wide)
that extend across the fens
the direction of drainage.
drainage. The areas
areas between
between the
the ridges
ridges (flarks)
(Harks) are
are usually
usually
wet, often with shallow standing water. The ridges (strings) are better
better drained
drained
and
may contain
contain permafrost,
permafrost , especially
nodes where
where two
two or more
more
and may
especially atat the
the nodes
ridges
movement through
the fen
fen and through
through the
the
ridges intersect.
intersect. There is water movement
through the
ridges,
although the ridges
ridges impede
drainage to the
the extent
extent that
that the
the level
level
ridges, although
impede the drainage
of successive
successive Harks
upslope flarks.
Harks. Permafrost
Permafrost
flarks isis lower
lower than
than the level of the upslope
development
the nodes
nodes of
of ridge
ridge intersection
intersection or
or in
in small
small segments
segments of
of the
the
development at the
ridges does not interfere significantly
significantly with
permafrost
with the
the drainage.
drainage. However, permafrost
development in the entire
entire length
length of
of the
the ridges
ridges will
will stop
stop the
the drainage
drainage through
through
the peat and
and leads
leads to
to the
the development
development of
of small
small open
open channels
channels or creeks
creeks in
in
the centre of
of the
the peatland
peatland that
thatwill
willprovide
providesurface
surface drainage.
drainage. This
This process
process
leads to the
the gradual
gradual expansion
expansion of
of permafrost
permafrost into
into the
the flarks
Harks and
and eventually
eventually
the entire
entire fen
fen will
will become
become a peat
peat plateau,
plateau, perhaps
perhaps with
with aa few
few depressions
depressions
marking the locations
locations of the former
former flarks.
Harks.
The vegetation of the flarks
Harks is
Carex aquarilis
aquatilis and
and C.
C. limosa.
is dominated
dominated by Carex
Other vascular
vascular species
species include
include Drosera
anglica
and
Menyanthes
tritoliata.
and
Menyanthes
trifoliata.
Drosera anglica
The mosses, such as Scorpidium
DrepanoScorpidium scorpioides, Campylium stellatum, Drepanocladus
revolvens, and
exannulatus are
common. In
ridges that have
have
cladus revolvens,
and D.
are common.
In the ridges
D. exannulatus
may
Larix
laricina
no permafrost, low Picea
mariana
and
occasional
Larix
laricina
may
occur,
occasional
Picea mariana
along
with shrubs
calyculata. Andromeda polifolia,
polifolia,
along with
shrubs such
such as
as Chamaedaphne
Chamaedaphne calyculata.
S. magellanicum
and
mosses Sphagnum
magellanicum are
Myrica gale.
gale. The
The mosses
and S.
Sphagnum fuscum
fuscum and
and Myrica
also
common. On ridges
ridges with
with permafrost
permafrost the
the vegetation
vegetation resembles
resembles that of
of
also common.
peat plateaus: low
low Picea
trees with
with Ledum
Ledum groenlandicum
groenlandicum and
and the
Picea mariana
mariana trees
dominant ground lichens,
lichens, Cladonia
rangiferina. and
and C.
C. alpestris.
Cladonia mitis,
mitis, C.
C. rangiferina,
Slope bogs
These
oligotrophic wetlands
occur on slopes
slopes ranging
ranging up
up to
to 15%
15%
These oligotrophic
wetlands (Fig.
(Fig. 3)
3) occur
(Wells
the high
high rainfall
rainfall area
area of
of the
theAtlantic
Atlantic Subarctic
Subarctic Wetland
Wetland
(Wells 1981)
1981) in
in the
in Newfoundland (Wells and Pollen
Pollett 1983).
1983). Their develdevelRegion (SA),
(SA). mostly
mostly in
related to
to climatic
climatic (large
(large amounts
amounts of
of precipitation)
precipitation) and
and edaphic
edaphic
opment is related
444
(soils
acidic bedrock)
factors. In this
this area,
area, small
small depressions
depressions
(soils derived
derived from
from acidic
bedrock) factors.
on
slopes initially
initially develop
both ribbed
ribbed and
and slope,
slope, but
but the
the high
high
on slopes
develop into
into fens,
fens, both
rainfall
nutrient-poor seepage
seepage water
water allow
allow Sphagnum
rainfall and
and the nutrient-poor
Sphagnum species
species to
invade
fens and spread
spread on the
the slope.
slope . The
The ability
ability of
of this
this moss
moss to
to retain
retain
invade the
the fens
moisture raises the permanent
permanent water
water table
table and
andbog
bogconditions
conditions become
become prevaprevalent
the entire
entire slope.
slope. The
Thepeat
peatthickness,
thickness,however,
however, seldom
seldom exceeds
exceeds
lent along the
2m.
2 m.
The
slope bogs
bogs are
are usually
usually treeless,
treeless, but dwarf
dwarf shrubs
shrubs such
such as
as Ledum
The slope
groenlandicum,
Kalmia angustifolia,
angustifolia, and
common
groenlandicum, Kalmia
and Empetrum
Empetrum nigrum
nigrum are
are common
(Wells
is Sphagnum
fuscum.
(Wells 1981).
1981). The
The main
main component
componentof
of the
the bog
bog is
Sphagnum fuscum. On
somewhat
wetter depressions
depressions Rhynchospora
Sphagnum tenellum,
tene//um, S.
S.
somewhat wetter
Rhynchospora alba, Sphagnum
S.
cuspidatum
pulchrum,
and
S.
cuspidatum
are
common.
Extensive
carpets
of
wet
Sphagare common. Extensive carpets wet
pulchrum, and
S. magellanicum,
S. rubellum,
num,
magellanicum, S.
rubellum, and
consisting of
of S.
num, consisting
and S.
S. papi/losum
papillosum may
Carex
exilis,
C.
oligosperma,
occur.
Sedges such
occur. Sedges
such as
as Carex exilis, C. o/igosperma, and
and Scirpus
Scirpus cespitosus
may
may be locally abundant.
Southwestern
Southwestern Greenland
Little
the wetlands
wetlands of
of southern
southern Greenland.
Greenland.
Little information
information has
has been found on the
Bocher
his site
site *17.
*17. However,
However,
Bocher (1938)
(1938) indicated
indicated the
the presence
presence of
of "bog"
"bog" at his
the
dominant species,
species, Eriphorum
scheuchzeri, Equisetum
Equisetum variegatum,
variegatum, and
the dominant
Eriphorum scheuchzeri,
Saxifraga
were fens,
fens, resembling
resembling the
the seepage
seepage fens
fens
Saxifraga hirculus, indicate that these were
common
low arctic
arctic in Canada.
common in the low
Salt
Low and
and High
High Subarctic
Subarctic Wetland
Wetland Region
Region
Salt Marshes
Marshes of
of the Low
The Low and
and High
High Subarctic
Subarctic Wetland Regions
Regions (SL
(SL and SH)
SH) have
have aa similar
similar
salt
vegetation. The
The Low
Low Subarctic
Subarctic Wetland
Wetland Region
Region extends
extends from
from
salt marsh vegetation.
at southern
southern James
James Bay
Bay north
north to
to
approximately
approximately the
the Ontario/Quebec border at
Cape Henrietta Maria
Cape
Maria on the
the Ontario
Ontario coast
coast where
where Hudson
Hudson and
and James
James Bay
Bay
The High
High Subarctic
Subarctic Wetland
Wetland Region
Region extends
extends along
along the
the HudHudcome together. The
Henrietta Maria
Maria to
to the
the Manitoba-NorthwManitoba-Northwson Bay shoreline north from Cape Henrietta
est
border (Fig.
(Fig. 6).
6). The
TheHudson
HudsonBay
BayLowland
Lowland extends
extends from
from apapest Territory border
proximately the Ontario/Quebec
borderto
toChurchill,
Churchill, Manitoba
Manitoba thus
thus favoring
favoring
Ontario/Quebec border
salt marsh development on
on extensive
extensive tidal
tidal flats.
flats. The
The salt
salt marshes
marshes near
nearChurChurchill have
have been studied by
et al.
a!. (1979).
chill
by Jefferies
Jefferies et
river-influenced areas,
(1979). In river-influenced
Hippuris tetraphylla is
species. On open tidal
tidal flats,
flats. Puccinellia
is the
the dominant species.
is the colonizing
species and
and Carex
phryganodes
colonizing species
Cochlearia
phryganodes is
Carex subspathacea, Cochlearia
groenlandica,
var. groenlandica, and
and Potentilla egedii are common
officinalis var.
common.. Higher areas
are characterized
by forbs including Chrysanthemum arcticum, Stellaria
Stella ria humicharacterized by
fusa, Senecio
Senecio congestus,
congestus, Plantago
Plantago maritima var.
Ranunculus cymcymvar. juncoides. Ranunculus
maritima, and
and Salicornia
balaria, Triglochin
Triglochin maritima,
Salicornia europaea.
europaea. Fens
Fens occur landward
of these marshes
marshes with
glareosa, Eriophorum
Eriophorum angustifolangustifo/with Carex
Carex aquatilis,
aquatilis, C. glareosa,
iurn, Calamagrostis neglecta. and
and Dupontia fisheri.
ium,
fisheri. Kershaw
Kershaw (1976)
(1976) described
445
445
similar salt marsh vegetation further south
south at
at Pen
Pen Island
Island at
at the
the Ontario/ManiOntario/Manisimilar
toba border
border on
on Hudson
Hudson Bay.
Bay .
toba
of the
the
Glooschenko and
Martini (1981)
(1981) have
studied the salt
salt marshes
marshes of
Glooschenko
and Martini
have studied
Bay coast
coast of
of Ontario.
Ontario. Glooschenko
Glooschenko (1982)
(1982) has
has described
described the
the vegvegHudson Bay
26 transects
transects along
along this
this coast.
coast. In
Inareas
areasofoflittle
littleriver
riverinfluence,
influence ,
etation on
on 26
etation
colonizing species with limited growth of other
other
Puccinellia phryganodes is the colonizing
in
the
low
salt
marsh.
This
gives
way
to
species
such
as
Triglochin
the
low
salt
marsh.
This
gives
way
to
Triglochin
palustris
species such as
POlentilla egedii,
egedii , Stellaria
by Carex subspathacea along with Potentilla
a zone dominated by
In
areas
where
riverine
influence
humifusa , and
and Festuca
FeSluca rubra
areas where riverine influence is present,
present ,
rubra..
humifusa,
Hippuris tetraphylla
tetraphylla is the dominant
dominant colonizing
colonizing species. Landward of the salt
salt
poordrainage
drainageoccurs.
occurs.Common
Common species
species include
include
fens are
are present
present ifif poor
marsh, fens
Calamagrostis neglecta,
aquatilis , Eleocharis
Eleocharis palustris,
palustris,
Calamagrostis
neglecta, Carex
Carex glareosa,
glareosa, C. aquatilis,
Eriophorum spp., and Salix spp.
coast of James Bay
Bay has
has been
been studied
studied in
in detail
detail (Glooschenko
(Glooschenko
The Ontario coast
coastline is ideal for
for wetland
wetland development
development as
is
Martini 1978).
1978) . The coastline
and Martini
as it is
characterized by
flats associated
associated with
relatively rapid
characterized
by extensive
extensive tidal
tidal flats
with a relatively
rapid rate
isostatic rebound.
nearshore salinities
salinities are low
low but
but salt
salt marsh
marsh vegvegof isostatic
rebound. The nearshore
occurs (Glooschenko
(Glooschenko and
and Clarke
Clarke 1982).
1982).Glooschenko
Glooschenko (1980a)
(1980a) has
has
etation occurs
described three
area: 1)
1) salt
salt marshes,
marshes, 2)
2) riverriverdescribed
three major
major marsh
marsh types
types in
in the area:
influenced
brackish
marshes,
3)
and
estuarine
marshes.
influenced brackish marshes, and estuarine marshes.
of major
major rivers.
rivers. The
The
The salt marshes occur at a distance
distance from
from the
the plumes
plumes of
major colonizing species is
species that occur
Puccinellia phryganodes
phryganodes.. Other species
is Puccinellia
Glaux
maritima, Scirpus
are
(in pans),
pans),
Puccinellia lucida,
lucida, Salicomia
Salicornia europaea (in
are Puccinellia
maritim
us , Triglochin
Triglochin maritima, Potentilla
Potentilla egedii, Plantago maritima, Festuca
Festuca
maritimus,
rubra,
Juncus balticus,
balticus, Cicuta
Cicuta maculata,
maculata, Carex
Carex subspathacea,
subspathacea, C.
C. paleacea,
paleacea ,
rubra, Juncus
Hordeum
triplex patufa.
Atriplex
patula. The vegetation is arranged in distinct
Hordeum jubatum, and A
zones. The river-influenced brackish marshes lie
lie south of major river
river mouths.
mouths.
Scirpus
and Scirpus
Carex paleacea
paleacea,, Hippuris
Hippuris tetraphylla,
tetraphylla, and
Dominant
Dominant species
species include
include Carex
maritimus.
salinity maximum
the
The salinity
maximum can
can often
often occur
occur up to 11 km inland of the
maritimus. The
shore
and
typical
salt
marsh
vegetation
lies
in-shore
of
species
more
typical
shore
vegetation lies in-shore of species more typical
of
of brackish
brackish conditions.
conditions. The
The estuarine
estuarine marsh is found
found in,
in, and
and adjacent to, river
Sagittaria
Eleocharis palustris,
palustris, EE.. acicularis,
acicularis, Sagitta
ria
mouths.
mouths. Major
Major species
species include
include Eleocharis
cuneata,
us and
and several
several species
species of
of the
the genera
validus, S.
S. american
americanus
cuneata, Scirpus
Scirpus validus,
Potamogeton.
Carex,
Juncus,
and
Equisetum
.
Such
wetlands
have
been
Equisetum.
Such
wetlands
have
been deand
Potamogeton, Carex, Juncus,
scribed
the Attawapiskat
Attawapiskat River
River estuary
estuary by
by Glooschenko
Glooschenko and
and
scribed in
in detail
detail for
for the
Martini
extremely important
shoreMartini (1985).
(1985). These
These marshes
marshes are
are extremely
important habitats for shoreet
af.
1980).
Riley
and
McKay
(1980)
have
birds
and
waterfowl
(Martini
birds and waterfowl (Martini et a!. 1980). Riley and McKay (1980) have also
discussed
discussedcoastal
coastalwetland
wetlandvegetation
vegetation inin some
some detail.
detail. Coastal
Coastal marshes
marshes in
in the
Bay have been
been studied
studied by
by Ewing
Ewing and Kershaw
Kershaw
southernmost
southernmost portion of James Bay
(1986)
(1986)and
andGlooschenko
Glooschenko and
and Martini
Martini (1987).
(1987). Marshes here consist
consist of
of brackish
brackish
vegetation
as
previously
described
by
Glooschenko
(1980a).
vegetation as
described by
(1980a).
The
lack
The Quebec
Quebec shoreline
shoreline has
has little
little salt
salt marsh
marsh development
developmentdue
due to
to the
the lack
446
of extensive
extensive tidal
The
tidal fiats
flats since
since the
the Canadian
Canadian Shield
Shield extends
extends to
to the shore. The
marshes
occur are
estuarine and
found in
in river
river mouths
mouths and
and
marshes that
that do
do occur
are estuarine
and are found
embayments.
species include Carex
embayments. Dominant species
Carex paleacea,
paleacea, Scirpus maritimus,
and Hippuris tetraphylla where brackish
Under freshwater
freshwater
brackish waters
waters are
are present. Under
conditions, common species include Eleocharis spp., Scirpus validus, S. amerPotamogeton spp.,
spp., Deschampsia
icanus,
Calamagrostis spp.,
spp., Potamogeton
Deschampsia caespitosa,
caespitosa, and
icanus, Calamagrostis
Carex
Repentigny 1972,
1972, Lamoureaux
Lamoureaux and
and
(Lamoureaux and
and de Repentigny
Carex glareosa
glareosa (Lamoureaux
Zamovican
1972 and 1974,
1974, Laverdiere and Guimont
Guimont 1975).
1975) .
Zarnovican 1972
Point
The primary production of a James Bay salt marsh located at North Point
north
the Moose
Moose River
River mouth
mouth was
was studied by Glooschenko
Glooschenko and
north of the
and Harper
(1982).
consisted of six
from a Puccinellia phry(1982). The marsh consisted
six vegetation
vegetation zones from
ganodes
- dominated intertidal zone to meadow-like
meadow-like zone with Salix
ganodes —
Salix thickets.
Peak
above-ground biomass
early August.
August. Net
Net annual
annual aerial
aerial
Peak above-ground
biomass occurred
occurred in
in early
1
119 to
to384
384gg m
m 2 with lowest
lowest values
values in
primary productivity ranged
ranged from
from 119
in the
high salt
salt marsh
marsh and
and highest
values in
in the
the landward
high
highest values
landward Salix
A
mean
Salix thicket.
thicket. mean
value of
of228
228 gg M
m -2
Studies on the
the
was found
found which
which isis low
low for
for salt marshes. Studies
-2 was
above-ground
above-ground biomass
biomass of
of plants
plants in
in the
the same
same marsh
marsh had
had been carried out one
year earlier by Glooschenko
Glooschenko (1978).
(1978). Depending
Depending upon the vegetation, aboveground
biomass in 1977
1977 was
86.8% of
of 1976
1976 which
which was
was attributed
attributed
ground biomass
was 42.4%
42.4% to 86.8%
to the latter
latter year
year having
having aa cooler
cooler summer.
summer.
Further north in
in aa Hudson
Hudson Bay
Bay salt
salt marsh
marsh located
located near
near Churchill,
Churchill, ManiManitoba, net
net above-ground
above-ground primary
primary production
productionof.
of.65
65 to
to 97
97 gg m
M --22 was
was measured
(Cargill
Jefferies 1984a).
1984a). They
that inorganic
inorganic nitrogen
nitrogen
(Cargill and
and Jefferies
They also
also determined that
Phosphorus was
was only
only limiting
limiting when
when
was
was limiting
limiting productivity
productivity of
of the
the marsh. Phosphorus
nitrogen
was previously
previously supplemented.
factor in these
these
nitrogen was
supplemented. Another
Another imporant
imporant factor
important grazers.
grazers.Such
Suchgeese
geeseinfluence
influence
marshes is the role of geese which are important
the species composition,
composition, standing
standing crop,
crop, and litter production of these subarctic
Jefferies 1984b,
1984b, Bazely
Bazely and
and Jefferies
Jefferies 1986).
1986).
tic salt marshes (Cargill and Jefferies
Factors affecting subarctic wetland
wetland development
development
The wetlands
wetlands of the
the subarctic
subarctic regions
regions are
are mainly
mainly bogs
bogs and
and fens.
fens. However,
However,
the characteristic
characteristic wetlands
wetlands are
those in
in which
which permafrost
permafrost conditions
conditions have
have
are those
developed
developed..
Numerous corings (Reid 1974,
1974, Zoltai and Tarnocai
Tarnocai 1975)
1975) have
have shown
shown that
that
in
the peatlands
peatlands presently
presently affected
affected by permafrost,
permafrost, the
the peat
peat was
was initially
initially
in the
deposited in non-permafrost environments
environments of
of fens
fens and
and bogs.
bogs. The
The peat
peat macromacrofossils
vegetation cover changed in
in the
the surface
surface 50
50 to
to100
100cm.
cm.
fossils show
show'that
that the vegetation
The
in this
this layer
layer shows
shows much
much increased
increased Sphagnum
The peat in
Sphagnum moss
moss remnants,
remnants, as
well
twigs associated
associated with
with forested peatlands.
peatlands. The
The inference
inference isis
well as
as roots and twigs
that the establishment of Sphagnum
Sphagnum cover
cover initiated permafrost development,
uplifting
which were
were suitable
suitable for tree
uplifting the
the peatand creating drier conditions which
447
447
growth. In
In the
the more
morenortherly
northerlyparts
partsofofthe
theregion
regionthis
thisprocess
processwas
wasfollowed
followed
growth.
by ice
ice wedge
wedge development
development in
in the
the peat.
peat.
by
is not
not known.
known. In
In many
many areas
areas
The timing
timing of
of the
the permafrost
permafrost development
development is
The
there are
are newly
newly developed,
developed , thin,
thin,frozen
frozen peat
peatlenses
lenses(Reid
(Reid1974),
1974),indicating
indicating
there
that permafrost
permafrost development
development can
can be
be initiated
initiated under
under the
the present
presentclimatic
climatic
that
conditions. At the
the same
same time,
time,many
manyinstances
instances of
ofpermafrost
permafrostdegradation
-degradation
conditions.
noted , often
often on
on the
thesame
samepeatland.
peatland.This
Thisindicates
indicatesaadelicate
delicatebalance
balance
were noted,
permafrost can
can be
be initiated
initiated or
ordestroyed
destroyedby
byaaslight
slightalteralterwhere changes in permafrost
the environment
environment under
under the
thepresent
presentclimatic
climatic conditions.
conditions.
ation in the
Wetlands of
BM, BH)
BH)
Wetlands
of the
the Boreal
Boreal Region
Region (BL,
(BL, BM,
boreal region
region isis characterized
characterized by
by closed
closed forests
forests of
of dominantly
dominantlyconiferous
coniferous
The boreal
or mixtures
mixtures of
of coniferous
coniferous and
and hardwood
hardwood trees
trees (Rowe
(Rowe 1972)
1972) on
on the
the
trees, or
bog peatlands
peatlands in
in the
the waterlogged
waterlogged areas. The
The boreal
boreal
uplands and by fen and bog
2
6
of
Canada,
over
wetland region
region covers
covers approximately
approximately 3.1
3.1 xx 10
106 km2
km of Canada, over oneonewetland
the country
country (Fig.
(Fig. 6).
6). The
Theclimate
climateisischaracterized
characterized by
bycold
coldwinters
winters
third of the
to high
high amounts
amounts of
of precipitation
precipitation (Table
(Table
and warm summers, with moderate to
markednorth-south
north-southgradient,
gradient,with
withdecreasing
decreasing temperatures
temperatures
3). There isis aa marked
3).
An east-west
east-west precipitation
precipitation gradient
gradient is
is also
also evident,
evident, with
with higher
higher
northward. An
east, decreasing
decreasing totomuch
muchlower
lowerlevels
levelswestward
westwardtowards
towards
precipitation in the east,
the
centre
of
the
continent.
These
climatic
differences
are
reflected
tbe
the
of the continent. These climatic differences
reflected in the
development
wetlands within the boreal
boreal area.
area. Such
Such ecoecodevelopment and
and distribution of wetlands
logical
basis for
for the characterization
characterization of the
the boreal
boreal
logical differences
differencesserve
serveasas aa basis
wetland
regions
in
Canada
(National
Wetland
Working
Group
1985).
wetland regions in
(National Wetland Working Group 1985).
The
physiography of
region varies
low hills
hills of
of the
the
The physiography
of this
this large
large region
varies from
from the low
Precambrian
undulating or flat
flat Interior
Interior Plains
Plains to
to
Precambrian peneplain,
peneplain, through gently undulating
the
low
mountains
of
the
foothills
of
the
Rocky
Mountains
.
Within
this
area
the low mountains
foothills
Mountains. Within this area
wetlands
extensive in areas of low
low relief which
which have poor
poor internal
internal
wetlands are
are most extensive
and
extensive peatlands
Hudson Bay
Bay
and, external
external drainage,
drainage, such
such as
as the extensive
peatlands in
in the Hudson
Lowland
which
will
be
discussed
later
in
this
paper.
Elsewhere,
peatlands
Lowland which will be discussed later in this
Elsewhere, peatlands
are
Clay Belt)
are extensive
extensive within
within glacial
glacial lake
lake basins
basins (central
(central Manitoba,
Manitoba, Ontario
Ontario Clay
or
low relief (northern Alberta).
Alberta) . Within
Within the
the boreal
boreal region
region
or in
in other areas of low
itit is
estimated
that
about
25%
of
the
land
area
is
covered
by
wetlands.
is estimated
25% of the land area is covered by wetlands.
The
fens,
The characteristic
characteristic wetlands
wetlands within
within the
the Boreal
Boreal regions
regions are
are bogs
bogs and
and fens,
1988b).
et
al.
with
with swamps
swamps and
and marshes
marshes restricted
restricted to
to suitable
suitable areas
areas (Zoltai
(Zoltai et al. 1988b).
Bogs
develop
chiefly
in
areas
of
high
rainfall,
where
the
precipitation occurs
occurs
Bogs develop chiefly in areas of high rainfall, where
in
such areas
areas the
the
in sufficient
sufficientquantities
quantities to
to maintain
maintain waterlogged
waterlogged conditions.
conditions. In such
rapid
the minerotrophic
minerotrophic
rapid accumulation
accumulation of
of moisture
moisture raises
raises the
the surface above the
water
table
,
leading
to
the
development
of
raised
bogs.
Raised
bogs are best
water table, leading
developed
climates of
the eastern boreal
boreal region
region where
where they
they
developedinin the
the humid
humid climates
of the
448
448
may
the
may attain
attain aa height
height of several
several metres
metres above
above the
the regional
regional water
water table.
table. In the
more arid
arid west,
west, the bog
more
bog surfaces
surfaces are raised
raised only
only slightly
slightly (30 to 50
50 cm)
cm) above
above
the minerotrophic water levels,
this is
is sufficient
sufficient to
to establish
establish
the
levels , but in many cases this
true bog
bog conditions.
true
Eight
Eight of
of the
the common and
and typical
typical wetland
wetland types
types occurring
occurring within
within the
the boreal
region
. These
intended to be
be comprehensive
comprehensive
region are
are described
described below
below.
These are
are not
not intended
descriptions
the
descriptions of
of the
the wetlands
wetlands of
of this
this large
large area,
area, but
but rather to characterize the
region,
highlighting
the
differences
and
variabilities
encountered.
region, highlighting the differences and variabilities
Domed bogs
Domed
Domed
rapid accumulation
accumulation of
results in
in the
the
Domed bogs
bogs occur
occur where
where the
the -rapid
of peat
peat results
elevation
surface well
well above
In cross
cross
elevation of
of the
the peat surface
above the
the regional
regional water
water table.
table. In
section the
the surface
surface is
is convex
convex(Fig.
(Fig.4),
4),with
withthe
the highest
highestpoint
point near
near the
the centre,
section
which
regional water table.
table.
which may
may be
be several
several metres
metres above
above the
the level
level of
of the regional
Domed bogs
bogs can
can be large, in the order
Domed
order of
of 11km
km 22 ,, and
may occupy
and may
occupy an entire
wetland or a portion of a larger wetland complex
complex.. Domed bogs are characteristic
humid portion of the boreal
boreal regions,
regions, and
and generally
generally occur
occur east
east of
of
istic of
of the
the humid
Lake Winnipeg.
Winnipeg.
The peat in
in the domed
domed bogs
bogs can
can be several metres thick, composed
composed mainly
mainly
of Sphagnum peat (Bannatyne 1980).
1980). They often display
display drainage
drainage slots
slots which
which
radiate from
from the
the highest
point of
of the
radiate
highest point
the domed
domed bog.
bog. The
The vegetation
vegetation of
of the
the
raised portion
portion consists
consists of
of aa dense
dense cover
cover of
of Picea
raised
trees
Picea mariana,
mariana, with
with the trees
m. Sphagnum
often reaching
reaching heights
heights in
in excess
excess of 10
10 m.
fuscum
is
the
dominant
Sphagnum fuscum is
ground cover,
in discrete
discrete cushions
cushionsor
or as
as aa carpet.
carpet. Some minor S.
ground
cover. occurring
occurring in
nemoreum and Pleurozium schreberi may occur on some Sphagnum cushions,
along
with Cladonia
along with
Cladonia rangiferina
rangiferina and
openings low
low shrubs
shrubs
and C.
C. alpestris.
alpestris. In openings
such
as
Ledum
groenlandicum,
Kalmia
polifolia
Kalmia polifo/ia or
or Kalmia
Kalmia angustifolia,and
such
angustifolia, and
Chamaedaphne
Chamaedaphne calyculata
calyculata may
may be
be present. Sphagnum angustifolium is usually
found
chamaemorus and
found in wetter
wetter patches,
patches, together
together with
with Rubus chamaemorus
and Sarracenia
purpurea.
purpurea.
Northern plateau
plateau bogs
bogs
plateau bogs
bogs have
have an
an ombrotrophic
ombrotrophic surface
surface that
that isisslightly
slightly (50
(50 to
to
Northern plateau
75 cm)
minerotrophic water
surrounding fen.
fen. The
The
75
cm) above
above the
the minerotrophic
water table
table of
of the surrounding
surface
usually level,
level, but
but there
there may
surface topography
topography is
is usually
may be a sharp,
sharp , sudden
sudden drop
drop
to the
the fen
fen level
level at
at the
the edge
edge of
of the
the plateau
plateaubog.
bog .Plateau
Plateaubogs
bogstypically
typicallyoccupy
occupy
of aa larger
larger wetland
wetland complex,
complex, reaching
reaching several hundred
hundred hectares
hectares in
in size.
size .
part of
They
They are
are surrounded
surrounded on
on atatleast
leastthree
threesides
sidesby
byfen
fenchannels
channels(laggs)
(laggs)where
where
most of
of the
the drainage
drainage in
in the
the fen
fen takes
takesplace.
place _This
Thisimparts
imparts a asomewhat
somewhat
most
streamlined shape
the plateau
plateau bogs
bogs when
when viewed
viewed from
from the air.
air. Plateau
Plateau
streamlined
shape to the
bogs are
are common
common in the
the western
western parts
parts of
of the
the Mid-Boreal
Mid-Boreal and
and High
High Boreal
Boreal
bogs
Wetland
Wetland Regions
Regions where
where precipitation
precipitation isis limited.
limited .
449
449
The
The thickness
thickness of
of the
the peat
peat deposit
deposit isis 22toto44m,
m,with
withthe
thesurface
surface11toto2 2mm
composed of
of Sphagnum
Sphagnum remains,
remains, and
and the
the rest
restusually
usually composed
composed of
offen
fen peat.
peat.
composed
Picea
mariana,
The vegetation
vegetation cover
cover consists
consists of a semi-open stand of
of stunted
stunted Picea mariana,
The
where the
the trees
trees seldom
seldom exceed
exceed 55m
m in
in height.
height .The
Theshrub
shrublayer
layerisiscomposed
composed
where
of Ledum
Ledum groenlandicum,
groenlandicum, with
with lesser
lesser amounts of Chamaedaphne
Chamaedaphne calyculata,
calyculata,
of
covered by
by
Kalmia angustifolia,
angustifolia, and
and Rubus chamaemorus.
chamaemorus. The
The ground
ground isis covered
Kalmia
in
cushions
or
in
coalesced
cushions.
On
the
drier
cushions
Sphagnum
fuscum
in
On
the
drier
cushions
Sphagnum fuscum
vitis-idaea and
and V.
V. oxycoccus
oxycoccus grow with Cladonia
Cladonia rangiferina.
rangiferina. In
Vaccinium vitis-idaea
Eriophorum
vaginatum
wetter hollows
hollows Sphagnum angustifolium and
vaginatum may be
wetter
found.
primary productivity
productivity of three
three vegetation
vegetation zones
zones of
of aa domed
domedbog
bogand
and
The primary
marginal fen
fen lagg
lagg has been
been determined
determined by
by Reader
Readerand
andStewart
Stewart(1972).
(1972).
its marginal
forest
the
primary
Picea
mariana
They
found
that
in
a
closed-canopied
Picea
mariana
forest
the
primary
They found that in a closed-canopied
production was
was 709.9
709.9gg m
m--22 ,, and the
the total
total biomass
biomasswas
was6,934.4
6,934.4gg m
m--22 .• In the
production
woodland the net
net production
productionwas
was992.6
992.6gg M-2
m- 2
stunted Picea mariana-ericad woodland
the total
totalbiomass
biomasswas
was2,639.0
2,639.0ggm
m -2.
treeless ericaceous
ericaceous shrub
shrub bog
bog
-2 . In aa treeless
and the
and the
the net
netproduction
production was
was1,924.6
1,924.6ggm
m -2
the total
total biomass
biomass was
was
-2 and
the
2
2 and the
I11
-2
2,516.0gmfen lagg
lagg the
the net
net production
production was
was 1,631.0
1,631.0gmg
2,516.0
g m -2 •. In the fen
biomass was
was 3,810.3
3,810.3 gg m -2.
decomposition rates
rates on
on
total biomass
-2 . They measured the decomposition
these
sites and
estimated that
less than
10% of
of the
the annual
annual net
net primary
primary
these sites
and estimated
that less
than 10%
will accumulate
accumulate as peat.
production will
Basin bogs
Basin
minerotrophic peatlands
peatlands that develop
develop with
with indiscrete
indiscrete basins
basins
Basin bogs
bogs are
are minerotrophic
of essentially
and
essentially closed
closed drainage
drainage (Fig.
(Fig. 4), receiving water from precipitation and
drainage
10). The
The surface
surface isis generally
generally flat
flat
drainage from
from the surrounding slopes (Fig. 10).
to 50
50 m)
treed or
or
and
narrow (up to
and featureless
featureless but
but there
there may
may be
be aa narrow
m) belt of treed
shrubby
margin where
where mineral-rich
mineral-rich surface
surface runoff water
shrubby swamp
swamp along
along the
the margin
affects
Basin bogs
bogs usually
usually fill
fill the entire
entire topographic
topographic basins
basins
affects the
the vegetation.
vegetation. Basin
where
the
thickness
of
peat
may
exceed
3
m.
Basin
bogs
are
found
throughout
where
3 m. Basin bogs are found
the
the boreal
boreal region.
region. They
They occur
occur in
in areas
areas where
where the
the surrounding
surrounding terrain
terrain is
is poor
poor
in
where the
the mineral-rich
mineral-rich runoff
runoff water
water isis insufficient
insufficient to affect
affect
in nutrients
nutrients or where
the
ombrotrophic
bog
surface.
the ombrotrophic
but some
some may
may be
be treeless.
treeless.
Basin
Piceamariana,
mariana, but
Basin bogs
bogs are
are usually
usually treed
treed with
with Picea
In
trees are rarely
rarely more
more than
than 55 m tall and
and are
are widely
widely
the treed
treed form
form the
the trees
In the
spaced.
The
shrub
layer
is
dominant
in
both
the
treed
and
treeless
forms,
spaced. The shrub layer is dominant in both the
and treeless forms,
K. angustifolia,
angustifolia,
or K.
composed
Chamaedaphne calyculata,
calyculata, Kalmia
Kalmia polifolia
polifolia or
composedof
of Chamaedaphne
Sphagnum
fusand
The moss
moss layer
layer isis dominated
dominated by
by Sphagnum fusLedum groenlandicum.
groenlandicum. The
and Ledum
cum
S. magellanicum.
magellanicum.
cum and
and S.
450
450
Figure 10.
JO. Basin
Figure
Basin bog
n near
Atik okan . Ontario.
On tari o.
bog in
in BL
BL \VetJanJ
Wetland Regio
Region
near Ankokan.
Wooded
W
ooded palsy
pa Isa
P
eatlands affected
afrost are
nt e red in
in the
th e High
High Boreal
Boreal Wet\VetPeatlands
affected by
by perm
permafrost
are encou
encountered
land Region.
R egion. These
The se peatlands
pea tland s consist
con sist of
of aa perennially
pe re nni a lly frozen
fr ozen core
core in
in the
the peat
pea t
av extend
which ni
may
ex te nd into
into the
the underlying
unde rlying mineral
mine ral soil
so il material.
material . The
The permafrost
pe rm afrost
landform s , peat
peat plateaus
plateaus and
a nd palsas,
pa lsas. develop
deve lop when
wh e n the
the insulation
in sul a ti o n propropea t landforms.
peat
vided
vide d bbyy the
the living
living moss
moss cover prevents
preve nts the
th e complete
comple te thawing
th aw ing of
of the
th e seasonal
seasona l
frost.
fro st . This
T his process,
process , repeated
re peate d through
through the
th e years.
yea rs. results
results in
in the
th e formation
formation of
of
le ns of frozen
frozen peat.
peat. As the
th e water
water in
in the
th e peat
peat changes
changes into
into ice.
ice. its
its volume
volu m e
a lens
increases
nd the surface is
Th e result
res ult is
is aa raised
raised surface.
surface. about
abo llt 11m
m
increases aand
is uplifted.
uplifted. The
hi gh , in the
the peat
peat plateaus
plateaus that
th at may
may cover
cove r hundreds
hundre ds of
of hectares.
hecta res. Palsas
Pa lsas are
are
high.
much smaller
small er in
ae real exten
( up to
to 11 ha),
ha), but
b ut are
areconsiderably
co nsidera bl y higher
hi ghe r (up
(up
much
in aereal
extentt (up
m) in Canada.
Canada. This
This greater
grea te r height
he ight of
of palsas
pal sas is
is due
due to
to ice
ice accumulation.
accum ula ti o n.
to 44 m)
usually
usuall y at
a t the
th e peat-mineral
pea t-minera l soil
so il interface.
int erface .
The
Th e vegetation
vegetation on
o n palsas
palsas occurring
occurrin g within
within the
the Hi
High
Boreal Wetland
We tl and ReR egh Boreal
gion
by dense
dense forests
of Picea
gion is
is characterized
characterized by
forests of
Picea maniana.
marialla. The vegetation
vege tation
appears
appears to
to be
be related
re lated to
to fire
fire histor
history
(Zolt
ai
and
Tarnoca
i
197
1).
On the
the
y (Zoltai and Tarnocai 1971). On
undisturbed
in) Picea
undi sturbed palsas
palsas dense.
dense, but
but low
low (4
(4 111.)
Pice a martana
mariana grows
gro ws with
with a ground
ground
vegetation
vegeta ti o n dominated
do minated by
by lichens
liche ns such
such as Cladonia
Cladonia rangiferilla.
mili.Y, and
rangiferina. C.
C. mids,
C. alpestris.
alp esrris. Shrubs (Ledurn
(Ledum groen/andicum
C/wma edaphllc calvculata)
('alyell/ora) occur
groenlandicum.. Chatnaedaphne
in small
,? with
sma ll openings,
o pe nings . alon
alo ng
with Aulacomnium
Au/acomniwll pallistre.
pa lsas that
th at have
have
palustre. On palsas
burned within
within the
th e past
past 80
80 years,
years . dense
de nse forests
fo rests of Picea
PiCt!o mariana
are
fo
und.
inariana
found.
451
Figl/I'f 11.
ri al view
view of strirw,
strin g feten,
n , ce
ntra l Labrador
BOTca l Wetland
W e tland Region).
R egion).
Figure
11. Ae
Aerial
central
Labrador (High Boreal
with heights
he ig hts reaching
reaching 20
he re is
nearly complete
comp le te carpet
carpet of
of feather
fea ther
with
20m.
m. TThere
is a nearly
mosses,
mosses, composed
composed of
of Priliwn
['zillion cris/a-castrellsis,
a-castrensis, Plellrozium
Pleurozizon schreberi,
schreberi, and
Hyfocomilltn
fendefl s.
Hylocomil1117spsplendens.
Northern
fens
Northern ribbed fens
The
se fens
fe ns are characterized
characterized by the
th e development
developm ent of
of narrow
n a rrO\v (1
(1 to
to 55m
m wide),
wide),
These
low
60 cm
gh) peat
rid ges that
across the fen
fen at
a t right
ri ght angles
angle s
low (5
(5 to
to 60
cm hi
high)
peat ridges
that extend across
to
the direction
direction of
of water
wat er movement
moveme nt (Figs.
(Figs. 33 and
and 11).
11). The
Theridges
ridges{strings)
(strings)
to the
m
ay loop
across th
e fen
in gentle
ge ntle arcs,
arcs , or may
ma y link
link up
up with
with other
other ridges,
rid ges,
may
loop across
the
fen in
eenclosing
nclosing small
, wet
de press ion s. The
fe ns are
a re usually
u sually gently
gently sloping
sloping but
but
small,
wet depressions.
The fens
drainage
by seepage
throu gh the
th e fen
fen rather
ra the r than
tha n in
in defined
defi ne d surface
surface water
water
drainage is
is by
seepage through
courses
ridges act
act as impediments
impediments to
to drainage,
drainage, as shown
shown by
by the
the
courses.. The
The peat ridges
wet
conditions in the
th e depressions
depress io ns (flarks;
(flarks; Andersson
Andersson and
and Hesselman
I-Iesse lman 1907)
19(7)
wet conditions
aalong
long the
upslope side
side of the
the ridges.
ridges. The
The development
deve lopment of
of linear
linear patterns
patte rns
the upslope
is due
du e to
to changing
cha nging hydrological
hydrological conditions
conditions and
differential rates
rates of
of peat
peat
is
and differential
accumulation (Foster
(Foster et
accumulation
, but
mode of initiation
initiation of
of the
the strings
strings
et al.
al. 1983)
1983),
but the
the mode
re
main s un
certain . Such
Such ribbed
ribbed fens
BM and BH wetland
we tland
remains
uncertain.
fens are
are common
common in
in th
thee BM
regions
into the SL
SL re
region.
Pe rmafrost is
is not
not associated
associate d with
with
regions and
and extend
extend into
g ion. Permafrost
ridges
re as in the
th e subarctic.
subarctic .
ridges he
here
The
vegetation on
the better-drained
bette r-drain e d ridges
nd in
in the
the wet
wetflarks
are
The vegetation
on the
ridges aand
ftarks are
distinctl
di
stinctlyy different
diffe re nt (Slack
(Slack el
s may
et al.
al. 1980).
1980).The
The ridge
ridges
may be
be treed
treed with
with Larix
laricina and
and Picea
Picea lnariana
Mariana,, with
laricina
reaching aa height
he ight of
of.10
10 in,
m, although
a lthough
with trees reaching
452
usually
less than
than 44 m high.
high. The
The shrub
shrublayer
layerisisgenerally
generally well
well dedeusually they
they are
are less
var. gfandulifera,
veloped, consisting
consisting of Betula
Betula pumila
pumila var.
glandulifera, Salix pedicellaris,
pedicellaris, and
The herb
Ledum
groenlandicum. The
herb layer
layer isis usually
usually sparse,
sparse, represented
represented by
by
Ledum groenlandicum.
and C.
C. chordorrhiza
chordorrhiza.. The
Carex
moss layer
layer is
is nearly
nearly complete
complete
Carex lasiocarpa
lasiocarpa and
The moss
dominant species,
species, with
with some
with
with Tomenthypnum
Tomenthypnum nitens
nitens as
as the dominant
some Sphagnum
warnstorfii
warn,storfii and
and Pleurozium schreberi.
The vegetation of the
the flarks
ftarks in
in the
thegenerally
generallyminerotrophic
minerotrophicfens
fensisisinfluinftuet af.
a!. 1980).
(Slack et
enced
enced by
by the
the amount of water present (Slack
1980). The
The deepest pools
Scorpidium scorpioides.
scorpioides. Herbaceous
are
dominated by Scorpidium
Herbaceous plants such
such as
as Carex
are dominated
limnosa, C.
C. aquatilis,
aquatilis, C.
C. lasiocarpa,
lasiocarpa, Triglochin
Triglochin maritima,
maritima, and
limnosa,
and Menyanthes
typical components.
components. In flarks
ftarks with
with shallower
shallower pools,
pools, on firm
firm
trifoliala
are typical
trifoliata are
species dominate,
dominate, mainly
C. aquatilis,
mainly C.
limosa, and
root
aquatilis, C.
C. limosa,
root mats,
mats, Carex
Carex species
and C.
The moss
layer is
is dominated
dominated by
by Drepanocladus revolvens.
chordorrhiza.
moss layer
revolvens. In
chordorrhiza. The
areas with
ftarks are
are characterized
characterized by
by Scirpus
with increased water movement the flarks
with abundant
abundant Campylium
hudsonianus, with
caespitosus
S. hudsonianus,
caespitosus and
and S.
Campylium stellatum.
Weakly minerotrophic fens that
that are
are nourished
nourishedby
by groundwaters
groundwaters originating
originating
in
have aa distinctly
distinctly different vegetation (Vitt et
in nutrient-poor areas have
et al.
al. 1975).
Picea mariana,
mariana, and
The
strings are
usually well
occasional
The strings
are usually
well treed
treed with
with Picea
and only occasional
occurrences
laricina. The shrub layer
layer consists
consists mostly
mostly of
of ericaceous
ericaceous
',wit laricina.
occurrences of Larix
Andromeda
polifolia,
Ledum
groenlandicum,
Ledum groenlandicum, and
shrubs
shrubs such
such as
and Vaccinium
Vaccinium
mosses are dominantly Sphagnum
magellanicum and
vitis-idaea.
vitis-idaea. The mosses
Sphagnum magellanicum
and S.
S. fusfuscum,
paluslre and
and Tomethypnum falcifolium.
with some Aulacomnium palustre
cum, with
The shallow-water flarks
ftarks are characterized by Carex
Carex Iimosa,
limosa, with
with aa SphagDrepanocladus exannulatus moss
num jensenii or Drepanoc/adus
ftarks with
with deeper
moss layer.
layer. In flarks
and Eriophorum
Eriophorum chamissonis
water
chamissonis occur
water Menyanthes
Menyanthes trifoliata
trifoliata and
occur with
with lesser
amounts
exannulatus.
amounts of Drepanocladus exannulatus.
The process of patterned fen
fen formation
formation including
including Atlantic ribbed,
ribbed. ladder,
ladder.
and net fens
fens was
was investigated
investigated in southeastern
southeastern Labrador
Labrador by
by Foster
Foster and
and King
King
(1984).
development was
was dependent upon
upon topography
topography and
and
(1984). Surface
Surface pattern
pattern development
example, the
the formation
formation of
ofstring-flark
string-ftark features
features ococwater
movement. For example,
water movement.
main parts characcurred on steeper slopes with large inputs of water. Three main
terize
process of surface
surface pattern
pattern development.
development. An
An irregular
irregular surface
surface of
of
terize the process
is followed by a gradual expansion
hummocks and hollows takes places. This is
and joining of depressions, aa process
process controlled
controlled by
by differential
differential rates
rates of
of peat
peat
formation.
pools expand and
and coalesce
coalesce by peat
peat degradation.
degradation. The
The develdevelformation. Last, pools
fen was
was studied
studied by
by peat
peatstratigraphic
stratigraphic investigations.
investigations.
opmental history of the fen
Also
Labrador, studies
studies have
have been
been carried
carried out
outon
onbog
bogvegetation
vegetation
Also in
in southern Labrador,
and Iandform
landform dynamics
1986, Foster et
al.
1988).
dynamics (Foster and Glaser 1986,
et al. 1988).
Horizontal fens
These minerotrophic peatlands occur on broad
These
broad areas
areas of
of low
low relief
relief and
and slight
slight
slope
3). There
Thereisissufficient
sufficient slope
slope to
toallow
allow aaslow
slowmovement
movement
slope gradient
gradient (Fig. 3).
453
Figure
12. T
Figure 12.
reed fen
fen with
w ith small
sma ll tama
rack ttrees
rees ((1...
L arix !aritin
a) nea
Fli n Flon.
M ani toba (Mid(tvli d·
Treed
tamarack
larmina)
nearr Ellin
Flon, Manitoba
Bo
real Wetland
Wet land Region).
R e gion)
Boreal
of min
ero tro phi c wa
te rs throu
gh th
e fen
no ugh to
p aa pattern
pa tt e rn
minerotrophic
waters
through
the
fen but
but not
not eenough
to develo
develop
ooff ridges.
rid ges . The
Th e peat
pe at accumulation
accnmul a ti on isis seldom
se ldom in
in excess
excess of
of 33 m
m since
sin ce deep
dee p basins,
bas ins .
wh e re thick
thi ck peat
pea t accumulations
acc umul ati o ns could
could occ
ur , are
a re absent.
a bse nt. The
The surface
surface of
o f the
th e
where
occur,
fe
n is
is us
ually fea
ture less aalthough
ltho ugh "islands"
of somewhat
some wh at drier
dri e r peatland
p e atl a nd may
may
fen
usually
featureless
-islands" of
occur
Hori zo nt al fe
ns are
are common
common throughout
throu gho ut the
the boreal
bo rea l region
regio n where
whe re
occur.. Horizontal
fens
poorl
y dra
in ed areas
a reas of
o f broad,
broad , flat
fi at plains are
are found
fo und (Fig.
(Fi g. 12).
12) .
poorly
drained
Th
e horizontal
ho ri zo nta l fens
fe ns can
treed, shrubby,
shrubb y, or
O f open
ope n (graminoid.
(gramin o id . no
n o trees
trees
The
can be
he treed,
O
f
shrubs),
acco
rding
to
th
e
abund
ance
a
nd
qu
ality
of
th
e
grouIl
c!\:vate
r.
Th e
or
according to the abundance and quality the groundwater. The
treedd fe
fens
openn stand of Larix
tree
ns have
ha ve an ope
y with
ve lo pe d
Larix laricina
laricina,. usuall
usually
with aa \vell
well de
developed
layer
of Benda
sshrub
hrub laye
r of
som e cases
cases sca
tte re d Picea
Benda pumila
pumila.. In
In some
scattered
Picea rilariana
mariana trees
m
ay be present.
prese nt. The
Th e herb
herb layer
laye risis usually
usuall y sparse,
sparse , composed
co mpose d of
o fvarious
variou sspecies
sp ecies
may
sedges,
as Carex
ooff se
dges , ssuch
uch as
lasiocorp(l, or
cespitosus . Th
Carex aquatilis,
aquatilis, C.
C. lasiocarpa.
or Scirpus
Senpus cespitosus.
Thee
moss layer
layer is
is pro
moss
min e nt . composed
ainl y of
ste/fatum
nd
prominent,
composed m
mainly
of Camp'vlium
Campyhum stellatum aand
Drepanecladu,s
revolvers.
Drepan
ocladus revo
/vells . So
me cu
shi o ns of Sphagnum •arns-tor:hi
warnstOlfii oorr S.
x
Some
cushions
S. falla
fallatm
ay de
ve lo p in association
associa ti o n with
may
develop
with Pieea
Picea mariana
mariana..
The
shrubby fens
fe ns are basically
bas ica lly similar
e treed
treed fens,
fe ns, but are
a re without
without
The shrubby
similar to
to th
the
trees.
In
addition
to
trees . In a ddition to B
etula , Mvrica
AIyrica gale, Salix
,)'alix pedicellaris,
p edicellaris , aand
nd SSalix
ali:r candida
Benda,
may
nt. Lower
Lowe r shrubs
s hrubs may
ma y include
includ e L
edum
gro
enlandicul7I
eci all y
may be
be prese
present.
Letham groenlandicum,, esp
especially
in
minerotrophic fens.
fe ns.
in the less minerotrophic
T
he open
ope n fens
fens are dominated
dominate d by
by sedges
sedges aand
nd rushes,
ru shes, su
ch as
The
such
as Carex lasiocarpa,
ocarp
a , C.
C. chordorrhiza,
eh o rdo rrhi za, and
aq u.atilis, al
o ng with
us caespitasus.
caespitosus.
and C.
C. aquatilis,
along
with Scirp
Scirpus
454
454
Mossesare
are abundant,
abundant, including
including Drepanocladus
Mosses
revolvens,
Drepanocladusexannulatus,
exannulatus, D.
D. revolvens,
Campyliumstella
stellatum,
and Calliergon
Calliergongiganteum.
giganteum. In
Campylium
tum , and
panicularly minminIn particularly
erotrophlc
fens
Scorpidium
scorpioides
erotrophlc fens Scorpidium scorpioides isisabundant
abundant in
in consistently
consistently wet
wet spots.
spots.
Conifer swamps
swamps
Conifer
These
mesotrophic
wetlands occur
occur in
in areas
areas that receive
overland or subsurThese mesotrophic wetlands
receive overland
face water
water flow
flowof
ofminerotrophic
minerotrophic water.
water. The peat
face
peat is
is usually
usually well decomposed
under aa fibrous
fibrous cap.
cap. In many instances small
small (0.5
(0.5 to 2 m diameter) openings
under
up to 40 cm
cm deep (sinkholes;
occur on
on the surface
up
(sinkholes; Mueller-Dombois
Mueller-Dombois 1964)
1964) occur
surface
of the
the swamp.
develop on
on the
of
swamp. Most
Most swamps
swamps develop
the margins
margins of
of other
other wetlands
wetlands
where overland
overland water
water flow
flow reaches
reachesthe
the wetland,
wetland, on
on lakeshores,
lakeshores, or
or on
on river
where
floodplains where
where periodic
periodic inundations
inundations by
by mineral-enriched
waters take
floodplains
mineral-enriched waters
place. Spruce
Spruce (Picea)
(Picea) swamps
place.
region, whereas
whereas
swamps occur
occur throughout
throughout the
the boreal region,
cedar
(Thuja)
cedar (Thuja) swamps
Temperate
swamps are
are found
found in
in the
the Low
Low Boreal and Eastern Temperate
Wetland Regions.
Wetland
The conifer swamps
The
swamps are characterized
characterized by dense growth
growth of
of tall
tall ((>>10
10m)
m)
trees. In spruce
the dominant
species isis Picea
trees.
spruce swamps
swamps the
dominant species
mariana,
with
some
Picea mariana, with
occasional occurrences
occurrences of
of Larix
Larix laricina.
laricina. Shrubs
occasional
usually present only in
Shrubs are
are usually
openings with such species
as
species Alnus rugosa, Salix spp., and
and Ledum groenlandicum being
being common.
common. In the dense
icum
dense stands
stands feather
feather mosses
mosses form a continuous
continuous
carpet composed
carpet
composed of Pleurozium schreberi, Hylocomium
Hylocomium splendens,
splendens, ClimacClimacium
dendroides,
and
Tomenthypnum
nitens.
ium dendroides, and Tomenthypnum nitens. Some
Some cushions
cushions of
of Sphagnum
fuscum
and S. warnstorfii
may also
also be present.
fuscum and
warnstorfii may
Cedar swamps
are similar
in structure
structure to spruce swamps.
The main
swamps are
similar in
swamps. The
main tree
species
is Thuja occidentalis
species is
occidentalis growing
in
dense
stands,
with
a
few
scattered
growing in dense
few scattered
occurrences
occurrences of Larix
Larix laricina.
laricina. Shrubs
Shrubs are infrequent, present
present only
only in
in small
small
openings,
and
consist
of
openings,
consist
rugosa, Viburnum
Viburnum edule,
edule, and
spp. In
In
Alnus rugosa,
and Salix
Salix spp.
the openings,
openings, the
the herb
herblayer
layer may
may contain
contain Aralia
Aralia nudicaulis,
nudicaulis, Clintonia
Clintonia borealis
and orchids
orchids such
such as Habenaria hyperborea,
hyperborea, H.
H. obtusata,
obtusata,Orchis
Orchisrotundifolia,
rotundifolia,
and
and Cypripedium calceolus.
calceolus. In the
the dense
dense stands,
stands, mosses
mosses cover
cover most
most of
of the
the
ground
ground and
and consist
consist of Pleurozium
Pleurozium schreberi,
schreberi, Hylocomium
Hylocomium splendens,
splendens, and
Climacium dendroides.
den dro ides .
Delta
Delta marshes
marshes (freshwater)
(freshwater)
The
The major
major marshes
marshes occur
occur where
where rivers
rivers reach
reach large
large lakes
lakes and
and deposit
deposit their
their
sediment
sediment load,
load,gradually
graduallyfilling
filling the
the proximal
proximal part
pan of
ofthe
thelake.
lake.As
Asthe
thechannels
channels
are silted
silted up,
up, new
new ones
ones are
arecut,
cut,resulting
resultingininaamaze
mazeofofactive
activeand
andinactive
inactive
are
channels,
channels, oxbow
oxbow lakes,
lakes, and
and basins
basins enclosed
enclosed by
by natural
naturallevees.
levees. This
Thisresults
results
in
in aa variety
variety of
of environments,
environments,depending
dependingon
onthe
theproximity
proximitytotoponds
pondsand
andactive
active
channels . The
The annual
annual spring
spring floods
floods inundate
inundate much
much of
of the
the delta
deltauntil
untilsome
some
channels.
parts
pans become
become sufficiently
sufficiently built up
up to
to escape
escape all
allbbt
butthe
themost
mostsevere
severefloods.
floods.
Because of
of shifting
shifting channels,
channels, some
some parts
pans of
ofthe
thedelta
deltamay
maybecome
becomeinactive,
inactive,
Because
455
455
that is,
is ,no
nolonger
longersubject
subject totofrequent
frequent flooding.
flooding. On
On such
such areas
areas the
the fens
fens and
and
that
bogs develop
develop that
that no
nolonger
longerreflect
reflect the
thedelta
deltainfluence.
influence .An
Anexample
exampleisisthe
the
bogs
Cumberland wetlands
wetlands of
ofthe
theSaskatchewan
Saskatchewan River
River(Dirschl
(Dirschland
andDabbs
Dabbs1969,
1969,
Cumberland
Dirschl 1977,
1977, Dirschl
Dirschl and
and Coupland
Coupland 1972).
1972). Other
Other delta
delta marshes
marshes may
may be
be
Dirschl
formed
in
lagoons
that
are
formed
by
barrier
beaches
.
Such
marshes
are
formed in lagoons that are formed by barrier beaches. Such marshes are
subject to
to fluctuating
fluctuating water
water levels
levels of the lake.
lake . Large
Large delta
delta marshes
marshes are
are found
found
subject
on Lake
Lake Athabasca
Athabasca (Raup
(Raup1935,
1935 , Dirschl
Dirschl et
et al.
al . 1974),
1974), Lake Manitoba
Manitoba (Delta
(Delta
on
Marsh, Walker
Walker 1959)
1959) aa site
site which
which will
will be
be discussed
discussed in more
more detail
detail later
later in
in
Marsh,
1967),
along
with
et
this
paper,
and
Lake
Winnipeg
(Netley
Marsh,
Smith
et
al.
along
with
this paper, and Lake Winnipeg (Netley Marsh, Smith
numerous smaller
smaller marshes
marshes found
found on
on many
many lakes.
lakes.
numerous
The wet
wet meadows
meadows near
near ponds
ponds are
are dominated
dominated by
by Carex atherodes (Raup
The
1935), with
Scirpus validus,
validus, and
and Eleocharis
1935),
with lesser
lesser amounts
amounts of
of C. aquatilis, Scirpus
palustris. At aa greater
greaterdistance
distance from
from ponds
ponds large
large expanses
expanses of
of Calamagrostis
palustris.
canadensis occur
occur in
in nearly
nearly pure
pure stands.
stands. On
Onslightly
slightly drier
drier areas,
areas, scattered
scattered
canadensis
among Calamagrostis
shrubs consisting
consisting mainly
mainly of Salix
Salix planifolia
planifolia growing
growing among
shrubs
somewhat drier
canadensis and Poa palustris invade the marsh meadows. On somewhat
bebbiana shrubs
habitats, swamps
swamps formed by tall shrubs take over
over with
with Salix
Salix bebbuma
forming nearly impenetrable thickets.
thickets. The
The ground
ground vegetation
vegetation isis sparse,
sparse, conconforming
Vicia americana.
sisting of Equisetum
Equisetum palustre,
and Vicia
palustre, Rubus idaeus, and
sisting
In the
the more
more southerly
southerly delta
deltamarshes,
marshes,emergent
emergentvegetation
vegetation dominates,
dominates,
growing
in
a
soft
muck
(mud
and
decomposed
organic
matter)
base . Such
Such
growing in
muck (mud and decomposed organic matter) base.
marshes are
interspersed with
with pools
pools of open water.
water. The
The dominant
dominant species
species
marshes
are interspersed
Scirpus acutus
acutus..
and Scirpus
are
lari/olia, Scirpus validus,
validus , and
Phragmites australis
australis,, Typha latifolia,
are Phragmites
Peat accumulation
accumulation is largely
largely absent from
from all marshes. This type
type of
of marsh
marsh is
is
discussed
in
the
Continental
Prairie
Wetland
Region
Section.
discussed in the
Prairie Wetland Region Section.
Another important area
area of
of marsh
marsh development
development occurs
occurs along the shores of
oxbow
der Valk
Valk and
andBliss
Bliss(1971)
(1971) studied
studiedsuccession
succession in
in marshes
marshes
oxbow lakes.
lakes. Van der
of the Pembina River
River floodplain
floodplain in
in central
central Alberta.
Alberta.Twelve
Twelve plant
plant communicommunito shrub
shrub and
and forest
forest communicommunities
ranging from
from submergents
submergents to
ties were
were present
present,, ranging
ties.
flooding
ties. Water chemistry and waterlevel fluctuations caused by periodic flooding
were
the main
main factors
factors controlling
controlling succession.
succession.
were felt
felt to be the
Studies
on ecological
ecological factors controlling the distribudistribuStudies have
have been
been conducted on
tion
tion of
of plant
plant species
species on
on the shorelines of lakes located in boreal areas of the
Provinces
Nova Scotia.
Scotia. Keddy
Keddy (1983)
(1983) investigated
investigated zonation
Provincesof
of Ontario
Ontario and Nova
zonation
along
and wave
wave energy.
energy. Some
Some species
species
along exposure
exposure gradients
gradients of
of water
water depth
depth and
were
their maximum
maximum distribution
distribution on exposed
exposed shores
shores while
while
were found
found to
to reach their
others
on sheltered
sheltered areas,
areas ,especially
especially large,
large, leafy
leafy plants.
plants. Maximum
Maximum
others did
did so on
species
further study,
study,
speciesrichness
richnessoccurred
occurredatat intermediate
intermediate exposures.
exposures.In
In aa further
sediment
zonation;
sediment particle
particle size
size was
was found
found to
to be
be an
an important
important control of plant zonation;
waveactivity
activitywas
wasfound
found to
to influence
influenceparticle
particlesize
sizedistribution
distributionand
and to
to disturb
disturb
wave
vegetation
. Water
vegetation(Keddy
(Keddy1984a)
1984a).
Waterdepth
depthalso
alsoisis aa control
control of
of zonation.
zonation. The
The
number
number of
of different
different species
species reaches
reaches aa maximum
maximum at
at or
or just
just above
above the waterline
456
depending
the degree
degree of
ofesposure.
esposure. The
Theco-existence
co-existence of
of species
species was
was
depending upon
upon the
not
associated with
not associated
with increased
increased specialization
specializationbut
butappeared
appearedtoto be
be related
related to
to
disturbance
1984b). Organic
disturbance (Keddy
(Keddy 1984b).
Organic content of sediments also appeared to
control
(Wilson and Keddy
Keddy 1985).
1985). Research
Research was
was also
also performed
performed
control zonation (Wilson
upon
gradients. Water depth
depth was
was found
found
upon species
species recruitment
recruitment along lakeshore gradients.
in this
this respect
respect to
tosome
somespecies
species although
although most
most species
species exhibexhibto be important in
ited
broad tolerance
tolerance limits
limits (Keddy
(Keddy and
and Ellis
Ellis 1985).
1985). In
terms of
of sediment
sediment
ited broad
In terms
particle
particle size, finer
finer textured-sediments occurring in sheltered bays allowed for
greatest
(Keddy and
and Constabel
Constabel 1986).
1986).
greatest recruitment (Keddy
thesewetlands
wetlandscontain
containrare
rareand
andendangered
endangeredplant
plantspecies.
species. These
These
Manyofofthese
- Many
low fertility
fertility substrates
species
by low
species appear
appear to be favoured by
substrates and
and natural disturblakes must take
take such
such requirements
requirements into
into consideration
consideration
ance.
ance. Management of lakes
et 01.
al. 1989).
the
(Keddy
1989, Moore et
(Keddy and Wisheu 1989,
1989). Keddy
Keddy (1989)
(1989) also
also studied the
in controlling
controlling the
the growth
growth of
of such
such species.
species.
role
role of competition in
Forestry
of wetlands
wetlands
Forestry use of
Controlling
levels in peatlands through drainage for the
the purpose
purpose
Controlling water table levels
of increasing
increasing wood production is
is aa relatively
relatively new
new forest
forest management
management techtechin northern
northern
nique
Canada (Hillman
(Hillman 1987).
1987). Although
Although widely
widely practiced
practiced in
nique in Canada
Europe, it is
is largely
largely at
at an
an experimental
experimental stage
stage in
in Canada.
Canada. Early
Earlyindications
indications
are
by using
using the
the proper
proper design
design and
and technique
technique suited
suited to
to different
different kinds
kinds
are that, by
of peatlands the yield
yield of
of forests
forests can
can substantially
substantially be increased
increased and
and the
the time
time
required
trees to
to reach
reach merchantable
merchantable size can
required for the trees
can be shortened.
of drainage
drainage experiments
experiments were
were carried
carried out
out ininNewfoundland
Newfoundland
A
number of
A number
the rarely
rarely treeless
treeless bogs
bogs of
of Newfoundland,
Newfoundland,
(Paivanen
Wells 1978).
1978). On the
(Paivanen and
and Wells
to be
be afforested
afforested with
with native
native and
and exotic
exotic species
species (Larix
the bogs had to
(Larix laricina,
L. kaempferi,
kaempferi, Picea
Picea mariana,
mariana, P. abies,
abies, Pinus
Pinus contorta,
contorta, P.
P. sylvestris).
sylvestris). The
results
terms of
of seedling
seedling survival
survival and growth.
growth. The
The
results were
were variable
variable both
both in terms
drainage
afforded maximum
maximum protection
protection to seedlings
seedlings from
from exexdrainage design
design that afforded
themost
mostsuccessful.
successful.
posure, coupled with
with adequate
adequate water
water table
table control,
control,was
was the
In Quebec wetlands
wetlands occur in some of the
the most
most accessible
accessible and productive
productive
forest
(Bolghari 1986).
1986). As
most peatlands
planting aa new
new
forest areas
areas (Bolghari
As most
peatlands are
are treed, planting
not aa major
major concern.
concern. Forest
Forest drainage
drainage improvements
improvements are
are being
being
tree
tree crop is not
implemented on an interim basis by
by the
the Quebec
Quebec Wood
Wood Producers'
Producers' Federation
(Urgel Delisle et Associes 1983).
1983). Experimental forest
forest drainage projects have
out, coupled
coupled with
with fertilization
fertilization treatment
treatment with
with nitrogen,
nitrogen. phosphosbeen
been carried out,
phorus,
potassium,
and
copper
(Stanek
1975).
Periodic
annual
increment
phorus, potassium,
copper (Stanek 1975). Periodic annual increment
showed
(1986) found that
that
showed a five-fold
five-fold increase
increase over
over the
the control
control area.
area. Trottier (1986)
control
the growth of trees was always
always higher
higher on
on the
the drained
drained area than on the control
in some cases the increase
increase was
was more than
than five
five times
times the
the pre-drainage
pre-drainage
plots;
plots; in
rate.
In
drainage projects
projects have
have been
been conducted
conducted on an
an experimental
experimental
In Ontario, drainage
457
scale
) found
scale since
since 1929.
1929.Payandeh
Payandeh (1973
(1973)
foundthat
that tree
tree diameter and height growth
showed
(1968) used
used dynamite
dynamite to
to
showed significant
significant increases
increases after
after drainage.
drainage. Stanek (1968)
excavate
ditches . Although water
water flow
flow in
in the
the resulting
resulting ditches
ditches was
was
excavate drainage
drainage ditches.
impeded
by obstructions,
obstructions. they
they functioned
functioned well
well enough
enough to increase
increase both
both didiimpeded by
five times
times over the pre-drainage
ameter and height growth
growth in
in Picea
pre-drainage
Picea mariana
mariana five
rates
large experimental
experimental drainage
drainage project
project has
has been
been established
established recently
recently
rates.. A large
(Hillman
imposed on the drained
(Hillman 1987).
1987). A
A number
number of
of treatments
treatments have
have been
been imposed
area, such as
as different
different harvesting
harvesting and
and regeneration
regeneration techniques,
techniques, planting
plantingdifdifferent
species, and fertilizing
fertilizing the
stand. These treatPicea mariana
mariana stand.
ferent species,
the original
original Picea
ments will
Peatland
will be
be monitored
monitored to
to evaluate
evaluate the effect
effect of drainage
drainage on them. Peatland
forestry
has been
been reviewed
reviewed by
by Haavisto
Haavisto and
and Wearn
Wearn(1987).
(1987) .
forestry in
in Ontario has
A
number of
of peatland
peatland drainage
drainage experiments
experiments have
have been
been conducted
conducted in
in
A number
Alberta since
since 1975
1975 (Hillman
these experiments
experiments was
was
(Hillman 1987)
1987).. The
The purpose of these
to try various ditching equipment, ditch
ditch spacing
spacing and
and design,
design, as
as well
well as
as fertilizfertilizing
original Picea
ing and
and thinning
thinning the original
Picea mariana
mariana stands.
stands. Initial results show up to
four-fold
experimental area was
was estabestabfour-fold increase
increase in
in leader
leader growth.
growth. Another experimental
lished
Gillard 1984)
1984) where the
the drainage
drainage system
system design
design was
was based
based
lished (Toth and Gillard
on synthetic
synthetic groundwater
groundwater hydrographs
hydrographs to optimize
optimize the
the spacing
spacing of
of ditches.
ditches.
Further experiments are in progress to test
test the
the use
use of
ofsynthetic
synthetic groundwater
groundwater
hydrographs
and vegetation
vegetation to
to drainage
drainageininvarious
various
hydrographs and
and the response of trees and
peatland types under fully
fully instrumented conditions
conditions (Hillman
(Hillman 1987).
1987).
Contaminant effects
effects upon
upon boreal peatlands
Recent
the ecological
ecological impact
impact of acid
acid rain
rain upon
upon
Recent concern
concern has
has been
been made on the
wetlands. Very
little
research
is
available
on
this
topic
(Gorham
et
al.
1984).
Very little research is available on this topic (Gorham et al. 1984).
Fens, particularly those
values below
those with
with low
low alkalinities
alkalinities and
and pH values
below 6,
6, are felt
to be especially
especially vulnerable
vulnerable due to their
their low
low bicarbonate
bicarbonate buffering
buffering capacity.
capacity.
These
fens can
can have
have their
their buffering
buffering capacity
capacity overwhelmed
overwhelmed by inputs
inputs of
of
These fens
anthropogenic strong acids,
acids. both sulfuric and nitric,
nitric, associated with acid rain.
This
especially important
fen has
has accumulated
accumulated sufficient
sufficient peat
This is especially
important ifif the
the fen
peat to
reduce the input of minerotrophic ground
ground waters
waters which
which have
have buffering
buffering capacity.
concerns related
related to
to acidification
acidification include
include 1) lower
lower nutrient
nutrient availavaility. Other concerns
ability
increased availability
availability of metals,
metals, especially
especially aluminum
aluminum which
which may
may
ability,, 2) increased
be
toxic, 3) effects
effects upon
upon peat
peat fauna,
fauna, and
and 4)
4)effects
effectsupon
uponreceiving
receiving waters
waters
be toxic,
from
from peatland
peatland drainage.
drainage. Gorham et
(1984) recommended
recommended more
more research
et al.
al. (1984)
be
done upon
upon the
the potential
potential effect
effect of
of acid
acid rain
rain upon
upon individual
individual plant
plant and
and
be done
animal species,
species. communities and
and ecosystems.
ecosystems.
Recent
fen in northwestern Ontario
Recent research
research has
has been
been conducted
conducted upon
upon a fen
1986).. The
The vegetation
vegetation and
which
has
been
artificially
acidified
(Bayley
et
al.
which
artificially acidified
et al. 1986)
water
chemistry of
was studied
studied by
by Vitt
Vitt and
and Bayley
Bayley
water chemistry
of peatlands
peatlands in
in the
the area was
(1984)
fen acted as aa sink
sink for
for sulfate
sulfate ion
ion removing
removing some
some 22
22 toto73%
73%..
(1984).. The
The fen
During long,
long , dry summers, reduced sulfur compounds could be
be oxidized
oxidized and
and
458
458
released to
to surface
surface waters
waters along
along with
with calcium
calcium and
and magnesium
magnesium ions.
ions. Nitrate
Nitrate
and sulfate
is also
also retained
retained in
in such
such fens
fens with
with up
up
sulfate ion associated
associated with acid rain
rain is
al. 1987).
1987). In the process
process of nitrate
nitrate and
and sulfate
sulfate
to 99%
99% retention
retention (Bayley
(Bayley et al.
retention, alkalinity
is generated which
which resists
resists lowering
lowering of pH. A
A short-term
short-term
alkalinity is
et
al. 1990).
moss
was
found
(Rochefort
al.
fertilization effect upon Sphagnum moss was found
fertilization
Smelting activities
activities may
may have
have aa negative
negative impact
impact upon peatlands located
located in
in
Sphagnum mosses
mosses are killed
killed in
in such
such ecosystems
ecosystems
regions of Canada. Sphagnum
boreal regions
located at distances
12 km from smelters
smelters such as those
those located
located
distances within 10 to 12
1981,, Gignac
al. 1981
et al.
Gignac and Beckett
Beckett 1986)
1986)
Sudbury, Ontario
Ontario (Glooschenko
(Glooschenko et
at Sudbury,
al. 1986).
1986). This
This appears
appears to
et ,al.
Rouyn-Noranda, Quebec
Quebec (Glooschenko
(Glooschenko et
and Rouyn-Noranda,
be due
ofsulfur
sulfurdioxide
dioxide gas
gasemissions
emissions and
and heavy
heavy metal
metal
due to
to direct
directeffects
effects of
accumulation.
accumulation. A paper
paper by
by Glooschenko
Glooschenko (1986)
(1986) discusses
discusses the
the accumulation
accumulation
of metals
and peats and reviews
metals by
by bog vegetation
vegetation and
reviews the role of
of peatlands
peatlands in
in
monitoring
the atmospheric
metals. Regional
Regional differences
differences in
in
monitoring the
atmospheric deposition
deposition of metals.
contaminent deposition
deposition across
across Canada were
contaminent
were found for arsenic and selenium
selenium
(Glooschenko and Arafat
Arafat 1988)
1988) and
and cadmium
cadmium (Glooschenko
(Glooschenko1989).
1989). Smelters
Smelters
were the main
main source
source of
of these
these potential
potential contaminants.
contaminants. Other negative impacts
on boreal
boreal peatland
peatland ecosystems
ecosystems include
include highway
highway and powerline
powerline construction
(Sims
1981).
(Sims and Stewart 1981).
Atlantic Boreal Wetland
Wetland Region
Region
The
Atlantic Boreal
Boreal Wetland
Wetland Region
Region (BA)
(BA) differs
differs from
from the
the continentalcontinentalThe Atlantic
BL Wetland
Wetland Regions
Regions (Fig.
(Fig. 6).
6).
influenced
influencedclimates
climatesofofthe
the BH,
BH, BM
BM and BL
Damman (1977)
has shown
Damman
(1977) has
shown that
that maritime-influenced
maritime-influenced climates
climates have
have higher
higher
precipitation
lower evapotranevapotranprecipitation (including
(including fog),
fog), lower
lower summer
summer temperatures, lower
spiration, longer
growing seasons,
seasons, and
and an
an erratic snow
spiration,
longer growing
snow cover. This leads to
Sphagnum
aa higher
higher moisture
moisture surplus
surplus and
and subsequent
subsequent higher
higher growth
growth rate
rate of
of Sphagnum
mosses.
mosses. This
This often
often results
results in
in large
large accumulations
accumulations of
of peat
peat in
in large
large domes.
domes. In
other areas the high precipitation levels allow
allow the formation
formation of peat even on
sloping
sloping land surface.
A study
in peatlands
peatlands located
located near
near
A
study was
was made
made on
on primary
primary productivity
productivity in
Schefferville,
(Bartsch and
Schefferville,Quebec
Quebeclocated
locatedon
onthe
the Quebec/Labrador
Quebec/Labrador border (Bartsch
dominated system,
system, above-ground
above-ground productivity
productivity
Moore
Carex dominated
Moore 1984).
1984).In
In the
the Carex
2
1
Decomposition was
was also
also measured
measured by
114 to
to 335
335ggM
m--2 yr
by
ranged
yr-- I •. Decomposition
ranged from 114
litterbags
measured over
65% of
of
litterbagsand
and losses
lossesof
of6.4
6.4 to
to 26.6%
26.6% were
were measured
over aa year, 65%
which occurred
occurred over
over winter.
winter. Tissue quality was found to influence decomposiwhich
tion more
more than
than pH or
tion
or temperature.
temperature. Nutrient
Nutrient release
release was
was slow
slow with
with the
the
following
followingdecreasing
decreasingorder:
order:KK>> Mg
Mg >> Ca
Ca >
> N,P.
459
459
Figure 13.
13. Two
Two large
domed
g s with
Figure
large do
med ho
bogs
with crescent
-s haped pools.
centra l Newfoundland
Newfoundl a nd (Atlantic
(Atlantic
crescent-shaped
pools. central
Boreall Wetland
Borea
We tland Region).
R egi o n ).
Domed bogs
bogs
Do med bogs
bogs are
are large
large (usually
(usually 500
500 m
m diameter)
di a meter) circular
circular to
to elliptical
elliptical bogs
bogs
Domed
at rises
ra l me
tres above
undin g terrain
with aa convex
with
convex surface
surface th
that
rises seve
several
metres
above the
the surro
surrounding
terrain..
ce ntre drains
dra ins in
in all
all directions.
direc tion s. Several
Several forms
forms have
ha ve been
been found,
found, differing
dift'ering
The centre
from
in the
th e presence
pre sence and
and disposition
di sposition of
of small
sma ll pools, and
and in
in the
the
from one
one another in
th e dome.
dome. On
Onconcentric
concen tri cdomed
domedbogs,
bogs ,small
sm allcrescentic
crescentic pools
pools occur
occur
shape of the
arou nd the
the centre
centre w
which
gh est pa
rt of
e dome.
dome. If the
the summit
summit of
around
hick isis the
the hi
highest
part
of th
the
th e dome
dom e is
is off-centre,
off-ce ntre, the
the pools
poo ls form
form an
a n eccentric
eccentric pattern
p attern (Glaser
(Glaser and
and
the
Jan ssens 1986,
1986, Foster
Foster and Glaser
Glaser 1986).
1986). Atlantic
Atlantic plateau
platea u bogs
bogs are
are raised
raise d
Janssens
bogs that have
have aa flat
flat surface,
surface , often
often with
with aa number
number of
of pools
pools (Fig.
(Fig. 13).
13).
It was
was found
found that
that the
th econvexity
convexity of
ofdomed
dom ed bogs
bogsincreases
increases with
.vith increased
increased
It
we tn ess of the
th e climate
climate (Damman
(Damman 1986)
t986) thus
thus differing
diffe rin g from
from domed
domed bogs
bogs
wetness
elsewhere in
in Canada
Canada where
where drier
drier climatic
climatic conditions
conditions prevail.
preva il. For
For each
eachcliclielsewhere
mati c condition
condition there
th e reisisaamaximum
maximurnconvexity
convexity(critical
(critical profile).
profile) .ItIfthe
theconvexconvexmatic
ity is
is below
below the
th e critical
criti ca l profile,
profil e, the
th e water
water table
ta ble will
will be
be near
near the
the surface
surface of
of
ity
the
the bog
bog centre.
centre. This
This situation
situation exists
ex ists on
on those
those domed
domed and
and plateau
plate a u bog
bog that
that
have
a
lar
ge
number
of
pools.
have a large number of pool s.
Several studies
studies have
have been
bee n made
m ade on
o nAtlantic
Atlanticdomed
domedbogs.
bogs.Damman
Damman(1977)
(1977)
Several
bogs along
along the
the Bay
Bay of
ofFundy
FundyininNew
NewBrunswick
Brunswick and
andfound
found
studie d raised
raised bogs
studied
four main
main groups
groups of
of plant
plant communities:
communities: 1)
1) dwarf
dwarf shrub
shrub heaths
heathsdominated
dominatedby
by
four
ericaceous
shrubs
including
e ri caceous shrubs including Gavlussacia
Caylu.ssacia baccata,
baccata , Kalmia
Kalmia angustifolia,
angustifolia ,EmpeEmpe-
460
S. fuscum,
trum nigrum,
nigrum, Rubus
Rubus chamaemorus,
chamaemorus. and
and Sphagnum,
Sphagnum. mainly
mainly S.
fuscum, 2)
trum
and solid
in the wet
Scirpus cespitosus
cespitosus lawns
lawns and
solid Sphagnum
Sphagnum carpets
carpets occurring
occurring in
wet
Scirpus
parts of bogs
bogs where the water
water table
table reaches
reaches above
above the
thesurface.
surface. 3)
3)extremely
extremely
nutrient-poor fens
fens with
with such
such species as Eriophorum
Eriophorum angustifolium,
angustifolium. Smilacina
Smilacina
nutrient-poor
ericaceous shrubs,
shrubs, and
trifolia. Myrica
Myrica gale,
various species
species of Sphagnum,
Sphagnum, ericaceous
trifolia,
gale, various
laricina, and 4) mud
mud bottom
bottom communities
communities that
that occupy
occupy wet
wet
occasionally Larix laricina.
Sphagnum cuspidatum
depressions and contain Sphagnum
cuspidatum and Rhynchospora
Rhynchospora alba
alba or a
depressions
Utricularia cornuta—Cladopodiella
cornuta-Cladopodiella fluitans
ftuitans community. Damman and Dowhan
(1981)
also described
described the
the vegetation
vegetation of
of aa plateau
(1981) also
plateau bog on the southern
southern Nova
Nova
Scotia coast.
differed from
from the
the Bay
Bay of
of Fundy
Fundy bogs
bogs mainly
mainly in
in the
the
Scotia
coast. This
This bog differed
presence of coastal
coastal plain
plain disjunct
disjunct species.
species.
The domed
domed bogs
bogs along
along the St.
St. Lawrence
Lawrence River
River (Gauthier
(Gauthier and
and Gandtner
Gandtner
1975)
groenlandicum, ChamaeChamae1975) are
are dominated by Kalmia angustifolia, Ledum groenlandicum,
Vaccinium
angustifolium.
daphne
calyculata, and
main peat-forming
peat-forming
The main
and Vaccinium angustifolium. The
daphne calyculata,
magellanicum, S.
S. rubellum,
and S.
S. nemoreum.
mosses
Sphagnum magellanicum,
rubellum, and
nemoreum. In
mosses are
are Sphagnum
Labrador, the
the vegetation
vegetation of domed bogs
bogs showed three distinct noda (Foster
and
Glaser 1986).
1986). The
stellaris, Cladonia
Cladoniarangiferina—Kalmia
rangiferina-Kalmia
Cladonia stellaris,
and Glaser
The Cladonia
angustifolia
nodum was
was characterized,
characterized, in
addition to these
these species,
species, by
by
in addition
angustifolia nodum
Chamaedaphne
calyculata, Ledum groenlandicum and
and some
some Picea
Picea mariana
mariana..
Chamaedaphne calyculata,
was the
the dominant
moss. The
The Sphagnum
Sphagnum
dominant moss.
rubellumSphagnum rubellumSphagnum fuscum
fuscum was
Scirpus cespitosus nodum contained these species
species and Chamaedaphne calyculand Androata, Eriophorum
Eriophorum spissum,
spissum, Carex
Carex limnosa,
limnosa, Sphagnum
Sphagnum tenellurn,
tenellum. and
to Scirpus cespitosus
meda glaucophylla.
cespitosus nodum
The Sphagnum linderbergii to
glaucophylla. The
Eriophorum spissum,
contained
spissum, Cladopodiella
Cladopodiella fluitans,
ftuitans.
contained these
these species
species and
and Eriophorum
Andromeda glaucophylla,
glaucophylla. and
and Chamaedaphne calyculata.
Slope bogs
Slope bogs
bogs are
are wetlands
that occur
occur on
on slopes
slopes (up
(up to
Slope
wetlands that
to 15%
15% slopes)
slopes) in the
the
maritime
Newfoundland (Wells
bogs have
have a
maritime climate
climate of Newfoundland
(Wells 1981).
1981). These
These slope
slope bogs
relatively
cover that seldom exceeds 2 m,
water table
table is
is at
at
relatively thin
thin peat cover
m, but the water
or very close
close to the
the surface.
surface. The
The peat
peatmaterials
materials indicate
indicate fen
fen conditions
conditions at
at
the
but later
later changing
changing to
to bog
bog as
as peat
peat has
hasaccumulated.
accumulated. These
These slope
slope
the base, but
bogs
similar in vegetation
vegetation composition
composition to
to those
those previously
previously discussed
discussed in
in
bogs are similar
the Atlantic Subarctic
Subarctic Wetland Region.
Region .
Salt
Atlantic Boreal Canada
Salt marshes
marshes of Atlantic
Salt
the Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean
Ocean in
in the
the Atlantic
Atlantic
Salt marshes
marshes occur
occur along
along the
the coast
coast of
of the
Boreal
(OA). which
which
Boreal Wetland Region.
Region. The Atlantic Oceanic Wetland Region (OA),
is
of New
New Brunswick,
Brunswick, Nova
Nova Scotia,
Scotia, and
and Newfoundland
Newfoundland (Fig.
(Fig .
is found
found in parts of
6), also has similar salt marsh vegetation and will
will be discussed in this section.
The salt
salt marshes
of the
the Atlantic
Atlantic Coast
Coast of
of Canada
Canada represent
represent the
the northern
The
marshes of
limits
S. A. and
marshes of
of the
the east
east coast
coast of
of the
the U.
U.S.A.
Spartina alterniflora
alterniflora marshes
limits of
of the
the Spartina
461
401
Fiore
Saltt marsh
Nova Scoti
Scotia.
Tall grass
grass near
near tidal
Figure 14.
1-+. Sal
marsh in
in southwestern
sout hweste rn Nova
a . Tall
tidal creek
cree k is
is Sl'llrrill{l
Spa
alterniflora (Atlantic
(Atlantic Boreal
o/rcrnijloT(l
Boreal Wetland
VVetland Region).
Region ).
G
ulf of Mexico
M ex ico (Ch
a pm a n 1974).
1974). The Canadian
Cana d ian salt
sa lt marshes
m arsh es were
were previously
previo usly
Gulf
(Chapman
reviewed
revie
wed bbyy Glooschenko
G loosche nk o (1980b,
(1980b, 1982),
1982) . Roberts
R o berts and
and Robertson
Robe rtson(1.986)
(1 986) and
an d
Glooschenko
et al. (1988).
shows a typical Spa
G
loosche nko et
( 1988). Figure 14
14 shows
rlina alterniflora
alterniflora sa
lt
Spartina
salt
marsh.
m a rshes are
a re quite
q uite different
diffe re nt in
i n species
species composition
compositi o n than
th an those
th ose
m a rsh . These
T hese marshes
in the subarctic
in
sub a rctic or
o r Pacific
P acific Coastal areas.
a reas.
Th
B ay of Fundy was
was one
o ne of the
th e first
fir st areas
a reas of
of salt marsh
marsh in
in North
North America
Am erica
Thee Bay
be studied
studi e d (Ganong
(Ga nong 1903).
1903). The
Th e low
low marsh
m a rsh in
in this
this area
area isis dominated
d o min ated by
by
to be
Spartina (therm:flora,
Spar/ina
alrernif lora , whi
le the high
hi gh marsh
m a rsh is
is characterized
charac te ri ze d by
by Spar/ina
atens,
while
Spartina ppatens,
timonium caroliniatan,
caro linianllm.Salicornia
Salico rnia europaea,
europaea. Suaeda
Slia edamaritimia,
maritirnia ,Atriplex
Atrip lex
Limoniwn
panda,
paw/a. Plantago
Planrago niaritima,
maritima ,Puccinellia
Pu ccin ellia lucida , Trigloc
hin maritirna,
Glau.,;;:
Triglochin
maritima, Chita.
maritima,, aand
nd Hordeum
H ordeum jllbatllm.
th e landward
la ndward edge, ]uncus
maririma
jubattun. At the
Juncus gerardii and
J.
1. balticus
halticus may
m ay be present,
present , and
and this
thi s can
can give
give way
way to
to either
e ith erfreshwater
freshwa te r marsh
ma rsh
or
studied
the
area.
o r bog. Chapman
C ha pm an (1937)
(1937) aalso
lso studi
ed th
e ar
ea. Further
Fur the r north
north at
a t Cape
Cape Breton
Bre to n
Island,
Nichols
(1918)
noted
similar
vegetation,
but
also
reported
lls
lsla nd. Nichol s (19] 8) no ted si mil a r vege ta tio n , but also r e ported Scirp
Sci.irpus
paludosus
hum/Pisa. T
palu dos us and
and Stellaria
Stella ria hwnifusa.
hese two
two species
spec ies are
a re more
m o re common
comrnon in
in
These
boreal salt
salt marshes.
marshes.
Sa lt marshes
marsh es occur
a lo ng the
th e St.
St. Lawrence
Lawre nce River
Ri ve r in
in Quebec.
Qu e bec. The
Th e low
low
Salt
occur along
marsh
m arsh is dominated again
aga in by
by Spartina
Sparlina altertnflora
al[emij/ora which
whi ch is
place d landward
la ndwa rd
is re
replaced
by
Spartina
patens
uncus
balticus - .Junclls
and a
a .1
lun
cu5 balticlls
gerardii zo
ne. This can
can
by Sprmina patens and
Juncus gerardii
zone.
give
way to
to aa freshwater
give way
fr eshwa te r marsh
m arsh (Reed
(Reed and
a nd Moisan
Moisan 1971).
1971). Pans
P ans can
can be
be found
found
in the
th e marsh with Salicornia
Sa licom ia europaea and
a nd ponds
po nds occur with Ruppia maritima.
m aritima.
462
462
Forbs also
also can
can be
be prevalent
prevalent in
in the
the middle regions of the marsh. The Iles-deForbs
lles-dela-Madeleine in the Gulf of St.
St. Lawrence have a similar salt marsh vegetation.
vegetation,
la-Madeleine
Spartina patens
patens isis absent
but Spartina
absent (Grandtner
(Grandtner 1966).
but
1966).
The coastlines
and Prince Edward
The
coastlines of New
New Brunswick
Brunswick and
Edward Island
Island are
are characcharacterized by
by salt
develop on
on sandy
in the
the lee
terized
salt marshes
marshes which
which develop
sandy sediments
sediments in
lee of
of
barrier islands
She described
described three
three zones
barrier
islands (Lucas
(Lucas 1980).
1980). She
zones of vegetation.
vegetation. The
first
of
these
is
the
low
marsh
which
colonizes
the
shoreline
first of these
the low marsh which colonizes the shoreline and
and occurs
occurs in
in
wet depressions.
depressions. Spartina
Spartina alterniflora
alterniflora isis the
wet
dominant species.
species . At
At slightly
slightly
the dominant
higher elevations,
elevations, which
which are
are protected from wave
higher
wave activity,
activity, Salkornia
Salicornia europatula, and
and Suaeda
Suaeda spp.
paea, Atriplex
Atriplex patula,
spp. are
are present.
present. In
In barer
barer areas,
areas, Triglochin
Triglochin
and
maritima
Plantago
maritima
maritima and Plantago maritima are
Above the
the height
height of
of daily
daily
are also
also present. Above
flooding,, Spartina
Spartina patens
patens isis the
main species
species which
which is found in
in aa meadowmeadowflooding
the main
like,, high marsh setting. Species
Species including
including Glaw:
like
Glaux maritima, Potentilla anserina, Carex paleacea, Scirpus
americanus, Eleocharis spp
ina,
Scirpus americanus,
., and
spp.,
and Scirpus
Scirpus maritimus are
imus
the latter
latterspecies
species occurring
occurring in
in pools.
pools. This
This gives
gives way
way
are also present, the
with Festuca
to a community
community with
palustris ,Agrostis
Agrostis alba,
alba ,Puccinellia
Puccinellia
Festuca rubra,
rubra, Poa palustris,
maritima, and
and Juncus
maritima,
gerardii. Juncus
Juncus balticus
balticus appears
the edge
edge of this
this
Juncus gerardii.
appears at
at the
zone along with several other species.
species. If
If freshwater
freshwater inputs
inputs are
are high,
high, aa marsh
marsh
with Spartina pectinata
with
lati/olia, and
validus is
pectinata,, Typha latifolia,
and Scirpus
Scirpus validus
is present.
marshes in
in Newfoundland
Newfoundland and
and Labrador
Labrador have
have been
been described
described by
by
Salt
Salt marshes
Thannheiser (1981).
Thannheiser
(1981). Spartina
alterniflora-dominated salt
marshes occur
occur as
as
Spartina alterniflora-dominated
salt marshes
previously
Atlantic Coast
Coast of Canada.
Canada. In
previously described
describedfor
forother
other parts
parts of
of the
the Atlantic
other
areas, where
wheresome
somefreshwater
freshwaterinfluence
influence occurs,
occurs, the
thecolonizing
colonizing species
species
other areas,
are Eleocharis
halophila and
and E
E.. parvula.
are
Eleocharis halophila
parvula. In
the
'higher
portions
of
these
In the higher portions of these
marshes,
other species
that occur
marshes, other
species that
occur include
include Triglochin
gaspense, Potentilla
Potentilla
Triglochin gaspense,
egedii, Carex
Carex paleacea,
paleacea , Carex
Carex subspathacea,
subspathacea, C.
C. salina,
salina ,Plantago
Plantagomaritima,
maritima,
egedii,
Ranunculus
and Puccinellia
Ranunculus cymbalaria,
cymbalaria, and
Puccinellia paupercula
these species
species
paupercula.. Some
Some of these
are common
common in
in boreal
boreal salt
salt marshes
marshes and
and itit appears
appears that
that Newfoundland
Newfoundland reprerepretransition area
area in
in terms
termsof
ofsalt
saltmarsh
marshvegetation.
vegetation.The
Theabove-ground
above-ground
sents a transition
primary production
production of a Spartina alterniflora
alterniflora salt marsh in
in Nova
Nova Scotia
Scotia was
was
2
measured at
at 710
710 g ITI
m -2
- by Hatcher and
and Mann
Mann (1975).
(1975) . This
This value
value is
is higher
higher
measured in
in some
some Atlantic
Atlantic coast
coast marshes
marsheslocated
located further
furthersouth.
south .
than measured
Continental Prairie Wetland
Wetland Region (PC)
climate of
of the
theContinental
ContinentalPrairie
PrairieWetland
WetlandRegion
Region(Fig.
(Fig.6)6)isissemi-arid
semi-arid
The climate
cold winters
winters and
and hot
hot summers
summers (Table
(Table 3).
3). Marshes
Marshesare
arethe
themain
mainwetland
wetland
with cold
type and
and are
areusually
usuallyassociated
associated with
with semi-permanent
semi-permanent ponds.
ponds . Two
Two wetland
wetland
type
districts are
are present
present -- the
the Aspen
AspenParkland
ParklandContinental
ContinentalPrairie
Prairie Wetland
Wetland ReRedistricts
gion and
and the
the Grassland
Grassland Continental
ContinentalPrairie
PrairieWetland
WetlandDistrict
District (Zoltai
(Zoltai1980).
1980) .
gion
A comprehensive
comprehensive review
review of
of prairie
prairie wetlands
wetlands can
canbe
befound
foundininAdams
Adams(1988)
(1988)
A
and
and the
the book
bookof
ofvan
vander
derValk
Valk(1989).
(1989) .
463
463
fissure
15. A
Aerial
Figu
re 15.
t: rial view
view of typical
typical potholes
potholes surrounded
surrounded by
by intensive
int ensive agricultu
agriculture
Weila nd
re in
in PC
PC Wetland
Re g ion near
Region
ncar Saskatoon.
Sas katoon, Saskatchewan.
Sas katchewa n.
In terms of
In
of relief,
relief, the
the Pleistocene
Pleistocen e glaciation
glaciation left
left aa legacy
legacy of
of millions
millions of
small depressions
known as
as potholes
small
depressions knov\'O
potholes or sloughs
sloughs (Fig.
(Fig. 15).
15). Sizes
Sizes of
of these
these
potholes can
can vary from
from several
several metres in
in diameter
diameter to
to small
smal1 lakes
lakes of
ofseveral
several
hundred hectares.
hectares. The
The area
area is
is known
known as
as the prairie
prairie pothole
pothole region
region and
and covers
covers
some 750
750 x 103
lOy km
km 22 in
in south-central
south-central Canada
Canada and
and the
the adjacent
adjacent north-central
north-central
United
United States
States (Walker
(Walker and
and Coupland
Coupland 1970).
1970). Water
\Vater chemistry
chemistry in the
the area
area
varies from
varies
from freshwater
freshwater to highly
highly saline conditions.
conditions. The
The vegetation
vegetation of
of saline
saline
potholes will
will be discussed
discussed later
later in
in this
this section.
section.
The main difference between
the Aspen Parkland Continental
behvecn the
Continental Prairie
Prairie and
and
Grassland Continental
Continental Prairie
Prairiedistricts
districts isis the
the type
type of
of vegetation
vege tation that
that surrounds
surrounds
the potholes.
potholes. In
In the
the former
former area,
area,aasurrounding
surroundingborder
borderofofthicket
thicketswamp
swampcan
can
occur
as Salix
occur with
with such
such dominant
dominant species
spe cies as
Salix bebbiand„S.
bebbiana, S . discolor,
discolor, and
and S.
S.
petiolaris.
periolaris . In the latter
latter area,
area .various
various herbaceous
herbaceouswet
\-vetmeadow
meadowspecies
speciesform
form the
the
surrounding vegetation.
vegetation. Prairie
Prairie pothole
pothole vegetation
vegetation usually
lI sually occurs
occurs in
in bands
bands or
zones
zones which can be correlated with
with depth and
and duration
duration of
ofsubmergence
submergence (Fig,
(Fig ,
16).
16). Millar (1969)
(1969) describes four
four main
main zones
zones in
in wetland
wetlandbasins.
basins .'These
Theseare.:
are :
a.
a. Wet
Wet meadow
meadow zone
zone -- submerged
submerged for
for aa very
very short
short period
period of
of time
time in
in the
the
spring
spnng with
with grasses
grasses such
such as
as flordeum
Hordeum jubatuni
jubafunl and
,md Poa palustrispahlstn:5 and
and
fortis.
forbs.
464
tiSitI111 WILLIS '9f
Figure }6. Small marsh near Saskat()(1Il. Saskatc hewan. Note
Salix tree on edge (PC \Vetia nd
pliriL3m
Dlipa tfo Galt
xy.t:/s"oLON 'LLL3AvDtpl '1.1001MISPS
R(',!!iol1 ) ,
• cupyo,t
-vllojimi myliki SP
tpliS sltra aura 3SJP03 111 -1 :Cd portla p
uluto "S1133,1 OM Lit 131111.41 qz}noito
p3fu;:micins JO LIOSPOS
Lit ‘.7)11q Lunn papoou :Cuttutiou - auoz LIS/MU
&OU
'Sdpaid/pD xiOn3
pLIP -.C/p/ia/4'3' i)/./dAL-kr) 'Vd,)/9.)111.Vdi . tOp/30/0.N SP
gans itOtaq ampanuatur
JO aunt Izluta papoou
- 0110.7
.\10111 IS
h . Sh,tllO\v marsh zone - usually flood ed until Jun e or Jul y wi
th grasses of
interm ediate he ight such as Sc%c hlo{/ fest llca cca. Clyce ria grnfl(l
is. and
Ca rex atizao des.
c. Deep marsh zone - norma lly floode d until late in th e seaso n o
r subme rged
throug h wint e r in wet yea rs. Cha racte ri ze d by tall. coa rse e merge
nts sllc h
as Typha lall/o lia, Scirpu s l.'olidllS, a nd S. aClitlls.
d. Oren wat er zo ne - nOfmally flood ed all year round with
subme rged
aquati cs such as species of Poram ogc{o! l. In droug ht years, with drawd
o\\'n
in the su mm e r. a nev, tem pora ry ZO ll e with weedy forb s ca n occ
ur.
The vege tati o n ecolog y of pot ho les ("slou ghs" ) of Saska tchew
an \" 3S
studi ed by 'W alk er and Co upl a nd (196R) . They exami ne d th
e relat ionshi p
be tween herba ceo lls vegeta ti on and el1vi ro nm e nl nl factor s. In
gc neral. the
vege ta ti o n of th ese ecosys tems variecl \\ith \Va te r depth . T he deepe
r potho les
had subme rged and tloa tin g vegeta tio n in the cen tre with such
spec ies as
POfOl7logcion ssp .. Lemn a spp .. ,H vriupf n'illlll1 exa1/wsccns
. and R onunc u!lIs
eireino fl1s being presen t. The e mcrge nts in these deepe
r po nd s includ ed
S'cirpus aClIfus . S . mlidu s . T\pha /a!i{o/ia. nnd Sc%ch /()(I fesrllc
acca. Shelllower potho les v,'e re dom inat ed by Carex arhao des . G/vce
ria grand is. SlullI
suave . and P olygon /un spp. The marshes grade d into a meadc
J\v zo ne com pose d of Calam agrost is in cxspal1sa. Carex lat1 l1gil1osa . Poa
pa/usi ris . and
JO SaSSP.I
gum
putt -Ai vit i nd Lk)," • vs• orit;3'nun i A-Aito . aslityisx
•dt .spsaiStituttito Jo pasod
-tuna auoz mopeaw
papuni SalSJ.1111
•dds ut1nta3:1 -jo at putt 'a.ttms
units' ,s'iptitt..d
ssap(aidifin Ydd0,")
patuunuop a_tam saioLpod 13A.1,01
LIS 'vdivinisal voppoio3s• 111.113 'ollojtivi
.sfripyD.1. S' `,C11/11,,W SlubDS'
papnput spuod Jadaap osatit ut slua'S.tawa 3L./1 'LLIC)Sald
yninuodL)
slipimmiwy put? -sliadsacipLia -•dds mitad7 ' • dss tioia,',?ectimod
samads [pus Littm
.)14.1 ut L1011P13 .1bA Junuou pue pakliawcins pal
sofoutod 10(130p Z)Lij_. 'LILLbp Jalum totm pauttA sutatsA:sor
ya asatil JO uotimaiiaA
'SJO1OPJ IP1LIOLL111011ALM puts uotmaii'aA snoaautpati uaamtaq
dnisuottuial
pautturxa /aLLL • 961) puuldnoD pur
Lempalpnls
sum uumat.plulsus JO LsOnols_) saiotitod to rCiloao:),) uoputa'LiaA
• InaDo utt p"Cpaam gum auoz mau u -Joununs atp ut
umopmelp unm 's.nta.0 twin°.
.1101,4ottanod Jo sataads su tlans snipunbe
par3latutins gum punol papoou :CuutuJou
auoz _totem uado •p
p1m
465
465
Juncusspp
spp.. Major
Major factors
factors in
inthe
the environment
environment influencing
influencingvegetation
vegetation included
included
Juncus
disturbance and
and water
water level
fluctuation,
both within
disturbance
\evel fluctuation
, both
within and
and between
between growing
growing
seasons, and
and salinity.
salinity. Soil
Soil data
data showed
showed very
very little influence
seasons,
influence on species distribution.
bution .
Walker and
and Coupland
Coupland (1970)
further investigated
Walker
(1970) further
investigated the vegetation
vegetation associassociations in
in the
ations
the aspen
aspen grove
grove and
and grassland
grassland regions
regions of
of Saskatchewan.
Saskatchewan . They
They
identified 27
27vegetation
vegetation groups:
groups; major
major factors
factors of
of environmental
environmental interest were
identified
again water
water level,
level, water
water salinity,
salinity, and
and disturbance.
and Wehrhahn
again
disturbance. Walker
Walker and
Wehrhahn
(1971) investigated
investigated vegetation-environment
vegetation-environment interactions
interactions in
in Saskatchewan
(1971)
Saskatchewan
wetlands in
in more
more detail.
detail. The
The most
most important
important factor
factor in determining
determining variation
variation
wetlands
was salinity,
salinity, followed
followed in
in decreasing
decreasing order
order by
by nutrient status, water relations
was
relations
of the
the substrate,
substrate, and reducing conditions in
in the soil.
soil. Vegetational data analyof
sis produced
produced various
various indicators
indicators of
of environmental
environmental conditions.
conditions. For
For example,
sis
example,
the following
following species
species were
were indicators
indicators of
of stable,
stable, non-disturbed environments:
the
environments:
Carex atherodes
atherodes,
Lemna minor,
minor, L. trisulca,
Carex
, Lemna
trisulca, Carex
Carex rostrata,
rostrata , and
and Utricularia
Utricularia
vulgaris.
On
the
other
hand,
vulgaris. On the other hand , Eleocharis
Eleocharis palustris,
palustris, Glyceria
Glyceria grandis
grandis,, Beckmannia syzigachne,
aequalis, and
and Sium
nia
sYl.igachne, Alopecurus
Alopecurus aequalis-,
indicators of
Sium suave
suave were
were indicators
disturbed conditions.
Millar (1973)
(1973) studied
studied the
the response
response of wetland vegetation in Saskatchewan
Millar
to
water regime
regime over
over aa ten
ten year
year period.
period . The
Themoisture
moisture regimes
regimes of
of such
such
to water
vary from
from year to year depending upon
wetlands can vary
upon variations
variations in
in snow
snow melt,
melt,
summer precipitation,
summer
precipitation, and
and evaporation.
evaporation . Shallow-marsh
Shallow-marsh emergent
emergent species
species
such as
as Carex
Carex atherodes, Polygonum
festucacea, and
such
Polygonum coccineum,
coccineum , Scolochloa
Scolochloa !estucacea,
Eleocharis palustris decreased in abundance when greater than normal water
water
was present
present at
at the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the growing
growing season.
season . IfIfthis
thisoccurred
occurred
depth was
for more
more than
than two
two successive
successive years, i.e.,
i.e. , continual
continual flooding,
flooding, the
the emergent
emergent
for
cover was
eliminated and
and open water resulted.
was eliminated
resulted . This
This also
also required
required repeated
repeated
autumnal reflooding.
reflooding. Basins
Basins subjected to
to grazing
grazing by
by cattle
cattle produced
produced characcharacteristic disturbance vegetation.
vegetation. In
In terms
terms of
of indicator
indicator species,
species, the
the presence
presence of
of
small amounts of deep
deep water
water emergents
emergents in
in shallow
shallow marshes
marshes was
was not
not found
found
to
to be
be an
an indicator
indicator of
of aawetter
wetter moisture
moisture regime.
regime .The
Thepresence
presence of
ofsubmergent
submergent
rooted aquatics
aquatics though
though did
did reflect
reflect the
the amount
amount of
of year-round
year-round flooding.
flooding . Here,
Here ,
rooted
Potamogeton
gramineus
Potamogeton gramineus occurred
occurred without
without year-round
year-round flooding,
flooding, while Utricularia
laria vulgaris
vulgaris usually
usuali y required
required some
some year-round
year-round flooding.
flooding . Two
Two or
or more
moreyears
years
of
of continuous
continuous flooding
flooding were
were required
required by
by Ranunculus
Ranunculus spp.
spp. and Potamogeton
Potamogeton
pusillus
pusillus while
while good,
good, reliable
reliable indicators
indicators of
of several
several years
years of
offlooding
flooding were
were
Potamogeton
Potamogeton pectinatus,
pectinatus, Myriophyllum
Myriophyllum spp.,
spp ., and
and Ceratophyllum
Cerarophyllum demersum.
demersum .
Wetland size
size is
is also
also an
an important
important control
control on
onvegetation.
vegetation. Wetlands
Wetlands of
ofless
less
Wetland
than 0.41
0.41 ha
hausually
usually have
have aarestricted
restrictedmoisture
moistureregime
regimeregardless
regardless of
ofdepth,
depth,
than
and
and vegetation
vegetation isis limited
limited to
to shallow
shallow water
water or
ordrier
drierconditions
conditionsunless
unless abnorabnormally
mally high
high surface
surface or
or groundwater
groundwater inflow
inflow occurs.
occurs. Wetlands
Wetlands of
of larger
larger area
area
466
with
er than approx
with depths
depths shallow
shallower
approximately
limited to
to shallow
shallow
imatel y 90 cm are usually limited
marsh
vegeta
tion. In additio
n, arid
arid areas
areas usually
marsh vegetation.
addition,
usually have
have more
more stable
stable vegetation
vegetation
in
basins than
in large
large deep
deep basins
than in
in the aspen parklands.
parkla nds.
The
ecology of plant communities
comm unities associated
The ecology
associated with
with shallow oxbow
oxbow lakes
lakes in
in
centra
l
Albert
a was
was studied
studied by van
van der
central Alberta
upon
der Valk
Valk and
and Bliss
Bliss (1971).
(1971). Based
Based upon
phytos
ociological analys
es, they
phytosociological
analyses,
they identif
identified
communities.
ied 12
12 plant comm
unities. Three
Three comcommuniti
es consis
ted of
munities
consisted
of subme
submerged
plants:: 1)
1) Potam
rged plants
ogeron pectin
Potamogeton
pectinatus,
atus, 2)
2) mixed
subme
rged and
submerged
and 3) Potamogeton
Potamogeton pectinatus
pectinatus —
Ceratophyllum
demersum.
- Ceraro
phyllum demer
sum. Two
comm
unities
were
domin
ated by
communities
dominated
by floating-leaved
floating-leaved plants: 4)
4) Nupha
variegatum
Nupharr variegatum
and
and 5)
Potamogeron natans
5) Potamogeton
natans.
. Four
emerg ent communities
communities were
Four emergent
were found:
found: 6)
6)
Equise
tum
ile, 7)
Equisetum fluviat
fluviatile,
7) Eleoch
Eleocharis
palustris,
aris palustr
is, 8)
8) Typha
latifoli
Typha latifolia,
a. and
and 9) Alisma
plantago-aquatica. Three
plantago-aquatica.
meado w communities
comm unities were
Three meadow
were present:
presen t: including
including 10)
10)
CarexAcorus calamu
Carex-Acorus
calamus,
s. 11)
-Bryoid and
11) Carex
Carex-Bryoid
and 12)
12) Acoru
ealamus-Sonchus
Acoruss calamus-Sonchus
uligino
uliginosus.
sus. Water
chemistry and water level
level fluctuations
Water chemistry
fluctuations caused
caused by
by periodic
period ic
floodin
g
were
found
be the
the most
most important
flooding were found to
to be
impor tant environmental
enviro nment al factors
factors concontrolling species
species succession.
succession.
Anoth
er major
major wetland
wetland area of the Canadian
Canad ian prairies
Another
prairies is the Delta
Delta Marsh,
Marsh ,
aa 15,000
15,000 ha
system
at
the
rn end of
ha system at the southe
southern
of Lake
Lake Manitoba
Manit oba consisting
consisting of
of open
open
water.
ls. and emergent
emerg ent vegetation
vegeta tion (Shay
water, channe
channels,
(Shay 1983).
1983). Dominant
Domin ant emergents
emerg ents
in
the area
in the
area are
are Phragm
ites austra
Phragmites
australis,
Typha spp
lis, Typha
spp.,
and Scirpu
.• and
s acutus
Scirpus
acutus.
. Wet
meadows are
meadows
are domin
dominated
ated by Scoloc
hloa festucacea
Scolochloa
festucacea and
and Carex
Carex athero
atherodes
des while
subme
rgent aquati
cs includ
submergent
aquatics
include
e mainly
mainly Potam
ogeron peetin
atus, P. vaginatus,
Potamogeton
pectinatus,
vaginatus,
and
and Myriophyllum
Myriophyllum exalbescens.
exalbeseens. These
marsh es are
are very
very sensitive
These marshes
to water
sensitive to
level.
For
examp
le.
in
1955,
level. For example, in 1955, a very high natural
natura l water
water level
level killed
killed thousands
thousa nds
of
es of
tion, but water levels fell
of hectar
hectares
of vegeta
vegetation,
and
four
years
later
fell
later emergent
emerg ent
domin
ants had returned.
dominants
return ed.
One
of the
the most
most important
impor tant ecological
ecological processes
One of
processes in
in freshwater
freshwater wetlands
wetlan ds is
is
that
of succession.
succession. A qualitative
qua,litative model
model of
that of
this
process
was
developed
of this process was develo ped by
by van
van
der
Valk (1981),
(1981 ),takin
g into
in't o account
accoun t three
der Valk
taking
three major
major life
life history
history attributes:
attribu tes: lifelifespan,
propag
ule
longev
ity.
propag ule establishment
span, propagule longevity, and
and propagule
establishment requirements.
requir ement s. The
The
author
d this
the Delta
author has
has applie
applied
this model
model to
to the
Delta Marsh
Marsh located
located at the
the southern
southe rn
end
of
Lake
Manit oba. Three
Three main
main vegetation
end of Lake Manitoba.
are present
vegetation types
types are
presen t in
in this
this
marsh:
marsh: Typha
Typha glauco
glauca stands
stands,
, Phrag
mites austral
Phragmites
australis
is stands
, and
stands,
and open water
water
free
emerg ents. Thirteen
Thirte en additional
additio nal species
free of
of emergents.
species were represented
repres ented in
in the
the seed
seed
bank.
The
author
constructed aamodel
modelofofvegetational
bank. The author constructed
vegetationalsuccession
successionassuming
assuming
that
all of
the vegetation
vegetation would be completely
compl etely destroyed
that all
of the
destroyed by flooding,
flooding, then
then aa
drawd
own would
ed by reflood
drawdown
would take place follow
followed
reflooding.
During
drawdown,
ing.
drawd own, mudmudflat
annual
flat annuals
such as
as Atriplex
s such
Atriplex patula
Lycop us asper,
asper, Mentha
patula., Lycopus
PolyMentha arvensis,
arvensis, Polygonum amphibium,
amphi bium. Ranunculus
Ranunculus sceleratus,
seeleratus, Rumex
gonum
maritimus
Rumex mariti
mus and
seedlings
and seedlings
of
of Scirpus
Scirpus validu
s. Tvpha
Typha glauca,
glauco, Sonchus
validus,
Sonehus arvensis,
arvensis. and
and Cirsiu
Cirsium
m arvense
orvense
would
tion. Reflooding
Reflooding would
would form
form the
the vegeta
vegetation.
annuals
would then
then eliminate
eliminate mud-flat
mud-flat annua ls
and
and Typha
Tvpha glauca
glauca would
would be
only emergent
emerg ent remaining.
be the only
remaining. If
If seed
seed dispersal
dispersal
467
467
fromadjacent
adjacentareas
areasoccurred.
occurred,then
thenPhragmiles
from
Phragmitesaustralis
australiscould
couldcolonize
colonizemudmudflats
. Other
flatsduring
duringdrawdown
drawdown.
Otherrelated
relatedstudies
studieson
onthe
the role
role of
of seed
seed banks
banks iIi
in
prairie
prairie wetlands
wetlands include
includevan
vander
der Valk
Valk and
and Davis
Davis (1978)
(1978),, van
van der
der Valk
Valk (1986)
(1986),,
and
Kantrud
et
al.
was
and Kantrud et al. (1989).
(1989).The
The management
management implications
implications of
of seed
seed banks was
reviewed
by
Pederson
and
van
der
Valk
(1985).
reviewed by Pederson and van der
(1985).
The
by Shay
Shay and
and Shay
Shay (1986),
(1986) ,
The ecology
ecology of
of prairie
prairie marshes
marshes was
was studied
studied by
describing
five major species.
species. They
describingthe
the habitats,
habitats, propagation,
propagation, and growth of five
found that
that the
the mean
mean August
August standing
standingcrop
cropofof Phragmites
found
Phragmitesaustralis
australis was
was
812
g
m
812 g m --2
2 , , and
below-ground biomass
and the
the below-ground
biomassaccounted
accountedfor
for69
69 to
to 70%
70% of
of the
total
biomass.
Typha lati/olia
latifolia had
total biomass. Typha
August above-ground
above-ground biomass
biomass of
had an
an August
2
2 ,
2
1,754
g
m
-2
standing dead mass of
g m -2, , of
1,754gm - , aa standing
of 1,224
1,224gmof 233gm
233 g m--2, , and
and roots
roots
2
and
rhizomes
of
2,526
g
m
-2
.
and
of 2,526 m- • The
The above-ground
above-ground biomass
biomass of
of Scirpus
Scirpus glaucus
glaucus
and S.
S. validus
varied from
from a low
and
validus varied
low of
of 94
94 gg M
m -2
to
570
g
m
-2
at
five
sites.
-2 to
M -2 at five sites. S.
S.
glaucus has
glaucus
rhizomes, but
validus
has 82%
82% of
of its
its total
total biomass
biomass in
in roots
roots and
and rhizomes,
but S.
S. validus
allocated 53%
53% of its
its mass
mass to
toroots
roots and
and rhizomes.
rhizomes. S.
allocated
S. maritimus
maririmus had
had aa maximum
maximum
standing crop
-2 , with
standing
crop of
of 625
625 gg m -2,
% of its biomass being below-ground.
with 41
41%
A
classification for
wetlands was
was developed
developed by
by Millar
Millar
A major classification
for the
the prairie wetlands
(1976)
types as wildlife
wildlife habitat
(1976) to
to interpret
interpret the potential of different wetland types
were
and
water resources.
resources. Previous
Previous classification
classification schemes
and as water
schemesfor
for the
the area were
on
two
common
concepts:
the
permanence
of
water
and
the
use
of
based
based
two common concepts: the permanence of water and the
vegetation to determine water permanence.
permanence . Millar
Millar included
included these
these two
two criteria
plus guidelines
guidelines for
interpreting vegetation
vegetation dynamics
dynamics as
as related
related to
to wetland
wetland
plus
for interpreting
classification
better predict
predict longlongclassification and
and use
use of
of physical
physical features
features of
of wetlands
wetlands to better
tenn water regime.
regime. He
He proposed
proposed seven
seven wetland
wetland zones
zones as
as depicted
depicted in
in Fig.
Fig. 17:
17:
term
1. Wet meadow,
meadow, 2. Shallow
Shallow marsh
Transitional
1.
marsh,, 3.
3. Emergent deep marsh, 4. Transitional
open water,
water , 5. Shallow
Shallow open
Open alkali,
alkali, and
and 7.
7. Disturbed
Disturbed -open
open water,
water, 6.
6. Open
zones appear
appear as
as concenconcenincluding cultivated,
cultivated, grazed,
grazed, and drawdown
drawdown.. These zones
shallow open water. They
They follow
follow basin
basin contours
contours and
and reflect
reflect
tric bands around shallow
offlooding.
flooding. Such
Such zones
zones can
can be
be modified
modified ifif
relative depth
depth and
and duration
duration of
the relative
fluctuations occur
widely or ifif human
human disturbance
disturbance takes
takes place.
place .
water fluctuations
occur too
too widely
They
successional sequence
sequence resulting
resulting from
from improving
improving
They are
are also
also related
related inina asuccessional
water
regime.
water regime.
In terms
tenns of
ofphysical
physical features,
features, Millar
Millar incorporates
incorporates wetland
wetland size,
size ,basin
basinoror
In
wetland.depth,
depth, position
position of
of basin
basin in
in the
the watershed,
watershed, and
and origin
origin and
and nature
natureof
of
wetland
alteration of
of the
the wetland.
wetland. The
Thesystem
system proposed
proposedby
byMillar
Millarisisfairly
fairly involved
involved
alteration
and
and the
the reader
reader isis referred
referred to
to the
the original
original paper
paperfor
forfurther
furtherdetails.
details.
The prairies,
prairies, both
both ir•
in ·Canada
Canada and in
in adjacent
adjacent states
states of
of the
the U.S.A.,
U .S.A.,are
are
The
extremely important
importantwaterfowl
waterfowl breeding
breeding habitats.
habitats.Over
Overhalf
halfofofthe
thewaterfowl
waterfowl
extremely
in North
North America
America nest
nest and
and raise
raise their
theiryoung
young in
in the
thegrassland
grassland and
and
breeding in
breeding
aspen parkland
parkland potholes
potholes and
and lakes
laRes that
that are
are located
located in
in the
thesouthern
southernportions
portions
aspen
of
ofAlberta,
Alberta,Saskatchewan,
Saskatchewan , and
and Manitoba
Manitoba (Kiel
(Kiel et
et al.
al. 1972).
1972). It
It isis beyond
beyond the
the
scope of
ofthis
thispaper
papertotodiscuss
discusswildlife
wildlife and
andwaterfowl
waterfowl production
production but
butthe
the
scope
468
WET MEADOW
SHI\LLOV
V M,\HSH
SHALLOW
MARSH
C;.V!VI ·~.
.·~. .·.• .
~
(rim(
M
E ERGENT
DEEP
MARSH EM[RGEN
T DE
[ P MAfiSii
sp,i
OPEN WATER MARSH
•
WM@ .=:» .
.
.
. .
SHALLOW OPE
OPEN
SHALLOW
N WATER
WAH:: I ~
OPEN ALKALI WE LAND
SM
/J
SOL,v
-12)
w
EDm
11 M \
Figure
Figure 17.
17. Wetland
W e tlamJ zonation
zo na tion m
in prairie
prairi ~ marshes
mars hes (fi
g
( figur
~ redrawn
re dr a wn
ure
from Millar
)'vlillar 1976).
F176) .
from
reade r is
is referred
referr ed to
to the
theSaskatoon
Saska toon Wetlands
reader
W e tland s Seminar
Semin ar (Anon
(Anon ymou
1969)
y mouss 1969)
Willa
which is
is an
an excellent
e xce Ll e nt document
docum e nt covering
cove rin g wate
waterf
owl-w
etland
int e ra ction s in
in
rfowl-wetland interactions
the prairies.
prairie s .ivIor
inform ation on
o n this
thi s topic
topi c can
the
Moree information
recent
book
can be
be found
fo und in
in the
th e rece nt book
by
by van
van der
der Valk
V a lk (1989).
(1 989). till
Unfor
fortunatel
tunate ly
agricu ltural activities
y ., agricultural
activit ies are
a re threatening
threat e nin g
sLlch wetlands
wetlan ds as
as will
will be
such
in
this
paper.
be discussed
discus sed later
later in thi s paper.
Iinterm
ounra in Prairie
ntermotowiin
Prairie Welland
W'erland Region
Regio (PI)
n (PI)
The
The In
Inte
rmoun tain Prairie
Prairie Wetland
W et landRegion
Re gion(P1)
( PI )isischaracterized
termountain
charac te rized by
byaasemisemia
rid
climat
e
with
ho
summ ers and
a ndmild
mildwinters
w.i nters(Table
arid climate with hot tsummers
Crable3).
3).Peat
P ea formation
t forma tion
limite d . Marshes,
Marsh es. both
bothfreshwater
freshw ater and
a ndsaline,
sa lin e,are
isis limited.
arethe
themain
mainwetland
wetlan dtype
type
found in
in the
thearea
areaand
andthey
theysurround
surrou ndboth
bothephemeral
found
ephem eraland
a ndsemi-permanent
se mi-pe rma nent
ponds.
ponds. The
The ponds
ponds are
are ccharac
terize d by
byshallow
sha ll owwater
waterwetland
wetlan dclasses.
classe s.Fens
haracterized
Fens
are
also
present.
a re also presen t.
Limite d data
d a taisisavailable
availa bleon
onthe
thewetlands
wetlan dsofofthis
Limited
thi sregion.
region .The
Themain
mainstudy
study
thatofofMoon
Moonand
isisthat
Selby
(1983)
who
and Selby (19~3) who c charac terize d the wetlan ds and soi ls
haracterized the wetlands and soils
469
469
of the
the Cariboo-Chilcotin
Cariboo-Chilcotin region
region of
of interior
interior British
British Columbia.
Columbia. They
They described
described
of
vegetation types:
types:
11 vegetation
1. Aquatic
Aquatic --This
Thisincludes
includesareas
areas of
ofopen
openwater
waterwith
with submerged,
submerged, rooted,
rooted ,
I.
and floating
floating plants
plants such
such as
as Nuphar polysepalum,
polysepalum, Potamogeton
Potamogeton spp.,
Myriophyllum spp.,
spp. , and Utricularia vulgaris.
vulgaris.
Myriophyllum
2. Moss
Moss - Here,
Here ,the
thesoil
soilsurface
surfaceisiscovered
coveredbybybrown
brownmosses,
mosses ,mainly
mainly
spp.,
Eleocharis
Drepanocladus
spp.
An
open
herbaceous
stratum
of
Eleocharis
spp.
An
open
herbaceous
stratum
of
Drepanocladus
Eriophorum spp., Carex lasiocarpa, and Menyanthes trifoliata is present.
glandulosa can
woody shrubs
shrubs including
including Salix
Salix spp.
spp. and Betula
Betula glandulosa
Scattered woody
occur.
OMIT.
in a
3. Cattail
Cattail -- The
The dominant
dominant cover
cover is
is Typha
Typha latifolia,
latifolia, often
often occurring
occurring in
stand. ItItisis found
found ininstanding
standingor
orslow-moving
slow-moving water
water where
where itit can
canbe
be
pure stand.
with aquatic
aquatic species.
species.
found with
Some Typha latifolia
4. Bulrush
Bulrush - The
The dominant
dominant cover
cover is
is Scirpus
Scirpus lacustris. Some
and Carex
mixture.
Carex aquatilis occur in a mixture.
and
5. Horsetail
HorsetailThisvegetation
vegetationcover
covertype
typeisis found
found in
inshallow
shallow standing
standingwater.
water.
- This
Sium suave,
with scattered
scattered Sium
The dominant
dominant species
species is Equisetum fluviatile with
spp.
Lemna
Potentilla
aquatics such
such as Lemna
Potentilla palustris and assorted aquatics
6. Emergent
grasses - This
This zone
zoneisischaracterized
characterizedby
byhydrophytic
hydrophyticgrasses
grasses
Emergent grasses
including
Beckmania syzigachne,
syzigachne,
Alopecurus aequalis, Beckmania
spp., Alopecurus
Glyceria spp.,
including Glyceria
Potamogeton
and
Scolochloa
festucacea
.
Other
plants,
including
Potamogeton
spp.,
including
and Scolochloa festucacea. Other
also occur
occur but
but they
Eleocharis
, and
they are of
of low
low
Carex rostrata,
rostrata, also
Eleocharis spp.
spp.,
and Carex
coverage.
with scattered
Eleocharis palustris
palustris with
7. Spike-rush
dominant species
species is Eleocharis
Spike-rush -- The dominant
Horspp., and
and HorPolygonum
Beckmania syzigachne,
syzigachne , Glyceria
Glyceria spp.,
Polygonum amphibium, Beckmania
deum
deum jubatum.
8. Sedge
This vegetation
vegetation is
is found
found in
in shallow
shallow standing
standing water,
water, especially
especially
Sedge -- This
Carex aquatilis,
aquatilis, C.
C. rosearly
growing season.
early in
in the growing
season. Dominants
Dominants include
include Carex
sedges.
trata,
Mosses may
may also
also occur
occur under the sedges.
trata, and
and C.
C. atherodes.
atherodes. Mosses
9. Shrub-sedge
This
area
has
both
a
herb
and
shrub
(less
than
Shrub-sedge and shrub (less
66 m height)
and C.
C.
Carex aquatilis
aquatilis,, C.
C. atherodes
atherodes,, and
cover.
cover. The
The herbs consist
consist mainly
mainly of
of Carex
spp.
and
Aulacomnium spp. and
rostrata.
rostrata. Some
Some mosses
mosses may
may be
be abundant,
abundant, mostly
mostly Aulacomnium
spp.
Salix spp.
and Salix
Tomethypnum
spp.
The
shrubs
are
Betula
glandulosa
and
are
Betula
glandulosa
Tomethypnum spp. The shrubs
to. Water
This area
area is dominated
dominated by
by a mixture
mixture of
of
Water tolerant
tolerant grass/forb
grass/forb-- This
grasses,
alkaline and
and nonnongrasses, forbs,
forbs, sedges,
sedges, and
and rushes.
rushes. There
There is
is both an alkaline
Distichlis
spicata,
alkaline
subclass.
The
alkaline
component
consists
of
Distichlis
spicata,
alkaline subclass. The alkaline component consists of
Puccinellia
Spartina gracilis
gracilis,, Suaeda
Suaeda depressa,
depressa, Triglochin
Triglochin maritima
maritima,,
Puccinellia spp.,
spp., Spartina
Juncus
arcand
The freshwater
freshwater component
component includes
includes Juncus arcHordeum jubatum
jubatum.. The
and Hordeum
ticus
Muhlenbergia
ticus., Carex
Carexpraegracilis,
praegracilis, Hordeum
Hordeum jubatum
jubatum,, Poa pratensis. Muhlenbergia
Some of
of the
the
richardsoni.
Taraxacum officinale.
officinale. Some
richardsoni, Potentilla
Potentilla anserina,
anserina, and
and Taraxacum
species
species are
are more
more indicative
indicative of drylands
drylands..
11 . Shrub-grass/forb
This
area
is
Shrub-grass/forb is dominated
dominated by
by shrubs.
shrubs, forbs,
forbs, grasses,
grasses, and
spp. The
The
Salix spp.
and Salix
grass-like
Betulaglandulosa
glandulosa and
grass-likespecies.
species.The
Theshrubs
shrubsare
are Betula
470
470
herbs are
are assorted
assorted grasses,
grasses,iuncus
Juncus arcticus
arcticusand
herbs
andforbs
forbs more
more common
commonof
of
drylands. Mosses
Mosses may
may occur
occur in
in depressions.
depressions.
drylands.
Salineprairie
prairie wetlands
Saline
wetlands
Another small
small but
but important
important group of wetlands
is the
the
Another
wetlands in
in the prairie regions
regions is
saline wetland.
wetland. The
The source
source of salts
saline
salts is the
the discharge
discharge of saline
saline groundwaters
groundwaters
in contact
contact with
with evaporite
evaporite mineral
mineral deposits. Such
in
Such lakes can be ephemeral and
exhibit seasonal
seasonal and
and annual changes in water chemiStry.
exhibit
chemistry. Dodd and Coupland
(1966)studied
studied the
the vegetation
vegetation of saline wetlands in southern Saskatchewan.,
Saskatchewan.,
(1966)
In terms
terms of
of hydrophytic
hydrophytic vegetation,
vegetation, submergents included Potamogeton
In
Potamogeton peetipectinatus
and
Chara
spp. while
while the
the main
was Scirpus
main emergent
emergent was
natus and Chara spp.
Scirpus validus.
validus. In
In
slightly higher
higher areas
areas where
where some
some exposure of the soil
soil surface occurs, Scirpus
slightly
Scirpus
paludosus becomes
paludosus
inbecomes common;
common; with
with prolonged
prolonged exposure
exposure these
these areas
areas are invaded
by
Hordeum jubatum,
jubatum, Atriplex
Atriplex spp.,
and Sonchus
vaded by Hordeum
spp., Chenopodium
Chenopodium spp.,
spp. and
Sonchus
uliginosus. Eleocharis
palustris, Puccinellia
airoides, and
Carex
spp.
uliginosus.
Eleocharis palustris,
Puccinellia airoides,
and Carex spp. are also
abundant
under slightly
slightly drier
drier conditions.
conditions. In
In slightly
slightly less
less depressed
depressed areas,
areas,
abundant under
seldom accumulates
accumulates on
on the
the soil
soil surface,
surface. halophytic
halophytic vegetation
vegetation
where
where water seldom
occurs
dominated
by
Salicornia
Triglochin maritima,
maritima, Puccinellia
Puccinellia airoairooccurs
Salicornia rubra, Triglochin
ides, Distichlis
stricta, Hordeum
Hordeum jubatum, and
spp.
ides.
Distichlis stricta,
and Agropyron
Agropyron
Eastern Temperate
Region (TE)
Temperate Wetland
Wetland Region
The Eastern
Eastern Temperate
Temperate Wetland.
Wetland Region
Region (TE)
(TE) isis characterized
characterized by
by warm
warm
The
summers and mild
mild winters.
winters. Precipitation
Precipitation is
is relatively
relatively high
high (Table
(Table 3).
3). The
The
summers
dominant wetland
wetland types
types are
arehardwood
hardwoodand
andconifer-dominated
conifer-dominatedswamps.
swamps.
dominant
of lakes,
lakes, especially
especially the
the Great
Great Lakes.
Lakes.
are common
common along
along the
the shores
shores of
Marshes are
near ponds
pondsand
anddrainage
drainageways,
ways,while
whileconiferous
coniferous bogs
bogs
may also
also occur
occur near
Fens may
occur in
in flats
fiats and
and basins
basins (Glooschenko
(Glooschenko and
andGrondin
Grondin1988).
1988).
Swamps
Acer and
and Fraxinus
Fraxinus are the
the
Swamps dominated
dominated by hardwood
hardwood species
species of Acer
most
common wetland
wetland type found
found in
in the
the Eastern
Eastern Temperate
Temperate Wetland
Wetland ReRemost common
gion,
(Thuja occidentalis,
oecidentalis, Larix
Larix/aricgion, although
although some
some conifers
conifers may
may be present
present (Thuja
laricina,
and
Pinus
strobus).
ina, and Pinus strobus). They
They are
are characterized
characterizedby
byan
anirregular
irregularmicrotopogramicrotopography
are never
neverinundated
inundatedby
bywater,
water,some
someareas
areasare
are
phy in
in which
which some
some portions
portions are
understanding
standingor
orslowly
slowly moving
moving water,
water, and
andsome
someportions
portionsare
areseasonseasonalways under
always
ally
ally flooded.
flooded. Swamps
Swamps occur
occur either
either adjacent
adjacent to
towater
waterbodies
bodiessuch
suchas
asstreams
streams
or
or lakes,
lakes,ororaway
awayfrom
fromsuch
suchwater
waterbodies
bodiesinintopographically-defined
topographically-definedbasins
basins
or ininother
otherareas
areassuch
suchasasflat
flatdeposits,
deposits,floodplains,
floodplains,ororassociated
associatedwith
withdisdisor
areas such
such as
as springs.
springs. Peat
Peat deposits
deposits are
are often
often present
presentwith
withdepths
depthsup
up
charge areas
charge
to 22 m,
m, but
butsuch
such peats
peats do
do not
not appear
appearto
tobe
beforming
formingat
atthe
thepresent
presenttime
time(Zoltai
(Zoltai
to
and Pollett
Pollett1983,
1983,Eagle
Eagle1983).
1983).These
Theseswamps
swampsare
areparticularly
particularlyimportant
importantasas
and
wildlife
et al.
al. 1987).
1987).
wildlife habitat
habitat (Glooschenko
(Glooschenko et
of woody
woody plants
plants including
including shrubs
shrubs and
and trees
trees
Vegetation consists
consists mainly
mainly of
Vegetation
471
Figure 18.
a ncl Region.
near Hamilton.
Hamilton. Ontario.
Figure
IS. 11ardwood
Hardwood swamp.
swamp, TEWct!
TE Wetland
Region. near
(Fig.
18). Common shrubs are
arc various
var ious species
spec ies of
of Sa/ix,
rugosa, Comas
Co m us
(Fig. 18).
Salix, Alnus rugossa.
ST%lli/era,
nd Cephalanthus
Cepha/al1lhus occidentalis.
occidentalis . Th
e most common
common trees are
are Acer
Acer
stolonifera, aand
The
rubrwn,
s{{cc/w rinum, A
negundo , and
ical herbaA.. negundo,
rubrutn, A. saccharinum.
and Thuja
Thuia occidel1lalis.
occidentalis. Typ
Typical
ceous
re S}/Illp/ocarpus
lid us, Calrha
nd ferns (Pringle
ceous species
species aare
S ymplocarpus /oe
foetidus,
Cahha pa/us[ris
palustris,, aand
1980)
. Littl
e rese
arch has
n done on
o n these
these swamps.
swamps.
1980).
Little
research
has bee
been
UI' in
ll-defined dep
ressio ns and
the bowl
bo\vI or
o r basin
bas in type
type
Bogs
Bogs OCC
occur
in we
well-detined
depressions
and are
are of the
(Fig
localiti es are
are usually
usu ally topographically
topographically low
low and trap
trap cool
coo l air
air so
so
(Fig.. 4).
4). These localities
ey ha
ve a microelimate
mi crocli m a te that
is cooler
surround ing area.
are a . Examples
Exa mpl es
th
they
have
that is
cooler than
than the surrounding
of
uch bogs
bogs are
ea r the
the northern
north ern shoreline
shore lin e of
of Lake
Lake Erie and
and near
nea r
of ssuch
are found
found nnear
the citi
es of
a rnllton , and Guelph,
Ont ario. The
Theyy are characterized
characte rized
cities
of London,
London, H
Hamilton,
Guelph. Ontario.
layer of Sphagnwn
moss
,
mainl
y
S.
/usc
um
.
E
ricaceou
s shrubs
by a surface
surface layer
by
Sphagnum moss, mainly S. ,fUSCIIIii. Ericaceous
shrubs
are
prese nt including
includin g Chamaedaphne ealvculata
calyculata and
groenlandiciltn.
are present
and Ledum
Ledutn groenlandictitn.
The
main tree species
species is
var iou s species
species of
of
The main
is Larix
Larix laricina.
laricina. Fens,
Fens, containing various
Carex,
grasses, may
may occur
occ ur where
whe re rninerotrophic
minerot rop hi c conditions
conditions
Carex, Eriopizomm
Eriophorum and
and grasses,
are
prese nt.
are present.
On
e of the
the most
most common
com mon wetlands
wetla nd s in the
the region
region are
are the
the marshes
marshe s of
of the
th e
One
Great Lakes
Lake s (Fig.
(Fig. 19).
19). These
Th ese wetlands
wetl ands were
were recentl
recentlyy reviewed
reviewed by
Smith er
by Smith
el
(II.
(199 1). Th
m arsh development
de ve lopme nt occurs
occurs in
in low-energy
low-e nergy eenvironments
nvironm ents
al. (1991).
Thee major marsh
alo
ng th
e shores
shores of
of Lakes
Lak eS St.
St. Clair.
Clai r , Erie.
Erie, Huron,
Huron , and
and Ontario
Onta rio (Fahselt
(Fahselt
along
the
ivlaun 1979).
1979). Frequent
Frequent dominants
do minants include
include Typha
L([[ifolia, Sparganiwn
and
and Maun
Typha lather.ilia-5parganium
eury
carpwn , Phragmites
Phragmites azastritlis,
aus tralis, ,Spartina
SjJorrina peon-iota,
p ecrinata , and
validus.
eurycarpum.
and Scirpus
Scirpus validus.
Near
Hamilto
n,
Onta
ri
o,
large
marshes
are
do
minat
ed
by
Glyceria
m(Jxinw.
Near Hamilton. Ontario, large marshes
dominated
Glyceria maxima.
472
Figure 19.
Figure
Oshawa. Ontario in TE Wetland
Wetland Region.
R e~i()n.
19. l'YLush
Marsh on
on shordine
shoreline of
of Lake
Lake Ontario
Ontario near Oshawa,
Note intensive
Note
inten~ iv e urban
ur ban development
dc\"Ciopmellt in
in background.
bad:gwu nd. Major
Major vegetation
vegetJtioll is
i;c TlfJ/w
Typha iari/()/ia
In some
some aareas,
thrum salicaria ca
In
reas, kJ:
Lythrum
n be abu
ndant (Pringle
(P r in gle 1980).
191)0) . This species
spec ies
can
abundant
is displacing
d isp laci ng native
native marsh plants which
\vhi ch is
is of
of concern,
concern .
The
vege ta ti o n ecology
eco logy of the
the Great
Great Lakes
La kes wetlands
we tl ands has
has been
beendiscussed
discussed
The vegetation
in a paper
paper by
by Keddv
Ke dd y and
and Reznicek
Rezn icek (1986).
(lSl86) . These
T hese authors
a uthors have
have pointed
pointed out
out
inform at ion on Great
Great Lakes
Lak es wetlands
wet la nds is
is quite
quite limited
limit e d and
and often
often
that existing information
be se t with taxonomic
taxono mi c inaccuracies.
inaccuracies. These authors describe
describe the
th e flora
nora of
of Great
Great
beset
Lakes wetlands
wetlands as being
he ing rich
rich with
\vith up
up to
to 450
4:')0 species
spec ies of
of vascular
vasc ula r plants,
plants. the
the
Lakes
most
genera being
most important
important genera
being Carex.
Care.L Cvperus.
Cyperus . Eleocharis,
Eleocharis , Juncus,
.ll/ncus, PolyPoh'gonum..
gonum . Potamogeton,
Poramog(,lon . and
an d 5(711-pus.
,')' cirplls. They describe three
th ree major
major wetland
yvet land types
types
found
fou nd in the
th e Great
Great Lakes.
Lakes. These
These are:
are:
I. \Vet
y pe is
\\iet meadow
meadow --- This
This ttype
is found
found most
mos t commonly
co mm only on Lakes
Lak es Huron
H uron and
and
re slopes
d substrates are
a re neither
neither too
[ 00 steep
steep or
orrocky.
rucky. They
Th ey
Michigan whe
where
slopes an
and
quite rich
rich in
in species
sp ecies numbers
numbers with
with dominant
dominant species
species being
being CalamagCa/anwgare quite
rosris canadensis,
canadensis . Care"Corex /ui/ugillosa
C. lasiocarpa,
/asiocarpa. C.
C. stcrilis,
srcrilis .C.C.stricter.
srric[{[ .
rostis
lanuginosa.. C.
mariscoides.
Deschampsia
cespi{()sa
.
Equiserwn
l'oriegalwn.
E/e('ladillm
Cladium mariscoides, Deschuinpsia cesphosa, Equiseuem variegation, Beocharis ellil1tica.
elliplica. }uncus
S. americanus,
americanlls , S.
S. cespitosus.
cespilosus. Soridago
Solidago
ocharis
Juneus OCUlus.
aciaus, S.
ohioensis,
ohioellsis. and
a nd Spartina
SparrinG pectinata.
peelinola . In areas
areas subjected
subjecte d to
to calcareous
ca lcarcous seepseepage,
age. fens
fen s may
may be
be present.
present.
22.. Marsh
Marsh —
- Emergent
e the
marsh ecosystem
ecosys te m at depths
dep th s up
up
Emergent species
species dominat
dominate
the marsh
to 1.5
1.5 m.
m. Species
Spec ies of
of Typha
7)'Pha predominate
predo minate with
with other
o th er important
import ant species
specie s
to
including
including Decodon
Decodon verticillatus,
I'erricillatlls . Eleocharis
E/eocharis srllclllti.
sma /lii . Phragmites
P/zrogmiles austratis,
australis,
473
473
Pontederia cordata,
cordata, Sagittaria
Sagitta ria latifolia,
lari/olia, Scirpus
scirpus acutus,
acutus , S.
S.fluviatilis,
fluviatilis , and
and
Pontederia
sparganium eurycarpum.
eurycarpum . Other species
species dominate
dominate waters
waters less
less than
than apapSparganium
Carex
aquatilis,
C.
atherodes,
Leersia
15
cm
deep
including
aquatilis
,
C.
atherodes
,
Leersia
proximately
proximately 15 cm
including
Phalaris arundinacea.
arundinacea .
LYlhrum salicaria,
salicaria, and Phalaris
oryzoides, Lythrum
Aquatic - -This
Thisecosystem
ecosystemincludes
includessubmerged
submergedand
andfloating-leaf
floating-leafaquatics
aquatics
3. Aquatic
areas , and
and at
at depths
depths
shallow waters as an understory in emergent plant areas,
in shallow
greater than
than emergents
emergents can
can tolerate,
tolerate, up
up to
to at
at least
least 88 m.
m. Important
Important
of water greater
include Ceratophyllum
Ceratophyllum demersum, Elodea
Elodea canadensis,
canadensis , HeterHeterspecies can include
anthera dubia,
dubia, Megalodonta
Megalodonta beckii,
beckii, Najas
Najasflexilis,
flexilis , Nymphaea
Nymphaea odorata,
odorata,
anthera
variegatum, Potamogeton
Potamogeton spp., Ranunculus aquatilis,
aquatilis, Utricularia
Utricularia
Nuphar variegatum,
and Vallisneria
Vallisneria americana.
vulgaris, and
for important
important ecological
ecological factors
factors influencing
influencing the
the vegetation,
vegetation, regular
regular
As for
level is
is very
very critical.
critical. Such
Such fluctuations
fluctuations can
can increase
increase the
the
fluctuation in water level
fluctuation
and also
also the
the diversity
diversity of
of vegetation
vegetation and
andspecies
species composition.
composition.
area of wetlands and
in that
that itit can
can kill
kill dominant
dominant emergents
emergentssuch
such as
as Typha,
High water is important in
monocultures reducing
reducing diversity.
diversity . High
High
which would otherwise form extensive monocultures
water also
also prevents
prevents woody
woody vegetation
vegetation and
and other
other terrestrial
terrestrial species
species from
from
water
waterline. During
During low
low water
water levels,
levels, mudflat
mudflat annual
annual
colonizing
colonizing sites
sites near the waterline.
meadow and emergent
emergent marsh
marsh species
species can
can germinate
germinate from
from buried
buried
species,
species, meadow
seed banks. The
The major
major management
management problem
problem in
insuch
such marshes
marshes isis to
tostabilize
stabilize
water
levels since
since high
high levels
levels lead
lead to
to reduced
reduced marsh
marsh areas,
areas, lower
lowerspecies
species
water levels
less ecosystem
ecosystem diversity.
diversity .
diversity
diversity and less
Lakeshore
vicinity of
Lakeshore marshes
marshes in
in the vicinity
of urban/industrial
urban/industrial areas
areas of
of the Great
et
al. (1981b)
lakes
are
subjected
to
contaminant
deposition.
Glooschenko
et
lakes are subjected contaminant deposition. Glooschenko af.
sediment chemistry
chemistry of
Lake Ontario
Ontario marsh
marsh located
located near
near ToTostudied
studied the
the sediment
of a Lake
found elevated
elevated levels
levels of
of metals
metals in
in surficial
surficial sediments
sediments such
such as
as
ronto.
ronto. They found
copper,
zinc, cobalt, chromium,
chromium , and
and nickel.
nickel. Of
Of special
special note
note was
was cadmium
cadmium
copper, zinc,
which
which was
was approximately
approximately four
four times
times elevated
elevated,, and
and lead, eight times
times elevated
than
in
sediments
deposited
before
industrialization
of
the
area . Organic
Organic
than sediments deposited before industrialization of the area.
contaminants
marsh including
including DDT
and its degracontaminants also
also accumulated
accumulated in
in the
the marsh
DDT and
mirex , HCB, and
and PCBs.
PCBs. Pathways
Pathways of input
input of
of
dation
dation products,
products, chlordane,
chlordane, mirex,
these
areas and
and atmoatmothese contaminants
contaminants included
included runoff
runoff from
from roads
roads and
and urban areas
spheric
spheric deposition
deposition..
The
impact of stress
stress upon Great
Great Lakes
Lakes wetlands
wetlands was
was reviewed
reviewed by
by PatPatThe impact
Whillens (1985).
(1985) . Natural
level fluctuations
fluctuations were
terson
terson and
and Whillens
Natural water level
were found
found to
be
major control
control of
of wetland
wetland area.
area. However,
However, wetland
wetland expansion
expansion can
can be
be
be a major
Also , highly
highly stressed wetlands tend to exhibit
limited
limited by
by geomorphic
geomorphic controls.
controls. Also,
qualitative
qualitative rather
rather than areal changes.
Another
Another important area of wetland development in
in the
the Eastern Temperate
Wetland
the St.
St. Lawrence
Lawrence River.
River. Lacoursiere
Lacoursiere
Wetland Region
Region is
is along
along the
the shores of the
and
Grandtner
(1972)
studied
the
intertidal
freshwater
marshes
of
lie d'Orleand Grandtner (1972) studied
freshwater marshes Ile
d'OrleLawrence River near Quebec
Quebec City.
City. They
They determined
determined
ans
ans located
located in
in the
the St.
St. Lawrence
474
ten
wetlands associations.
associations. Characteristic
Characteristic vegeta
ten wetlands
vegetation
tion of these
these associations
associations is
is
as
s with
five associ
as follow
follows
with the first five
associations
by
ations being characterized
charac terized by submergents
subme rgents
and
last five
five by emergents:
and the last
1. Potam
emergents: 1.
ogeton nodos
Potamogeton
nodosus,
us, 2.
2. Elodea
Elodea canadensis,
Nitella tenuissima,
ensis, 3. Nitella
tenuissima, 4.
4. Najas
Najas fiexilis
flexilis,, 5.
5. Sagitta
ria latifoli
Sagittaria
latifolia,
a , 6.
6. Scirpu
Scirpuss
americ
americanus
an us includ
ing subass
ociations with Sagitta
including
subassociations
ria rigida, Sagittaria
Sagittaria
Sagitta ria cuneata,
cuneata,
and
and Sium
7. Scirpus
Scirpus validus,
Sium suave,
suave, 7.
validus , 8.
8. Sparri
na pectin
Spartina
pectinata,
ata, 9.
9. Sparg
anium
Sparganium
euryca
eurycarpum,
rpum , and
and 10.
10. Typha
Typha latifolia.
latifolia.
The
vegetation ecology
ecology of.Hun
tingdon Marsh
The vegetation
of.Huntingdon
Marsh,, located
located on the
the St.
St. Lawrence
Lawrence
River
in
Quebe
c
near
the
Ontar
River in Quebec near the Ontario
io and
and New
New York,
York , U.S.A.
U.S.A . borders,
borde rs, was
was
descri
bed by
by Auclair
Auclair et
described
et al.
a!. (1973)
.
This
marsh
(1973). This marsh,, as
as do many
many of the
the wetlands
wetlands
locate
d along
1,200 km
located
along the 1,200
km length
length of
of the
the St.
St. Lawrence
Lawrence River, serves
serves as
as an
an
impor
tant
breedi
ng
and
staging area for migrat
important breeding
staging
migratory
waterfowl
and other
other forms
ory waterf
owl and
forms
of
e. Two
unities of
of wildlif
wildlife.
Two major
major comm
communities
of vegeta
vegetation
are presen
present,
the emergent
tion are
t, the
emerg ent
aquati
and the sedge
sedge meadow.
meadow. The
The first
first of these communities
aquaticc and
communities has
has 14
14 species
species
but
only
six
of
but
six these are dominants:
dominants: Equise
tum fluviat
ile, Scirpus
Equisetum
fluviatile,
Scirpus fluviatus,
fluvialus,
Eleocharis palust
ris, Scirpus
Scirpus validus,
Eleocharis
palustris,
valid us , Phragmites
Phragmiles australis,
australis, and
and Typha angust
angustiifolia. Presen
folia.
also are
are floating
floating and
Presentt here also
plants
including
and submerged
subme rged plants including Myriophyll
um exalbescens,
exalbescens, Lemna trisulca,
trisulca , Potamogeton
ophyllum
Potamogeton zosteriformis,
zosteriformis, CeratoCeralOphyllu m demersum,
demersum, Elodea canadensis,
phyllum
canadensis, and
and Vallisn
eria americ
Vallisneria
americana.
ana. The sedge
meado
w comm
unity has
s , but
meadow
community
has 56
56 specie
species,
but few
few dominants.
domin ants. Those
Those dominants
domin ants
includ
included
ed Carex
lis, C.
is, C.
Carex aquati
aquatilis,
C. lacustr
lacustris,
C. lanugi
lanuginosa,
C. stricta
stricta,
C.
nosa , C.
, C. diandra,
diandra,
Calam
agrostis canade
Calamagrostis
canadensis,
nsis , and
and Typha
Typha angust
angustifolia.
ifolia. Impor
tant
factors
Important factors influinfluencing
unity structu
re in the sedge meadow
encing comm
community
structure
meado w community
community were
were found
found to
to
be
disturb ance , water depth,
depth , and
and fire.
be disturbance,
aquatic
community,
fire. In
In the
the emergent
emerg ent aquati c comm unity,
interac
tion between
between submerged
submerged and
and floating
floating forms and competitive
interaction
competitive exclusion
exclusion
betwe
en
domin
ants
accoun
ted for much of the variation.
between dominants accounted
variation.
Studie
s have
been carried
carried out upon
upon primary
Studies
have been
primary production
produ ction and
and nutrient
nutrie nt
dynam
ics in
marshes locate
d in
dynamics
in marshes
located
in southern
southe rn Quebec.
Quebe c. Auclair
Aucla ir et
et al.
al. (1967a
(1967a))
studie
studied
d aa Scirpu
s-Equiserum marsh
Scirpus—Equisetum
Annua l above-ground
above-ground production
marsh.. Annual
produ ction was
was
estima
ted to
to be
estimated
be845
845ggm
m --22,, and
productivity exhibited
exhibited aa bi-modal
and such productivity
bi-modal seaseasonal
patter n with
with peaks
peaks in
in late-July
late-July and
sonal pattern
and mid-September.
mid-September. Two-thirds
Two-thirds of
of all
all
litter
was
export
ed while
while the remaining
remaining litter decomposed
litter was exported
the
following
decom posed in
in the following
growin
g season
. In terms
terms of soil
soil factors,
factors , potassium
growing
season.
potassium correlated
correl ated highly
highly with
with
standi
ng crop
crop and nitrogen
nitrogen with
with productivity.
productivity .Species
standing
diversity
was
Species diversity was negatively
negatively
correl
ated with
with primary
primary productivity
productivity and standing
correlated
standi ng crop.
crop.
Simila
r
resear
ch
was
Similar research was carried
carried out in a Carex
Carex —
- domin
ated meadow
dominated
meadow (Auclair
(Aucla ir
et
et al.
al. 1976b
).
Impor
tant
ecolog
ical
1976b). Important ecological factors
factors were
were found
found to be soil
soil fertility,
fertility, fire
fire
incide
nce, and
and topographic
topographic position.
position. Productivity
Productivitywas
incidence,
closely
associated
with
was closely associated with
cation
s, especially
especially calcium
phosphorus. Siltation
cations,
calcium and
and phosphorus.
Siltation associated
associated with
with high
high
nutrie
nt
levels
accoun
ted
nutrient levels accounted for
for the
of Typha
the higher
higher productivity
productivity of
angustifolia
Typha angustifolia
comm
unities locate
d near
water. Fire
communities
located
near open
open water.
Fire incidence
incidence was
was important
impor tant as
as itit
influen
ced
s diversi
ty by
cation, reduct
influenced specie
species
diversity
by scarifi
scarification,
reduction
and
ion of littermass,
littermass, and alal-
475
475
tered energy
energy and
and nutrient
nutrient budgets.
budgets. Topographic
Topographic gradient
gradient influenced
influenced soil
soil
tered
fertility and
and controlled
controlled species
species composition
composition and
and community
community structure.
structure. The
The
fertility
effect of
of community
community and
and soil
soil variables
variables upon
upon plant
plant tissue
tissue nutrients
nutrientswas
wasalso
also
effect
studied (Auclair
(Auclair 1977).
1977). Important
Important controls
controls on
on nutrient
nutrientuptake
uptakeincluded
includedwater
water
studied
fire influence,
influence , and
and soil
soil nutrient
nutrient concentration.
concentration. Nutrient
Nutrient losses
losses from
from
depth, fire
marsh occurred
occurred by
by aa combination
combination of
ofvolatilization,
volatilization, runoff,
runoff,and
andleaching.
leaching.
the marsh
was found
found to be
be an
an active
active site
site for
for cation
cation exchange.
exchange. Season
Season nutrient
nutrient
Litter was
investigated (Auclair
(Auclair 1982).
1982).
dynamics was also investigated
Temperate Wetland Region (TP)
(TP)
Pacific Temperate
The Pacific
Pacific Temperate
Wetland Region occurs in southern British
British Columbia
Columbia
Temperate Wetland
the lower
lower Fraser
Fraser River
River valley
valley and along
along aa narrow
narrow coastal
coastal strip
strip of
of eastern
eastern
in the
Strait (Fig.
(Fig. 6).
6). Characteristic
Characteristicwetlands
wetlands
Vancouver Island adjacent to Georgia Strait
include conifer
flat fens
include
conifer swamps,
swamps,domed
domed and
and flat
flat bogs,
bogs, and
and flat
fens (Banner
(Banner et al.
1988).
the coast
coast while
while along
along and
and
1988). Saline
Saline and
and brackish
brackish marshes
marshes are
are present
present on the
in
the Fraser
Fraser River,
River, brackish
brackish and
and freshwater
freshwater marshes
marshes are found
found but
but vegvegin the
etation is
is quite different
different from
from other
other Canadian
Canadian coastal
coastal marshes
marshes as
as previously
previously
with
mild
discussed. The climate is characterized by high precipitation
precipitation
mild winters
and warm summers (Table 3).
3).
They have
Thuja pUcata
plicata.. They
Swamps
and Thuja
Alnus oregona
oregona and
Swamps are
are dominated
dominated by
by Alnus
and Dryopteris austrica.
an understory of ferns such as Athyrium filix-femina
filix-femina and
also occur
occur (Zoltai
(Zoltai and
Oplopanax
Lysichiton camtschatcense
camtschatcense also
Oplopanax horridum
horridum and
and Lysichiton
species
as S.
Sphagnum species as
Pollett
1983). Bogs
Pollett 1983).
Bogs can
can have
have aa lower
lower layer
layer of
of such
such Sphagnum
Low ericaceous
fuscum,
nemoreum, and
fallax. Low
ericaceous shrubs
shrubs occur
occur with
with
and S.
S. fallax.
fuscum, S.
S. nemoreum,
Empetrum
nigrum,
groenlandicum,
Kalmia
the
main
species
being
Empetrum
nigrum,
Ledum
groenlandicum,
Kalmia
the
species being
V. oxycoccus,
oxycoccus, V.
V. uligiuligimicrophylla spp. occidentalis,
occidentalis, Vaccinium
Vaccinium myrtilloides, V.
nosum,
V . ovalifolium,
ovalifolium, V.
V. alaskaense,
alaskaense, Menziesia
Menziesia ferruginea,
ferruginea, Andromeda
Andromeda
nosum, V.
Trees are
are mainly
polifolia,
mainly open stands of stunted
stunted
and Gaultheria
Gaultheria shallon.
shallon. Trees
polifolia, and
Pinus
swamps to
Peat depths
depths range
range from
from less
less than 11 m
m in swamps
to 5 m
m in
Pinus contona.
contorta. Peat
bogs
Biggs 1981,
1981, Styan
1983).
bogs (Hebta and Biggs
Styan and Bustin 1983).
The
estuarine marshes
have been
been reviewed
reviewed in
The estuarine
marshes of
of the
the Fraser
Fraser River delta have
the
(1988). The
the papers by
by Glooschenko (1980b,
(1980b, 1982)
1982)and
and Glooschenko
Glooschenko et al (1988).
with
Scirpus
americanus
lower
portions
of
these
marshes
are
dominated
by
Scirpus
americanus
with
lower portions of these marshes are dominated by
S.
found at
at somewhat
somewhat higher
higher elevations
elevations in
in the
the
and Carex
Carex lyngbyei
lyngbyei found
S. paludosus
paludosus and
marsh.
vegetation is
is indicative
indicative of brackish
brackish conditions
conditions due
marsh. This
This grouping
grouping of
of vegetation
to
mixing of
fresh Fraser
Fraser River
River waters
waters and
and saline
saline Georgia
Georgia Strait
Strait
to the mixing
of the fresh
becomes the
the dominant
dominant species.
species. In
In
waters.
waters. In
In the
the high
high marsh.
marsh, Typha
Typha Latifolia
latifolia becomes
the
the areas
areas where
where influence
influenceof
ofthe
the Fraser
Fraser River
River plume
plume is
is minimal,
minimal, salt
salt marshes
marshes
Triglochin maritima,
maritima, Salicomia
Salicornia viroccur.
dominant species
occur. Here.
Here, dominant
species include
include TrigLochin
ginica,
The estuarine
estuarine marshes
marshes at
at the
the head
head of the fjord
ginica, and
and Distichlis
Distichlisspicata
spicata.. The
476
476
Squamishnorth
northofofVancouver
Vancouverare
aredominated
dominatedby
byCarex
atat Squamish
Carexlyngbyei
lyngbyeiwith
with
scatteredoccurrences
occurrencesofofEleocharis
scattered
Eleocharispalustris.
palustris, Deschampsia
Deschampsiacaespitosa.
caespitosa, FesFestucarubra.
rubra,Hordeum
Hordeumbrachyantherum
brachyantherum,, Potentilla
Potentilla pacifica
pacificaand
tuca
andother
other less
lesscomcommon
1976). Similar
monforbs
forbs(Lim
(Lim and
and Levings
Levings 1973.
1973, Levings
Levings and
and Moody
Moody 1976).
Similar vegvegetationoccurs
occurson
onthe
thecoastal
coastalmarshes
marshesof
ofVancouver
VancouverIsland
Island(Dawe
(Dawe and
and White
White
etation
1982,
Kennedy
1982).
1982. Kennedy 1982).
Severalstudies
studieshave
havebeen
beenmade
madeupon
upon the
the primary
productivity of
of these
these
Several
primary productivity
Pacificcoast
coastsalt
saltmarshes.
marshes.Yamanaka
Yamanaka (1975)
(1975) investigated
investigated salt
salt marshes
marshes in the
Pacific
Fraserriver
riverdelta
deltadominated
dominatedby
byCarex
Fraser
. and
Carexlyngbyei.
lyngbyei,Scirpus
Scirpusamericanus
americanus,
andS.S.
2
paludosus.
He found
found an
an average
average yield
yield of 490
490 gg m- on
paludosus . He
on aa dry-weight
dry-weight basis.
basis. A
A
comprehensive
study
was
made
in
a
comprehensive study was made in a Carex
Carex /yngbyei
lyngbyei marsh
marshinin the
the same
same delta
delta
by Kistritz
Kistritzant
antYesaki
Yesaki(1979).
(1979).An
Anannual
annual net
net primary
primary protuction of 634
634 gg m
-2
by
111-2
on an
an ash-free
ash-free dryweight
dryweightbasis
basis(AFDW)
(AFDW)was
wasmeasured.
measured.They
They also
also found
found the
the
on
the above-ground
above-ground biomass.
biomass.
below-ground
below-groundbiomass
biomasstotobe
be five
five times
times that
that of the
Detritus was
was measured
measured to be 435
111 -2
Detritus
435 g m
an
AFDW
of
which
62%
disap-2 on
on
AFDW which
disapthe balance
balance being
being buried
buried by
by alluvial
alluvial
peared
peared between
between September
September and
and June.
June, the
sediments. They
They also
also investigated
investigated nutrient dynamics.
sediments.
dynamics.
Atlantic Oceanic
Oceanic Wetland
Wetland Region
Region (OA)
Atlantic
This wetland
Burin peninpeninwetland region
region covers
covers the
the southern
southern half of the Avalon and Burin
climate of this
this region
region isis
sulas in Newfoundland
Newfoundland (Wells
sulas
(Wells 1981).
1981). The oceanic climate
characterized by
and high
high precipitation
precipitation (Table
(Table
characterized
by cool
cool summers,
summers, cold
cold winters and
3).
3).
blanket
Wetlands characteristic
characteristic of
of this
this region
region are
are the plateau raised bogs, blanket
bogs, small seepage fens, and slope
slope fens.
fens . Marshes
Marshesand
andswamps
swampsare
arelocalized
localized
in their
of the
the
their distribution
distribution with
with coastal marshes common
common only
only along
along portions
portions of
of Newfoundland.
Newfoundland. These
These have
havebeen
beenpreviously
previouslydiscussed
discussedinin
northwest coast
coast of
northwest
the
the section
section on the
the Atlantic
Atlantic Boreal
Boreal Wetland
Wetland Region.
Region.
Plateau raised
raised bogs
bogs are
dominant peatland
peatland type
type in
in the
the region.
region .They
They
Plateau
are the dominant
have
have flat
fiat to
to gently
gently undulating
undulating surfaces
surfaces with
with distinct
distinct sloping
slopingmargins
margins having
having
of 20
20 to 25%.
25% . Although pools
pools are
are aa common
common surface
surface feature,
feature, they
they
gradient of
aa gradient
are
ratherform
forman
anindeterminate
indeterminatescattered
scatterednetwork.
network.Small
Small
are not
not patterned,
patterned.but
butrather
seepage fens
fens with
with distinct
distinct pool
pool patterns
patternsin
inladder-like
ladder-likeformations
formationsoccur
occuralong
along
seepage
the
20mm
the bog
bog margins.
margins. Peat
Peat thicknesses
thicknesses in
in the
the plateau
plateaubogs
bogs vary
vary from
from 22toto20
with
with Sphagnum
Sphagnum moss
moss to
to sedge
sedge peat
peat underlain
underlainby
bysedge
sedge peat
peat layers.
layers.This
This peat
peat
deposition
orfens.
fens.The
The
deposition originated
originated in
in moist
moist depressions
depressions ininshrubby
shrubbyswamps
swampsor
resulting
resulting bog
bog isis maintained
maintained by
by high
highamounts
amountsofofprecipitation
precipitationdistributed
distributed
areasofofhigh
highrainfall
rainfalland
and
evenly throughout
throughout the
the year.
year.Blanket
Blanketbogs
bogsoccur
occurininareas
evenly
fog.
orbasins
basins
fog .Unlike
Unlike raised
raised bogs,
bogs. blanket
blanket bogs
bogs are
arenot
notconfined
confinedtotovalleys
valleysor
but
butcover
coverextensive
extensive areas
areas with
with peat
peat11toto3 3mmininthickness.
thickness.
The
dominant
vegetation
in
the
bogs
is
Sphagnumfuscum
fuscum ininthe
theform
formof
of
The dominant vegetation in the bogs isSphagnum
477
Figure 20.
Figure
20. Slope
Slope bog
bog near
rince Rup
near PPrince
Rupert,
B.C. in
e ri, S.c.
in OP Wetland
We tl a nd Region.
Region.
dri
e r carpets
carpet s and
drier
a nd hummocks
humm ocks with
with Scirpu
s caespitosus
Scitpus
caespitoslis nnd
th e ericaceous
and the
e ri caceo us
shrubs
shrubs Cham
a edaplm e calvculata,
ca /.vclIlma , Kalmi
Chatnaedaphne
Kalinin
angustiMia,
a Of/gusl
ifo lia, and
and Ledum groenlangroen/alldic/oll
dicum also
be in g comm
also being
common.
on. Sphag
num imbricattun
Sphagnum
imhric aru.m humm
ocks
are
hummocks are also
also comco mmo n. The representative
repre se ntativ e bog
mon.
bog association
associ ation is
is Kalmia
-Spha gnum fllscw
KaImia-Sphagnum
fuscwn.
n. In
moi
st or
wet hollows
h ollo\'v's the
moist
or wet
of Sphag
th e moss
moss carpet
car pe t consists
consis ts of
num capillifolium,
capiflzfo/iwn,
Sphagnum
S'phag
l1
l1nl
Sphagnum tenellum
renellwJ1 and
sedges . In
and sedges.
In wet
we t carpets
carpet s 5pIJag
nwn magellanictun
magef lanicw n is
Sphagnum
domin
ant. These
These bogs
bogs are
are discussed
disc llsse d further
furth e r in
dominant.
in Pollett
Pollet t ant
ant Bridgewater
Bridge wate r(1973),
(1973),
W ells (1981)
Wells
(1981) and
and W
Wells
and Pollen
e lls and
Polle tt (1983).
(1 983) .
Pacific Ocean
ic Wetland
W elland Region
Pacific
Oceanic
Region (0
(OP)
P)
Thi
s we
tland region
region covers
e Queen
This
wetland
covers all
all of
of th
the
Quee n Charlotte
C ha rl o tte Islands,
Isl a nds, the
th e northern
northe rn
ceJast
of
sh Colum
bi a aand
nd the
th e northern
north e rn and
coast of Briti
British
Columbia
of
Vancouver
a nd western
wes te rn coasts
coasts of V a nco uve r
Island
(Fi g. 6).
6). The
Th e oceanic
oceani c climate
climat e of
of this
thi s region
Island (Fig.
region isis characterized
charac terized by
by cool
cool
ssummers
umm e rs and mild
mild winters
wint e rs with
with hi
high
g h precipitation.
precip itation , most
most of it
it falling
falling as rain
ra in
(Table
3) . Two
Two wetland
wetlan d districts
distric ts are
are recognized
(Table 3).
in this
region,
the
North
re cogniz ed in
thi s region , the North
Coast
th e South
South Coast
CoastPacific
Coast and the
Pacinc Wetland
W e tland Districts.
Distric ts .
Bogs
re the
th e most
most commonly
comm only occurring
occurr ing peatlands
peatla nds in
Bogs aare
in this
thi s region
region with
with slope
slo pe
bogs
nd flat
flat bogs
in g th
bogs aand
bogs be
being
the
most preva
prevalent
(Banner
e most
le nt (Bann er et
et al.
al. 1988).
1988). Slope bogs
occur
g terrain
. often
occur on
on slopin
sloping
terrain,
often with
with aa pattern
patter n of
o f peat
peat ridges
rid ges or
or steps
steps that
that
co
n/ln
e small
th e slope
slope (Fig.
confine
small pools
pools of
of water
water on
on the
bogs
are
poorly
(Fig. 20).
20). Dome
Dom e bogs are poo rl y
478
developed
Although they
they are
are not
not very
very common,
common, fens
fens are
are found
found
developed and
and rare. Although
throughout
region and
and are
are located
located mainly
mainly along
along streams,
streams. in
in shallow
shallow
throughout this
this region
at the
the heads
heads of
ofbays.
bays.Sedimentary
Sedimentary peat
peat materials
materials rich
rich in
in diatoms
diatoms
basins,
basins, and at
are
very common
common in
this region.
region. This
This peat
peat could
could occur
occur in
in bands
bands a few
few
are very
in this
could form
form aa deposit
deposit several
several
centimetres
deposit or
or itit could
centimetres thick
thick within
within the
the peat deposit
metres
thickness of the peat is
is generally
generally 1.5-4 m in
in bogs
bogs and
metres deep. The thickness
and 12m
m in fens.
The development
development of
ofbogs
bogsin
in the
thePacific
Pacific Oceanic
OceanicWetland
WetlandRegion
Regionisisassociassociated with soil formation. Ugolini
Ugolini and
and Mann
Mann (1979)
(1979) studied
studied peatland
peatland developdevelopin nearby
nearby southeastern
southeastern Alaska.
Alaska. They
They found
found that
that as
as
ment on marine
marine terraces
terraces in
podzol
formation took place,
place, iron-cemented
iron-cemented hardpans
hardpans were
were formed
formed in
in the
the
podzol formation
soil.
impedes drainage
drainage and
and litter
litter accumulates
accumulates due to
to anaerobic
anaerobic conconsoil. This impedes
ditions.
soil pH
pH is
is also
also lowered.
lowered. This
This leads
leads to
to peat
peatformation
formation and
and
ditions. The
The soil
in
subsequent bog development.
development. The
The process
process of
of bog
bog formation
formation was
was studied
studied in
northern coastal British Columbia
Columbia near Prince
Prince Rupert (Banner el
et al.
al. 1983).
Using a combination
carbon-14
of pollen
pollen analysis,
analysis, peat
peatstratigraphy
stratigraphy and
andcarbon-14
Using
combination of
dating,
they found
found a succession
succession to
take place
place starting
starting with
with aa Pinus
condating, they
to take
Pinus contarta-Alnus
with aa bog
bog having
having aa domindomintorta—Alnusrubra-fern
rubra-fern alluvial
alluvial forest
forest and ending with
ant
species Pinus contorta, Chamaecyparis
Chamaecyparis nootkatensis,
noolkatensis, several
ant species
several species
species of
ericaceous shrubs and several species of Sphagnum moss.
moss. The
The authors related
succession to paleoclimatic change and edaphic factors.
this succession
factors. The
The relationship
relationship
in British
British Columbia
Columbia coastal
coastal peatpeatbetween vegetation and
and water
water chemistry
chemistry in
lands
lands was
was studied
studied by
by Vitt et
et al.
al. (1990).
The region
The
region has
has limited
limited salt
salt marsh
marsh development.
development. The
The coastline
coastline isis very
very
mountainous and
ofprotected
protectedtidal
tidal flats
flats where
where vegetation
vegetation
mountainous
and there
there are
arefew
few areas
areas of
can colonize.
colonize. These
These are
are at
at the
the heads
fjords. Here,
Here, Carex
heads of fjords.
can
Carex lyngbyei
lyngbyei is
is the
dominant species (Fig. 21). The Queen
Queen Charlotte
Charlotte Islands
Islands contains
contains some
some areas
areas
of salt marsh
marsh in
in locations
locations fronted
fronted by
byshingle
shingle beaches
beaches or
ormudflats
mudflats (Calder
(Calder
and Taylor 1968).
and
1968). Besides
Besides Carex
species occur
occur including
including
Carex lyngbyei,
lyngbyei, other species
Deschampsia cespitosa,
Festuca rubra, Triglochin
Trig/ochin
cespitosa, Hordeum
Hordeum brachyantherum, Festuca
maritima, Plantago
maritima,
Plantago macrocarpa,
macrocarpa, and
and Stellaria
Stellaria humifusa.
humifusa. Where
Where river inputs
are high, estuarine marshes are present with
with Trig/ochin
Puccinellia
Triglochin maritima.
maritima, Puccinellia
and Lilaeopsis occidentalis occurring.
pumila, Scirpus
Scirpus cernuus,
cernuus, and
Mountain Wetland
Wetland Regions
Regions
in valleys,
valleys, on
on mountain
mountain slopes.
slopes,
In
areas, wetlands
wetlands are
are found
found in
In mountainous areas,
and
alpine regions.
regions. They
They generally
generally cover
cover small
small areas
areas with
with the
the exception
exception
and in alpine
valleys. The type
type of
of wetland
wetland that
that will
will develop
develop on
on
of those occurring in some valleys.
the site.
site. Thus,
Thus, for
for
a particular site depends
depends on the elevation and latitude of the
of the
the Boreal
Boreal Wetland
Wetland Region
Region
example, wetlands typical of the southern part of
in the
the lower
lower valleys
valleys but
but atathigher
higherelevations
elevations wetlands
wetlands resemble
resemble
may occur
occur in
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -----
- -
---
479
479
Figure 11.
2 1. Salr
Salt mars
marsh
dominated by
by Carn
Fig/lrr:'
h dornin:ltcc!
n Charlotte
Charlotte Islands,
Isla nds. B.C.
R.C.
Carex Irngbyei.
lvnghyei, Quee
Queen
those
fo und in
in the
th e High
Hi gh Boreal
B o real and
and Subarctic
Suba rcti c Wetland
W et land Regions.
R egio ns. There
Th e re are
a rc
those found
four
fo
u r distinct
distin ct mountain
mo unt ain wetland
\vc tl a nd regions
reg ions (Fig.
(Fi g. 6).
6).
Coastal
Coaslai Mountain
Af o lln tain Wetland
Wcr/an d Region
Regio n (MC)
(M C)
This
T hi s wetland
w e tland region
reg ion covers
covers the
th e mountainous
mo untain ou s central
ce nt ral part
pa rt of
o f Vancouver
Vancouve r IsIsla nd. most
most of
of the
the mountains
m o unt ain s along
a lo ng the
th e mainland
ma inl a nd coast
coastof
ofBritish
Briti shColumbia,
Columbi a .
land.
th e southwestern
so uthweste rn corner
corn er of
of the
th e Yukon
Yuko n Territory
Te rritory (Fig.
(Fi g. 6).
6) .This
T hi sregion
reg io nisis
and the
ge ner all y domin
a ted by
h ig h mountainous
mo untainous aareas
reas but
but itit also
a lso includes
in cludes the
th e
generally
dominated
by high
valleys which
y much
whi ch are
a rc climatically
clim a tically ver
very
mu ch affected
affec ted by
by the
th e mountainous
m o unta inou s topogtopogra ph y. This
T hi s region
r eg io n is
is divided
divi de d into
in to three
th ree subregions,
subregio ns, the
the North.
N orth ,Central,
Ce ntra l.and
a nd
raphy.
South
So uth Coastal
Coas tal Mountain
Mounta in Wetlands.
We tl and s.
The
g ion
T he climate
clim ate of
o f this
this re
reg
io n is
is characterizet
ch arac te ri zet bby
cool summers,
summe rs, cool
coo l to
to cold
co ld
y cool
winte rs, and
and moderately
m ode rate ly high
hi gh precipitation
precipit a tion (Table
(Ta bl e 3).
3) .No
Nopermafrost
perm afr os tassociassoc iwinters,
ated
with
wetlands
was
recorded
in
this
wetland
region.
The
peat
is
generally
ate d with we tlands was reco rd e d in this \\'e tland r eg io n . Th e p eat is ge ne ra ll y
1m
m thick,
thick , although
a lth o ugh some
so me deeper
dee pe rdeposits
de positsare
a refound
foundininthe
th evalleys.
vall eys .
In the
the Coastal
Co as tal Mountain
M o unta in Wetland
W e tl a nd Region,
R egio n ,the
th emost
mos tcommon
comm o n wetlands
we tl a nd s are
are
In
Ra t bogs
bogs and
and horizontal
ho ri zonta l fens
fe ns in
in valleys
vall eys and
and small
sm a ll basin
basin bogs
bogs and
a nd fens
fe ns inin
flat
alpine
y found
areas . Marshes
M a rshes are
are generall
ge ne ra lly
found along
alo ng the
th e shores
sh o re s of
of lakes
lakes and
and in
in
a lpin e areas.
deltaic
areas.
In
addition,
ribbed
fens
are
found
in
valle
de ltaic areas. In addition , ribbe d fen s are found in valleys
and at
at higher
higher
ys and
elevations
e lev ati ons throughout
thro ugho ut this
thi s region
r egio n but
but are
a re more
mo re common
co mm o n in the
th e northern
no rth e rn and
a nd
ce ntral areas.
a reas .No
Notaxonomic
tax o nomi cstudies
studi es have
helve been
bee nmade
madeininthese
th esewetlands.
wetla nd s .
central
480
Interior Mountain Wetland
Wetland Region
Region .(MI)
.( M/)
This wetland region covers
covers the interior portion of the Cordilleran mountains
generaUy dominated
dominated by
by high
high mountains
mountains and
and the
the associated
associated
(Fig.
(Fig. 6). ItIt isisgenerally
divided into three
three subregions,
subregions,
valleys.
valleys. Climatically,
Climatically, this
this wetland
wetland region
region is divided
the North, Central,
Central, and
and South
South Interior
InteriorMountain
Mountain Wetlands.
Wetlands.
.
of this
this region
region isis characterized
characterized by
by cold
cold to
to very
very cold
cold winters,
winters,
The climate of
cool
summers, and moderate
moderate to
to low
low precipitation
precipitation (Table
(Table 3).
3). Permafrost
Permafrost isis
cool summers,
associated
wetlands in
central and
and northern
northern parts
parts of
associated with
with some
some of
of the
the wetlands
in the
the central
this
region. The average
average thickness
thickness of
2-3 m in
in the
the northern
northern and
and
this region.
of peat
peat is 2-3
central subregions and 1-2
1-2 m
m in
in the
the southern
southern subregion.
subregion.
In
Interior Mountain
Mountain Wetland
Wetland Region,
Region, the
the most
most common
common wetlands
wetlands
In the Interior
the south
south and
and
are
fiat and basin bogs.
bogs. In
In addition,
addition, horizontal
horizontal fens
fens occur
occur in the
are flat
in the
the north.
north. Marshes
Marshes
ribbed
paIsa and
and peat
peat plateau
plateau bogs
bogs occur
occur in
ribbed fens
fens and palsa
occur
along the shores
shores of
of lakes
lakes and
and inin deltaic
deltaic areas.
areas. Horizontal
Horizontal fens
fens are
are
occur along
in valleys
valleys but small
small horizontal
horizontal fens
fens also
also occur
occur in
in alpine
alpine
commonly
commonly found
found in
areas. Ribbed
Ribbed fens
fens are
are found
found in
in valleys,
valleys, especially
especially in the northern and
and central
central
subregions.
of this
this region, but
but at
at higher
higher
subregions. They
They do
do occur
occur in
in the southern part of
elevations.
the 1,000
1,000 m elevation
elevation in
Atlin area
area
elevations. Palsas
Palsas were
were reported
reported at the
in the Atlin
of British
British Columbia
Columbia in
extreme northern
northern part
part of
of the
the central
central subregion
subregion
in the extreme
by Seppala (1980). These palsas
palsas had
had aa frozen
frozen silty
silty core.
core. Their
Their height
height ranged
ranged
from
but they
they contained
contained only
only 77cm
cm of
of peat.
peat. Small
Small basin
basin bogs
bogs are
are
from 0.5 to 33 m but
the region.
region. These
These basin
basin bogs
bogs are
are generally
generally
found
found in alpine areas throughout the
treeless. Species
Species in
associated
Picea mariana
mariana or are treeless.
associated with
with Picea
in these wetlands are
similar
in other
other palsas
palsas in
in Canada.
Canada.
similar to those found in
Rocky Mountain Wetland
Wetland Region
Region (MR)
(MR)
This
wetland region
region covers
covers the Rocky
Rocky Mountains
Mountains in Alberta
Alberta and
and British
British
This wetland
Columbia
the Selwyn,
Selwyn, Mackenzie,
Mackenzie, Richardson,
Richardson, and
and British
British Mountains
Mountains
Columbia and the
in the Yukon and
in
and Northwest
Northwest Territories
Territories (Fig.
(Fig. 6).
6). This
This region
region is
is divided
divided into
three subregions, the North,
North, Central
Central and
andSouth
SouthRocky
Rocky Mountain
Mountain Wetlands.
Wetlands.
The climate of this
this region
region is
is continental
continental to
to arctic
arctic and
and the
the precipitation
precipitation isis
moderate
low (Table
(Table 3).
3). Permafrost
Permafrost isis discontinuous
discontinuous in
in most
most of these
these
moderate to low
areas except in the extreme northern
northern portions
portions of
ofthe
the Richardson
Richardson and
andBritish
British
peat isis generally
generally 11m
m thick
thick although
although some
some deeper
deeper deposits
deposits
Mountains.
Mountains. The peat
are found in
in the
the valleys.
valleys.
In the Rocky
Rocky Mountain
Mountain Wetland
Wetland Region
Region the
themost
most common
common wetlands
wetlands are
are
fiat
horizontal and
and ribbed
ribbed fens.
fens. These
These are
are found
found mainly
mainly
flat and
and basin bogs and horizontal
in
southern and
and central
central areas.
areas. The
The northern
northern areas
areas are
areassociated
associated with
with
in the southern
palsas,
plateaus, and
and veneer
veneer bogs,
bogs, which
which occur
occur in the
the valleys
valleys and
and at
at
palsas, peat
peat plateaus,
lower
along the shores
shores of lakes and
and in
in deltaic
deltaic
lower elevations. Marshes are found along
481
481
areas. Palsas
Palsas and
and peat
peat plateaus
plateaus were
were reported
reported atatMacmillan
Macmillan Pass
Pass in
in the
the
areas.
Selwyn
Mountains
by
Kershaw
and
Gill
(1979).
These
peat
landforms
were
Selwyn
by Kershaw and Gill (1979). These peat landforms were
found in
in bog
bog and
andfen
fendepressions
depressionsatatelevations
elevationsbetween
between1,285
1,285and
and1,690
1,690m.
m.
found
glandulosa,, ClaBoth of
of these
these peatlands
peatlands were
were vegetated
vegetated by
by Cladonia—Betula
Cladonia- Betula glandulosa
C/aBoth
donia-Polytrichum —
- Cetraria,
Cetraria , and
and lichen
lichen—- Polytrichum
Polytrichum plant
plant communities.
communities .
donia-Polytrichum
(ML)
Eastern Mountain
Mountain Wetland
Wetland Region
Region (ML)
Eastern
wetland region
region covers
covers the
the Mealy
Mealy Mountains
Mountains in Central
Central Labrador.
Labrador . The
The
This wetland
is dominated
dominated by
by strongly
strongly glaciated
glaciated mountains.
mountains. The
Theclimate
climate of
ofthis
this region
region
area is
by cold
cold winters,
winters, cool
cool summers,
summers, and
and low
low precipitation
precipitation (Table
(Table
is characterized by
The peat
peatthickness
thicknessisisusually
usually between
between 10
10 and
and 50
50 cm.
cm.
3). The
the Eastern
EasternMountain
MountainWetland
WetlandRegion
Regionthe
themost
mostcommon
commonwetlands
wetlandsare
are
In the
ribbed fens
fens with
with the
the slope
slope fens
fens being
being associated
associated with
with the
the southern
southern
slope and ribbed
the mountains.
mountains . Species
Species in these
these wetlands
wetlands are similar
similar to those
those
portions of the
portions
discussed in
of Atlantic
Atlantic Canada
Canada characterized
characterized by
by lower
lower elevations
elevations as
as
discussed
in parts of
previously discussed.
Development of wetlands
wetlands
The
development of
of mineral
mineral wetlands
wetlands generally
generally begins
begins when
when conditions,
conditions,
The development
especially
hydrological
conditions,
create
an
environment
suitable
wetespecially hydrological conditions, create an environment suitable for wetland
or no
no organic
organic deposition
deposition takes
takes place
place in
in these
these wetwetland development.
development. Little or
is able
able to
to decompose
decompose at
at aarelatively
relatively
lands
produced is
lands since
since the organic matter produced
because of
of the
the favourable
favourable oxygen
oxygen conditions
conditions associated
associated with
with these
these
fast
fast rate because
systems.
systems.
The
development of peatlands
peatlands begins
begins when
basal peat
peat is
is deposited
deposited
The development
when the
the basal
and
continues
to
the
present.
Peatlands,
in
a
sense,
represent
a
high
energy
and continues
Peatlands, in a sense, represent a high energy
energy is
stored and very
very little
little is
is
balance
balance system,
system, where
where aa great
great deal
deal of
of energy
is stored
released
energy which
which is released
released comes
comes mainly
mainly from
from
released by
by degradation.
degradation. The energy
being released
released from
from
the
an increasingly
increasingly smaller amount being
the surface
surface layers with an
the
the lower
lower layers.
Organic
surface by
by vegetation
vegetation
Organic material
material is continuously
continuously being
being added to the surface
litter.
the peat
peat deposit
deposit reflects
reflects the
the succession
succession of
of vegetation,
vegetation, characcharaclitter. Thus, the
but
degree of
of decompositio
decompositionn but
terized
terized by
by layers
layers differing
differing not
not only
only as
as to
to their degree
parent materials.
materials.
also
also as
as to
to the
the nature of the parent
Peatlands,
, are
composed of
one peat
peat layer.
layer.
Peatlands, in
in most
most cases
cases,
are composed
of more
more than
than one
peat
layers
are
a
reflection
of
the
type
of
vegetation
contributing
to
These
These peat layers
a reflection the type of vegetation contributing to
the later
later decomposition
decomposition processes.
processes.
the
the organic
organic layer
layer rather than of the
Mineral
Mineralwetlands
wetlandsare
are associated
associatedwith
withaa thin
thin surface
surface peat
peat layer
layer or
or an
organic-rich
organic-richmineral
mineralsurface
surfacelayer.
layer.Their
Their development
developmentcould
could thus
thus be
be ex-
482
482
pressed using
using the
the equation
equation Jenny (1941)
pressed
(1941) developed
developed for mineral
mineral soils.
soils . This
This
equation is as follows:
equation
follows :
f(cl,0o,
...))
SS == feel,
, r r,
, p,p,t t...
where the
the soil
where
soil development
deveI'opment (S),
(S) , depends
depends on
on climate
climate (c1),
(c1), organisms
organisms (o),
(0),
relief (r),
(r), parent
parent material
material (p),
(p), and
and time
time (t)
(t).. The dots indicate that additional
relief
forcing factors
factors may
may have
have to
to be
be induded
included.. It is difficult
forcing
difficult to use Jenny's equation
equation
for peatlands,
are composed
for
peatlands, which
which are
composed of several
several contrasting
contrasting layers.
layers. The apapproach taken
taken here
here is thus
thus to
to show
show that
that the
the genesis
genesis of
of wetlands,
wetlands, especially
especially
proach
those
associated
with
peat,
is
greatly
time-dependent
and
began
at
time
zero,
those associated with peat, is greatly time-dependent
when the
the basal organic
when
organic matter was deposited. Time
Time is
is the
the dominant
dominantforcing
forcing
factor and all other forcing
factor
forcing factors
factors are time-dependent
time-dependent (Tarnocai
(Tamocai 1978).
1978).
is the result
result of
of the
the interaction
interactionof
ofbiologibiologiA single, homogeneous peat layer is
cal and
and physical
forcingfactors.
factors.Thus,
Thus, the
the equation
equation for
for a single
cal
physical forcing
single peat layer
layer
(Sp) can be written:
(Sp)
Sp == fed
f(cl,, w,
w, r,r,v,v,c,c,t t.....)
Sp
.)
where the variables
where
variables are defined
defined as: climate (c);
(c); water
water properties
properties (w);
(w); relief
relief
or landform (r); vegetation
vegetation (v);
(v); organisms
organisms (0)
The dots
dots stand
stand
(o);; and time (t). The
components such
such as
as permafrost and dust
dust or
or water
waterpollution.
pollution.
for unspecified
unspecified components
composed of several
several peat
peat layers,
layers, and
and
Peatlands,
indicated above,
Peatlands, as indicated
above, are composed
the equation
equationfor
foran
anorganic
organicsoil
soil
all forcing
forcing factors
factors are
are time-dependent. Thus, the
(So) is:
is:
So
= Spl ++Sp2
Sp2++Sp3
Sp3
Spn= =(
++
. ..• •+ +Spn
.w.r.v.o ...
So =Sp1
ff(t)cIci,wv,o.
where Spl,
Sp 1,Sp2,
Sp2, Sp3
Sp3 .. .. .. Spn
Spn represent
represent the
the individual
individual layers
layers of
of peat
peat materials.
materials.
Time (t) is
is the
the dominant
dominant factor
factor and
and stands
stands for
for the
the total
totaltime.
time.The
Thesubdominsubdominant factors
factors can
can change
change with
with time
time and
and are
are listed
listedasassubscripts.
subscripts.
This relationship
relationship is probably
probably better shown
shown in
in the
the schematic
schematic model
model sugsuggested
This model,
gested by Tarnocai
Tarnocai (1978).
(1978). This
model, shown
shown in Fig.
Fig. 22,
22, illustrates
illustrates the
the
various forcing
forcing factors
factors and time. The interaction
interaction of
of
relationship between the various
factors can produce various
various peat layers,
layers, as in the case
case of peatlands, or
or
these factors
material, as
as in
in the
the case
case of
of mineral
mineral wetlands.
wetlands. For
Forexample,
example, aa
very little peat material,
of hydrology,
hydrology, especially
especially water chemistry or climate,
climate, during
during time
time can
can
change of
give
to various
various types
types of
of wetland
wetland development.
development. Peatlands
Peatlands can
can start
start as
as
give rise
rise to
mineral
then develop
mineral wetlands
wetlands then
develop into fens
fens and
and finally
finally into
into bogs.
bogs. In
In coastal
coastal
areas
areas along
along the
the Hudson
Hudson Bay
Bay Lowland
Lowland coastal
coastal marshes
marshes represent
represent the
the initial
initial
stage
of
development.
Because
of
glacial
rebound
these
change
into
fresh
stage of development. Because of glacial rebound these change into fresh
water
water marshes,
marshes , then
then fens,
fens. and
andfinally
finally develop
develop into
intobogs
bogs(Tarnocai
(Tamocai1982).
1982).
483
483
QJ
E
surface
surfac e
Spa
Sp3
Sp2
Sp2
Spl
Sol
1=0
1.0
1----
mineral
mineral
soil
soil
SOIL PROFILE
PROFILE DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENTAND
ANDTHE
THE
ORGANIC SOIL
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
THE SUBDOMINANT
SUBOOMINANT FACTORS
FACTORS
RELATIONSHIP
FUNCTION OF
OF TIME,
TIME .WHERE
WHERE tI IS
IS TOTAL
TOTAL TIME
TIME .
AS AA FUNCTION
cl IS
ISCLIMATE.
CLIMATE ;wwISISWATER
WATER PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES ,; rr IS
IS
cl
RELIEF OR
VEGETATION .; o
0 IS
IS
RELIEF
OR LANDFORM
LANDFORM :vvISISVEGETATION
ORGANISMS ;. AND
SI~GLE PEAT
PEAT LAYER.
LAYER .
ORGANISMS
AND Sp AA SINGLE
Figure 22.
time .
Figure
22. Relationship between forcing factors and time.
Forcing factors affecting wetland development
Time
Time
As
already been indicated, time is the dominant
dominant factor
factor in
in the
the genesis
genesis of
As has already
wetlands.
which wetland
wetland development
development began.
wetlands. Time
Time zero
zero is
is the
the point at which
began. In
In
3
B.P. in the
and 8.5-9
10 3 years
years B.P.
the continental
continental regions
regions and
Canada,
Canada, this
this is
is 4-6
4-6 xx 10
xx 1W
years B.P.
B.P. in
in the
thearctic
arcticislands
islands (Tarnocai
(Tarnocai 1978).
1978). From
From time
time zero
zero
103 years
onwards
various factors
factors produces
layers
onwards the
the interaction
interaction of the various
produces the
the different layers
of
materials, the
most recent'
being on
the surface.
surface . Any
Any of the
the
of peat
peat materials,
the most
recent one
one being
on the
factors,
however,
can
change
with
time,
producing
different
organic
layers,
factors, however, can change with
producing different organic layers,
of
peat
deposition
or
producing
changing
the
rate
changing the rate of peat deposition or producing aa different
different wetland.
wetland. In
In the
the
extreme
climate) can
drastic that wetland
wetland
extreme case,
case, the
the change
change (e.g.
(e.g.,, in
in climate)
can be so drastic
islands. Illustrations
llJustrations of
development
development ceases,
ceases, as
as was
was the
the case
case with
with the
the arctic islands.
the
the change
change in
in peatland
peatland vegetation
vegetation over
over time
time in
in western
western Canada includes the
(1989),Nicholson
Nicholsonand
and Vitt
Vitt (1990),
(1990),
paleoecological
al.(1989),
paleoecologicalstudies
studiesof
of Kubiw
Kubiw etetal.
and
(1990).
and Zoltai
Zoltai and
and Vitt
Vitt (1990).
Climate
Climate
There
prairie region,
region, because
because
There isis very
very little
little peat
peat development
development in
in either
either the prairie
the
theclimate
climateisisdry
dryand
andwarm,
warm,or
oron
onthe
the high
higharctic
arctic islands,
islands, because
because the
the climate
climate
484
484
dry and
and cold.
cold. The
The most
most favourable
favourable climate
climate for
for-the
the development
development of peat in
isisdry
in
Canada
subarctic regions.
the
Canada coincides
coincideswith
withthat
thatof
of the
the boreal
boreal and
and subarctic
regions. Here,
Here, the
climate isis cool
cool and
and moist,
for peatland
climate
moist , the optimum
optimum climatic
climatic conditions
conditions for
peatland
development (Terasmae 1972).
development
1972).
Many
Many wetlands
wetlandsininCanada
Canada are
are affected
affected by
by permafrost.
permafrost. Permafrost
Permafrost in
in the
subarcticand
and boreal
boreal regions
regionsdeveloped
developed in
in some
some peatlands
peatlands after
after the
the peat was
subarctic
deposited in
in a non-permafrost
environment. This
This implies
implies that
that a general
deposited
non-permafrost environment.
general
cooling of
of the
the climate
climate may
may be
be responsible
responsible for
for this phenomenon. However,
cooling
However,
was found
found (Reid 1974,
itit was
1974, Zoltai 1972)
1972) that incipient
incipient permafrost
permafrost as
as well
well as
as
thawing permafrost
permafrostmay
mayoccur
occurinin the
the peatlands
peatlands of
of these
these regions
thawing
regions under the
the
present climatic
climatic regime
regime.. ItIt isis possible
possible,, however
however,, that a slightly
present
slightly cooler temperature was
was responsible
responsible for
for the
the initiation
initiation of most
ature
most permafrost in these regions,
regions,
as was
found to have
as
was found
have occurred
occurred in central
central Manitoba
Manitoba between
between 600 and 200
200
years B.P. (Thie
years
(Thie 1974).
1974).
influence of
of latitude,
latitude, thus climate, was investigated
The influence
investigated upon the primary
primary
production of
of shoots
shoots of
of the
the bog
bog shrubs
shrubs Chamaedaphne
production
calyculata,
Kalmia
Chamaedaphne calyculata, Kalmia
polifolia,, and
and Ledum
Ledum groenlandicum
groenlandicum along
polilolia
gradient extending
extending from
from soualong a gradient
thern to northern
thern
northern Ontario
Ontario (Reader
(Reader 1982).
1982). Most
Most of
of the
the variability
variability in shoot
shoot
growth was
was explained
explained by
by a combination of heat
growth
heat sum
sum (degree-days),
(degree-days), waterwatertable depth, and
and water
water conductivity.
conductivity.
properties
Water properties
The chemical composition of the ground waters, especially the cation content,
content,
is aa very
very important
important factor
factor influencing
influencing the
the floristic
floristic composition
composition of
of wetland
wetland
vegetation,
vegetation, hence,
hence, the type
type of
of peat
peatdevelopment.
development .This
Thishypothesis
hypothesis isiswell
well
demonstrated in
in several
several studies
studies including
including SjOrs
Sjors (1963),
(1963) , Heinselman
Heinselman (1970),
(1970),
Jeglum (1971),
(1971), Tarnocai (1973),
(1973), Mills
Mills et al.
(1976), Karlin and
and Bliss
Bliss (1984),
(1984),
al. (1976),
and Bayley
Bayley (1984),
(1984), Vitt (1990),
(1990), Gignac
Gignac and Vitt (1990),
(1990) , and Vitt
Viu and
and
Vitt and
Chee
(1990).
Chee (1990).
Table 55 the
thechemistry
chemistry of
ofsurface
surface waters
waters from
from various
various peatlands
peatlands and
and
In Table
organic soils
soils of northern
northern Minnesota,
Minnesota, southeastern
southeastern Manitoba,
Manitoba, the
the Hudson
Hudson
organic
Bay Lowland,
Lowland , and the
the upper
upper Mackenzie
Mackenzie River
River area
area isis given.
given. These
These data
data
Bay
indicate
in areas
indicate that bogs
bogs have
have developed
developed in
areas where
where the
the water
water is
is low
low in
in pH
pH
(3.3-4.7),
(3.3-4.7) ,low
low in
in calcium
calcium (0.5-4,0
(0.5-4.0 ppm)
ppm) and
and magnesium
magnesium (0.1-0.7
(0.1-0.7 ppm),
ppm),and
and
very
very low
low in sodium and potassium.
potassium. The
The anion
anion content
contentof
ofthese
thesewaters
watersisisalso
also
very
with the
the fen
fen type
type of
of peatland, on the
very low.
low . The waters
waters associated
associated with
the other
other
hand, are
are much
much higher
higher in
in pH
pH (5.3-7.8)
(5.3-7.8)and
andcalcium
calcium (5.0-42
(5 .0-42ppm),
ppm),higher
higherinin
hand,
magnesium (0.1-22.2
and sodium
sodium (6.0-7.6
(6.0-7.6ppm),
ppm),low
lowininpotassium,
potassium,
magnesium
(0.1-22.2 ppm) and
and medium
medium in
in anion
anion content.
content. Any
Anychanges
changesininthe
thehydrology
hydrologyofofthe
thewetland
wetland
and
(excessive
(excessive drainage or inundation)
inundation) will
will also
also affect
affect the
the vegetation
vegetation and
andhence
hence
the formation
formation of
ofthe
the wetland.
wetland. The
Thepaper
paperby
byShotyk
Shotyk(1988)
(1988) presents
presentsaareview
review
the
soils.
organic soils.
and organic
peatlan ds and
types of peatlands
Chemical composition of surface waters from various
various types
Table
5. Chemic al compos ition of surface
Table 5.
K+
K+
CJ+
Cl+
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.11
0.
1.2
1.1
0
SjOrs 1963
1963
Sjors
1.0-1.6
1.9
4.0
2.0
0.1-0.4
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
Traa
Tr
-
-
Tr
Tr
Tr
Heinselman
1970
man 1970
Heinsel
al. 1974
et
al.
Mills e(
Mills
al. 1974
et al.
Mills e(
Mills
Tarnocai
1973
ai 1973
Tarnoc
1.4
2.8
8.9
.6
5.0-10
5.0-10.6
36.0
42.0
18.6
37.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.8
.8
0.1-2
0.1-2.8
4.6
6.0
.2
22
22.2
3.3
Tr
Tr
0.9
0.3
-
Tr
Tr
2.4
Tr
Tr
Tr
Tr
Tr
24.1
Tarnocai
1973
ai 1973
Tarnoc
Tarnocai
1973
ai 1973
Tarnoc
SjOrs 1963
Sjors
1970
Heinselman
man 1970
Heinsel
er al. 1974
Mills e(
Mills
er al.
al. 1974
Mills e(
Mills
Tarnocai
ai 1973
Tarnoc
Tarnocai
1973
ai 1973
Tarnoc
pH
C+
C+22
mg+2
Mg +2
Bog-pool
Bog-pool
bogs
Ombrotrophic
Ombro trophic bogs
ol)
(bog-po
(bog-pool)
Domed bog
bog
Domed bog
plateau
Bog plateau
Polygonal peat
Polygonal
plateau
4.6
0.5
.3-3.8
33.3-3.8
4.5
4.5
4.1
4.1
4.7
4.7
3.9
4.0
6.8
5.3-6.4
6.9
7.2
7.8
6.9
Fen-flark
Fen-flark
fen
ed fen
Pattern
Patterned
fen b
Lowland fenb
Lowland
fen
Pattern ed fen
Patterned
fen
Flat fen
pp.m.
0.1 pp.m.
than 0.1
less than
'Traces,. less
-Traces
.
burned
ically
Periodically burned.
bbperiod
Source
Na+
Isla+
mg/L
type
Peatlan d type
Peatland
7.6
6.0
-
17.7
3.5
SO;2
SO42
.7
29.7
29
1.9
HCO7l
HCO
97.0
.0
97
164.1
486
486
ofthe
the inorganic
inorganicchemistry
chemistryofofpeat
peatand
and peatland
peatland water.
water. Bourbonniere
Bourbonniere (1987)
(1987)
of
hasreviewed
reviewed the
the organic
organic geochemistry
geochemistryof
ofbog
bog waters.
waters.
has
by Glaser and Janssens
Janssens (1986)
(1986) discussed
AA recent
recent paper
paper by
discussed the
the relationship
relationship
between the
the geographic
geographic patterns
patterns of
of bog
bog landforms
landforms and
and peat
between
peat stratigraphy.
stratigraphy.
Autogenic bog
bog proceses
proceses such
such as
as changes
changes inin the
the hydraulic
properties of acAutogenic
hydraulic properties
accumulating peat
peat were
were found
found to
to be
be as
as important
important as
as climate
climate on
on aa regional
regional basis.
basis.
cumulating
Reliefor
or landform
landform
Relief
Landform
studied and
Landform types
types associated
associated with
with peatlands
peatlands in
in Canada
Canada have
have been
been studied
described by
by Tamocai
Tarnocai (1970)
(1970)and
and Zoltai
Zoltai etetal.
described
They
recognized
al. (1975).
(1975). They recognized three
three
basic
basic types
types of
of peatland
peatland classes:
classes: bogs,
bogs, fens,
fens, and
and swamps. Subdivisions of
of these
these
are
the surface
surface morphology
morphology (e.g.,
domed, plateau,
plateau, flat,
flat, sloping,
sloping,
are based
based on the
(e.g., domed,
and patterned).
patterned).
and
The
type determines
determines the moisture regime
regime and the water
water source
source
The landform
landform type
the peatland
peatland and,
and, thus,
thus, the
the type
type of
of vegetation
vegetation growing
growing on
the peat
peat
for
for the
on the
deposit.
general, fen
fen and
and swamp
swamp types
types of
of peatland
peatlandforms
forms are
areassociated
associated
deposit. In general,
They are
are characterized
characterized by
by saturated
saturated conconwith
with aa minerotrophic environment. They
water table
table is
is above
above or just
just at
at the
the surface
surface for
for most
most of
of the
the
ditions
ditions and
and the water
growing
fen and
and swamp
swamp types
types of
of landforms
landforms
growing season
season.. The water supply of the fen
other hand,
hand, bog-type
bog-type peat
peat
is
is mainly
mainly from
from mineral-rich
mineral-rich ground
ground waters.
waters. On the other
landforms are ombrotrophic
ombrotrophic (water
(water supply
supply is
is mainly
mainly from rain).
rain). In
In bogs,
bogs, the
the
is below
below the
the surface
surface and, in
in the
the extreme
extreme case
case of
of the
the domed
domed bogs,
bogs,
water table is
especially those associated
associated with
with permafrost, there is
is aa very
very dry
dry surface
surface peat
peat
especially
cover.
cover.
Vegetation
Vegetation
Vegetation plays
plays aa very
very important
important part
partin
in the
thedevelopment
developmentofofwetlands
wetlandssince
since
Vegetation
the organic
organic material
material originates
originates from
from vegetation
vegetation and
andreflects
reflects the
thesuccession
succession
the
of vegetation
vegetation by
by its
its peat
peat layers.
layers. The
The properties
properties of
of the
the deposit
deposit (e.g.,
(e.g., degree
degree
of
of
decomposition
and
chemistry)
are
largely
related
to
the
type
of
vegetation
of decomposition and chemistry) are largely
to the type of vegetation
from
from which
which the
the organic
organic material
materialwas
was derived.
derived.
The peatland
peatland vegetation
vegetation communities
communities in
the boreal
boreal region
region have
have been
been
The
in the
studied and
and described
described according
according totospecies
speciescomposition
compositionbybyHeinselman
Heinselman
studied
(1970), Dansereau
Dansereauand
andSegadas-Vianna
Segadas-Vianna(1952),
(1952).and
andMoss
Moss(1953).
(1953).They
Theydelindelin(1970),
eated the
thefloristic
floristic composition
composition of
of the
the peatland
peatlandenvironment
environmentand
andthe
thesuccessucceseated
sional
sional stages
stagesresulting
resultingfrom
fromenvironmental
environmentalchanges.
changes.
Organisms
Organisms
Thedecomposition
decompositionrates
ratesofoforganic
organicmaterials
materialsassociated
associatedwith
withwetlands
wetlandsare
are
The
thanthose
thoseofoforganic
organicmaterials
materialsassociated
associatedwith
withupupfrequently much
muchslower
slowerthan
frequently
duetotolow
lowoxygen
oxygencontent
contentassociated
associatedwith
withwaterwaterlands. This
Thisisisbasically
basically due
lands.
logging, low
low nutrient
nutrientcontent
contentand
andpH,
pH,and
andlow
lowsoil
soiltemperatures.
temperatures.
logging,
487
487
Latter et
et al.
at. (1967)
(1967) studied
studied the microbiological
microbiological activity
activity in
in organic (peat)
(peat)
Latter
soils
and
compared
the
results
with
those
obtained
from
mineral
soils
in the
the
soils
compared the results with those obtained from mineral soils in
approxigrassland region.
region . They found
found that
that the
the total
total number
numberofofbacteria
bacteriaisisapproxigrassland
8
half as
as much
much in
in the
the peat
peat soil
soil (14-35
(14- 35 xx10
108 cm
cm -3
- 3)) as
as in
in the
the grassland
grassland
mately half
8
108 cm
cm -3
-3).
They also
also estimated
estimated the
the total
totallength
lengthof
ofliving
livingfungal
fungal
). They
soil (16-79 xx 10
and
the
grass- 3 and the grassand found
found that
thatthe
thepeat
peatsoil
soilcontained
contained15-180
15-180mmcm
cm -3
hyphae and
.
The
ratio
of
bacteria
to
- 3.
of bacteria to length
length of
offungal
fungal
soil contained
contained160-580
160- 580mmcm
cm -3
land soil
is 1:300
1:300 in grassland soil ant 1:1,300
1: 1,300 in peat
peat soil.
soil. They
They also
also indicated
indicated
mycelium is
that nitrogen-fixing
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, both aerobic
aerobic and
and nitrifying,
nitrifying, are
are virtually
virtually absent
absent
that
peat soil.
soil.
in peat
occurs most
most rapidly
rapidly in
in the
the surface
surface layer
layer of
of the
the organic
organicsoil
soil
Decomposition occurs
profile . The
The studies
studies of
ofClymo
Clymo (1965)
(1965) show
show that
that the
the greatest
greatestloss
lossin
in dry
dryweight,
weight,
profile.
which
indicates
the
rate
of
decomposition,
occurs
in
the
surface
20
cm
and
which indicates
rate of decomposition, occurs in the surface 20 cm and
disappears completely
completely below
is due
due to
to
low or disappears
becomes very low
below this
this depth. This is
anaerobic conditions
conditions under
under which
which very
very few organisms
organisms can
the anaerobic
can operate.
are also
also indications
indications that the
the rate
rate of
of decomposition
decomposition differs depending
There are
Sphagnum papillosum
on the
the botanical
botanical origin
origin of the
the organic
organic soil
soil material.
material . Sphagnum
papi/losum
(Clymo
decomposes
cuspidatum (elymo 1965). The
S. cuspidatum
decomposes at
at only
only about
about half
half the
the rate of S.
more easily metabolized compounds will
will be used up
up by
by the
the organisms
organisms most
most
rapidly, leaving less
le~ palatable
palatable compounds
degraded more
more slowly.
slowly. This
This
compounds to be degraded
the initial
initial stages
stages and becomes
becomes
means that the decomposition
decomposition rate is rapid in the
slower as time proceeds
proceeds (Waksman
(Waksman and
and Stevens
Stevens 1929,
1929, Theander
Theander 1954).
1954).
Soil
play an
an important
important role
role in
in the
thedecomposition
decomposition process
process
Soil animals
animals also
also play
(Cragg
1961 , Macfadyen
little data
data available
available
(Cragg 1961,
Macfadyen 1963).
1963).There
There is,
is, however,
however, too little
role in
in the
the decomposition
decomposition of
oforganic
organic soils.
soils.
for a complete assessment
assessment of their role
The
Bay Lowland
Lowland as
as an
an example
example of
ofwetland
wetlanddevelopment
development
The Hudson Bay
The
Bay Lowland
Lowland lies
lies on the
the western
western coast
coast of
of James
James and
and Hudson
Hudson
The Hudson Bay
Bays
Churchill, Manitoba.
Manitoba . It is
is aa
Bays between
between the
the Quebec-Ontario
Quebec-Ontario border
border and Churchill,
6
2 . The area
km2• The area
of324
324 xx 10
10 6 km
-large,
fiat, poorly-drained
poorly-drained lowland
lowland with an area
area of
large, flat,
is
underlain by Paleozoic
Paleozoic sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
mainly carbonates,
the
is underlain
rocks,, mainly
carbonates, and the
lies adjacent
adjacent to the
the Canadian
Canadian
average
average slope
slope isis only
only 0.5-1.0
0.5-1.0mm per
per km
km.. It lies
Shi~ld.
The
region
is
dissected
by
major
rivers
originating
south
the
Shield. The region is dissected by major rivers originating south on
on the
Shield.
Shield.
The
P. It was
was then
then invaded
invaded
The lowland
lowland was
was deglaciated
deglaciated 7,400-8,000
7,400-8,000 years
years B.
B.P.
by
Tyrrell Sea
Sea which
which left
left aa glacio-marine
glacio-marine clay
clay deposit
deposit which
which restricts
restricts
by the Tyrrell
area isis undergoing
undergoing isostatic
isostatic
drainage,
. The
drainage, promoting
promoting wetland
wetland formation
formation.
The area
rebound
rate of
of 0.7-1.0
0.7-1.0 m
m per
per 100
100 years
years (Hunter
(Hunter 1970).
1970) . Old
Old coastal
coastal
rebound at
at aa rate
be
found
inland
from
the
coast
features
such
as
beach
ridges
and
dunes
can
features such as beach ridges and dunes can be found inland from the coast
an
at
at distances
distances up
up to
to 350
350 km
km (Pala
(Pala and
and Weischet
Weischet 1982)
1982).. The
The area
area represents ,an
excellent
excellent chrono-sequence
chrono-sequence for
for pedological
pedological studies
studies as
as time
time zero
zero isis represented
represented
488
488
byactively-forming
actively-formingbeach
beachridges
ridgesand
anddunes
dunes with
with well-developed
well-developedpodzols
podzolsof
of
by
agesup
uptoto5,000
5,000years
yearsbeing
beingpresent
present(Protz
(Protzetetal.al.1984).
ages
This
also
allows
for
1984). This also allows for
aastudy
studyofofwetland
wetlanddevelopment
development and
and succession
successionprocesses.
processes.AAclimatic
climaticgradient
gradient
isis present.
the lowlands
lowlands lies
lies in
in the
the Mid-Boreal
Mid-Boreal
present. The
The southern
southern portion
portion of
of the
Wetland Region
Region while
while the
the northern
northern portion lies in the High
Wetland
High Subarctic
Subarctic Wetland Region
Region (Fig.
(Fig. 23).
23).
land
The
ranges from
from coastal
The wetland
wetland vegetation
vegetation isis of
of particular
particular interest
interest as
as itit ranges
coastal
salt
rivers to inland
salt marshes
marshes and
and brackish
brackish or
or freshwater
freshwater marshes
marshes near
near major rivers
peatlands
swamps. This
This will
will be discussed
discussed in
peatlands consisting
consistingof
of fens,
fens, bogs,
bogs, and
and swamps.
in
some
southern James
Hudson Bay
some detail
detail for
for two
two areas,
areas, southern
James Bay
Bay and
and Hudson
Bay near
near the
the
northern limit
limit of the lowlands.
northern
The
salt marshes
marshes on
the coast.
coast. These
These have
have been
been
The system
system starts
starts out
out as
as salt
on the
already
already discussed
discussed in
in this
this paper
paper in
in the sections
sections on the High and Low Subarctic
and
and Mid-Boreal
Mid-Boreal wetland
wetland regions.
regions. Towards
Towards the
the landward-edge
landward-edge
and the
the High and
of
fresh water
water influence
influence becomes greater than
than the
the saline
saline
of these
these marshes, the fresh
influence
portions of
of the
the lowland
lowland are
are characcharacinfluence and
and wetlands
wetlands in
in the
the southern portions
terized by
by both typical
species such
such as
as Typha
terized
typical freshwater
freshwater marsh
marsh species
loti/olia
Typha latifolia and
and
fen species
fen
species including
including Carex
paleacea, C. diandra,
diandra, Calamagrostis
Calamagrostis neglecta,
neglecta,
Carex paleacea,
Potentilla palustris,
palustris, Myrica
Potentilla
Myrica gale, Menyanthes
Menyanthes trifoliata,
tri/o/iata, and
and species
species of
of EriEriophorum (Glooschenko
1983).
More
important,
peat
begins
to
form
in
this
ophorum
(Glooschenko 1983). More
peat begins to form in this
location.
the salt
salt marsh
marsh wetland
wetland ecosystem
ecosystem gives
gives way
way to a fen.
fen. Peat
Peat
location. Thus, the
within
coast isis usually
usually shallow,
shallow, with
with depths
depths around
around40
40cm.
cm. Peat
Peat
within 5 km
km of the coast
increases inland and
and depths
depths of
of 22 m
m are
are found
found 30-40
30-40km
km inland
inland (Sims
(Sims
depth increases
et
a!. 1982a).
el al.
1982a). Fresh
marshes disappear
disappear at
at approximately
approximately the
the High
High
Fresh water marshes
Boreal-Low Subarctic
and only
only fens
fens are
are
Boreal-Low
Subarctic Wetland
Wetland Region
Region boundary (Fig. 6) and
present. Treed fens
with
fens with Larix laricina
laricina are particularly
particularly common
common in
in the
the sousouthern portion
portion of
ofJames
Jal1l;es Bay
Bay (Riley
(Riley 1982,
1982, Sims
Sims et al.
1982a,
b).
al.
the coast,
coast, increased
increased peat
peatthicknesses
thicknesseslead
leadfrom
from minerotrophic
minerotrophic
Away from the
to ombrotrophic
ombrotrophic ecosystems,
ecosystems, i.e.,
i.e., bogs.
bogs. Fens
Fens are
arestill
still present
presentwhere
where minerminerto
otrophic waters
waters occur.
occur. The
Thevegetation
vegetationofofinland
inlandpeatlands
peatlandswas
wasfirst
firstdescribed
described
otrophic
by such
such authors
authorsas
asHustich
Hustich(1957)
(1957)and
andSjOrs
Sjors (1961)
(1961) for the
the Hawley
Hawley Lake
Lake area
area
by
in Ontario
Ontario (Low
(LowSubarctic),
Subarctic),and
andSjOrs
Sjors (1963)
(1963) for
for bogs
bogs and
and fens
fens along
alongthe
the
in
Attawapiskat River
River in
in the
the High
HighBoreal
BorealWetland
WetlandRegion.
Region.The
Thesuccession
succession of
of
Attawapiskat
these wetlands
wetlands has
has been
been discussed
discussed by
by Jeglum
Jeglum and
and Cowell
Cowell (1982)
(1982) for
for the
the
these
Kinoje Lakes
Lakes area
arealocated
locatedininthe
theMid-Boreal
Mid-BorealWetland
WetlandRegion
Regionof
ofthe
theHudson
Hudson
Kinoje
Bay Lowland,
Lowland, some
some 85
85 km
km inland
inland NNW
NNW of
ofMoosonee,
Moosonee. Ontario
Ontariolocated
locatedatat
Bay
the
mouth
of
the
Moose
River.
They
discussed
succession
for
three
wetlands:
the mouth of the Moose River. They discussed succession for three wetlands:
those located
locatedalong
alongflowage
flowage lakes
lakesand
andstreams,
streams.peatlands
peatlandsisolated
isolatedfrom
fromflow
flow
those
butunder
underminerotrophic
minerotrophicconditions,
conditions.and
andombrotrophic
ombrotrophicbogs.
bogs.The
The
flow-domibut
flow-dominatedwetlands
wetlandsbegin
beginasasshallow
shallowmarshes
marsheswith
withthin
thinpeat.
peat.Major
Majorspecies
specieshere
here
nated
include
include Carex
Carex rostrata,
rostrata, Eleocharis
Eleocharis palustris,
palustris. and
and Potentilla
Potentilla palustris.
palustris. This
This
evolved through
through aa meadow
meadow marsh
marsh stage
stage to
to aathicket
thicketswamp
swampwith
with Alnus
Alnus
evolved
489
c,, kuRcik
BAY
BAY
HUDSON
HUDSON
\
\
dallraat
..k000RY
\
I
\
I
\
SL
SL
./
MANITOBA vO"
MANITOBA
.s~
/
/
JAMES
/
Iy/;-.;:
4&
/
QUEBEC
/
C„\,
(~-,
.'T,I ....... _
rr
OF
(0
..... 'N ,
f:
i
via
SFEO
FORT
VRTRN
WINiSK
~~~
/
I
I
__
..:-::_=-~
ry BAY
BAY
BAY
BAY
___
lOWLf\ND'<
LANON ..
AT TAWAPISK AT R
BH
MOOSE R
ONTARIO
ONTARIO
I
/
;'
BM
— — -----
250 km
km
250
o
I
100
100
A
90
90
W
a_
~
B
UPLANDS:.......
::::::...:: :::::::::
:::::::::::: :::::::
..........
.... .... .............
..... ...::.
80
80
70
0
C/) 60
(f)
Cl
Z
< 50
<t
50
∎ O PEN PEAT 04••
_J
.J
u...
LL
O
0
OPEN BOG
40
e
30
~ 30
TREED FEN
20
20
OPEN FEN
10
10
MARSH
0
u
-ci
C
c:
c:
0
CO
~
00
0
U
ro
a)
~
E
(r)
!!2.
MIDBOREAL
MIDBOREAL
>.
<1l
.0
.o
HIGH
HIGH
BOREAL
BOREAL
3-
"0
Co
iii
.:sf.
III
LOW
LOW
SUBARCTIC
SUBARCTIC
c:
C
HIGH
~°3
HIGH
SUBARCTIC ~
SUBARCTIC
'0.
a
ro
:t
ro
<1l
BM
BM
c:=3
UPLANDS (Dry)
(Dry)
MINN UPLANDS
[==:J PEAT
PEAT WETLANDS
BH
~
CD
co
SL
SH
PERMAFROST
(..'··· /:::::··1 PERMAFROST
MARSHES (Saline
(Saline
~
V A MARSHES
and
and Fresh Water
Figure
23. Map
Figure 23.
Map of
of Hudson
Hudson Bay
Bay Lowland
Lowland with
with Wetland
Wetland Regions
Regions (figure
(figure redrawn
redrawn from
from Riley
Riley
1982).
1982).
490
490
Figure 14.
24. Bog
Bog ncar Wini:;].;.
Figllrr
n Hudson
Hu(boll Bav
B elV Lowland
Luw!aild (SL
Wetl:lnd Region).
Region). Trees
Tree' are
arc
nisk. Ont;lrio
Ontario iin
(SLWetland
stunted
Plow
in lona.
~tun l e d l'ic('(1 1I10l"iIllI,i.
rugo.sa.
Benda pwnil(/
pumila var.
rugosa, Betula
var. glandulifera.
g/anduli/eru. and
peat deepdeepand Salix
Salix plant/ol/a.
planifolla. A
As. peat
ens, aa conifer
sW'amp forms
forms with
\I.,'.i th Picea
Picca 1I1ariana
.
P.
glauco
and
mosses.
'fhis
con ifer swamp
mariana, P. glauca and mosses. This
can change
change with
with time
tim e to either
either an
an upland
upland forest
forest or
or aalow-shrub
low-shrub treed
treed bog.
bog.
can
minerotroph ic peatlands
peat lands isolated
fen pool
pool with
with
The minerotrophic
isolated from
from flow
flow stan
start as
as a fen
mosses such
as Scorpidium
Scorpiciillll! scorpioides
scorpioidcs and
and Drepanocladus
Drepaflocladus exannulatus.
exoI7I7111(]{U5·. This
T his
such as
matures
mature s as
as aa graminoid
graminoid fen
fen with
with Menyanthes
Menv(lnf /1cs trifoliata,
rnfo/iuw. Rhynchospora
Rhvnc/wspora alba.
alba.
,S'cirpus
caespitosto.
C.illiaior.
interior. C.
C. /asiocmpa.
lasioanpa. and
5jcirplls caespirosliS
. C.
and Equisetum
£quisCllllr! fluviatile
f!lIl'imile and
and
mosses.
Next in
in the
the sequence,
sequence. aa low
low shrub
shrub fen
fen occurs
occurs with
with Chamaedaphne
C/w/{)(lcc/aphne
mos,·es. Next
calvculata,
M
y
rica gale.
gale. Potentilla
Porenril/u ,tfrurie()sa.
an d Salix
Salix pedicellaris.
pedicel/aris. This
This isis
calyell/ara, jVfyrica
-ruticosa. and
followed
by
a
treed
fen
dominated
by
either
followed
treed fen dominated by either Larix
Larix larkina
{uricina or
or Thuia
Thuja oceidenoccidenfalls.
talis. This
This then
then evolves
evo lves into
into either
ei th er aa conifer
conifer swamp
swamp or
or aa bog
bug,(Fig.
(Fig. 24).
24).
The
ombrotrophic
bo
g
The ombrotrophic bog sequence
seq uence evolved
evolved from
from aa bog
bog. pool
poo l with
with Sphagnum
Sphagnum
rubellum.
r/ibelllllll. to
to aa SIJ/wgnllm and
and graminoid
gramino id bog
bog with
with Sphagnum
,\ p liagnwn magellanicum.
magc/lolliclIl71 .
. ). ..pulchrum,
pulchrllm,S.S.tenellum.
lcncl!wn.Carex
Care.roligosperma,
o/igospemw. Andromeda
Andromedaglaucopkylla.
glaucophylla. and
and
S.
Ox
y coccus microcarpus.
Oxycoccus
microcarplis. This
This successional
successio nal sequence
se quence isis terminated
term in alc ubby
low
y aalow
shrub
shrubbog
bogvegetated
vegeta tedwith
wit hKahnia
Ka lm iaangustiMia„
angllsrifolia.Ledurn
LedlUllgroenlandicum,
groenlolldiclIIn.CphagSl'lzag·
1114,12
m an fuscu,n.
IuscUIII. Picea
Picea tnariana,
m ariana.Rubus
RlliJUSchamaemoru.s,
chamaemorus. and
and Cladonia
Cladonia spp.
spp. This
This
success ional sequence
seq ue ncehas
hasalso
also been
beendiscussed
discussed in
in terms
te rmsof
offormations,
forma ti ons .subforsubforsuccessional
mations,
mation::;,and
andphysiognomic
physiognomicgroups
groupsbybyRiley
Ril ey(1982).
(1982).
Interms
termsofofclimatic
cli maticgradients.
grad ients. vegetation
vegetation changes
cha nges in
in the
theHudson
Hud sonBay
B8Y
In
Lowla nd are
are noted
not edasasone
oneproceeds
proceedsfrom
from the
thesouthern
so uth ernend
endofofthe
thelowland
low land
Lowland
491
491
at
the Canadian
Canadian Shield
Shield (Mid-Boreal
(Mid-Boreal Wetland
the High
High
at the
Wetland Region)
Region) north
north to
to the
Wetland Region on Hudson Bay
in Fig.
Fig. 66 (Riley
(Riley 1982).
1982).
Subarctic Wetland
Bay as
as depicted
depicted in
Swamps,
bogs dominate
Swamps, treed
treed bogs,
bogs, and
and fens
fens decrease
decrease in
in abundance.
abundance. Open bogs
in High
in
High Boreal
Boreal Wetland
Wetland Region then
then decrease,
decrease , while
while open
open fens
fens increase
increase to
to
the north. In
In the
the Low
Low Subarctic
Subarctic Wetland Region, permafrost
permafrost becomes
becomes more
important
and
peat
plateau
bogs,
both
open
and
treed,
become
important and peat plateau bogs, both open
treed , become the major
major
wetland. An example of wetland
succession at
at York
York Factory
Factory on
on the
the Hudson
wetland.
wetland succession
Bay shore in Manitoba is
Bay
is given
given by Tarnocai (1982).
(1982).
The York Factory peninsula is
is located
located between
between the estuaries of the Hayes
and
Nelson Rivers
Rivers in Manitoba.
Manitoba. The
The seaward
seaward progression
progression of
of Marsh
Marsh Point
Point
and Nelson
is approximately
approximately 6 cm
(the tip of the peninsula) due
due to
to active
active glacial
glacial rebound
rebound is
per year
year (Simpson
(Simpson 1972).
1972). This causes
causes new
new surfaces
surfaces to be
be continuously
continuously exexposed and provides a gradient for wetland development
development with
with relatively
relatively recent
recent
salt marshes
close to
to the
salt
marshes occurring
occurring close
the Hudson
Hudson Bay
Bay shore
shoreand
andprogressively
progressively
further inland.
inland. The wetland,
older peatlands
peatlands occurring
occurring further
wetland, soil
soil and
and vegetation
vegetation
development on
on the York
development
York Factory
Factory Peninsula
Peninsula was
was studied
studied along
along an
an 18
18km
km
baseline (tarnocai 1982).
1982) . This
This distance
distance represents
represents aa time
time span
span of
of approxiapproxibaseline
mately 2,100 years.
Low marshes
influenced by
by fresh
fresh water
water occur along the coast
Low
marshes influenced
coast below
below the
the
mean
high tide
tide and
and are
are exposed
exposed during
during the
the low
low tide
tide stage;
stage; tidal
tidal channels
channels
mean high
composed of
ofsalt-tolerant
salt-tolerant species
species ·such
such
provide drainage. Their
Their vegetation
vegetation isis composed
and Eleocharis
as Hippuris tetraphylla
Eleocharis spp. High marshes
as
tetraphylla and
marshes are located above
the mean high tide level and are inundated
inundated mainly
mainly during
during flood
flood tides. These
marshes are
are well
well vegetated
vegetated,, dominantly
dominantly by
by sedges,
sedges, Carex spp.,
high marshes
spp., Eriophorum spp.,
spp., Triglochin
Triglochin maritima,
maritima, T.
T. palustris,
palustris, and occasional small
rum
small clumps of
Salix spp. This corresponds to the
the meadow
meadow zone
zone described
describedby
byRitchie
Ritchie(1957).
(1957).
from the high marshes is a transitional area
area composed
composed
Immediately inland from
of an alluvial
alluvial plain with intermittent high
high marshes.
marshes. This
This area,
area, described
described as
as
a shrub zone by Ritchie (1957), is covered with thick Salix spp. and inundated
only during spring floods.
floods. When the
the flood
flood waters
waters recede,
recede, only
onlydepressional
depressional
areas
maintain the marsh
marsh characteristics.
characteristics. Peat development
development begins
begins in this
this
areas maintain
approximately 600 years after it emerges
emerges from Hudson
Hudson Bay.
Bay.
transitional area approximately
Large
areas beyond
beyond this alluvial
alluvial plain
high marsh
marsh unit
unit are
are covered
covered by
by
Large areas
plain - high
horizontal
fens,, the
the most
terrain type
type on the
the peninsula.
peninsula. This area
horizontal fens
most common
common terrain
is subdivided
into
two
units:
the
younger
horizontal
fen—palsa
subdivided into two units: the younger horizontal fen-paisafen—beach
fen-beach
unit and
fen unit.
unit. The lack of beaches in the
and the
the older
older horizontal
horizontal fen—palsa
fen-paisa fen
the
accidental ; the
where
latter unit is accidental;
the transect
transect happened
happened to cut through an area where
recognizable beaches
vegetation can
can be divided
divided into
no recognizable
beaches were
were present.
present. The
The vegetation
three zones on these units:
Salix spp
(younger part), stunted Larix laricina
units: Salix
spp.. (younger
(older part), and
and stunted
stunted Picea glauca and Larix laricina (oldest part). These
the invading
invading forest zone
zone described
described by
by Ritchie
Ritchie
vegetation zones correspond to the
(1957). It
in this
this horizontal
horizontal fen
fen zone
zone that
that permafrost
permafrost first
first develops,
develops , in
in
(1957).
It is in
492
492
association with
with beaches
beachesand
andpaIsa
palsafens.
fens. Since
Since most
most of
of the
the fens
fens have
have a high
association
water table,
table, usually
above the
the surface,
surface, permafrost
water
usually above
permafrost develops
develops on those areas
areas
which
waters from
from the
which are
are slightly
slightlyelevated
elevatedabove
abovethe
the water
water table.
table. Flood
Flood waters
Hayes River
River periodically
periodicallyinundate
inundatethis
this area
area as
as is indicated
indicated by the
the alluvial
alluvial
Hayes
boulders found
found
layers
layers within
within the
the peat
peat and
and by
by occasional
occasional ice-rafted rocks and boulders
on the surface
very
on
surface of the
the fens
fens and
and palsas.
palsas. This
This periodic
periodic inundation
inundation is very
important
maintaining the
minerotrophic characteristics
characteristics of these peatpeatimportant for
for maintaining
the minerotrophic
lands.
lands.
fens
When
surfaces are
When the peat surfaces
are not
not affected
affected by
by minerotrophic waters, the fens
are
are slowly
slowly overtaken
overtaken by
bybogs.
bogs. Peat
Peat plateaus
plateaus and paIsa
palsa bogs are the dominant
peadand
the Hayes
Hayes River
River side
side of
of the
the
peatland types.
types. They
They begin
beginto
to develop
develop on
on the
peninsula
land emerges
emerges from
from Hudson
Hudson
peninsula approximately
approximately2,000
2,000years
yearsafter
after the
the land
Bay but on the
Bay
the Nelson
Nelson River
River side
side development
development begins
begins approximately
approximately 1,000
1,000
years
plateau
years after
after emergence.
emergence. The
The earlier
earlier development
development of
of paIsa
palsa and
and peat plateau
bogs
Nelson River
the lack
lack of
of flood
flood
bogs on
on the Nelson
River side
side of
of the
the peninsula is related to the
waters
an ombrotrophic
ombrotrophic environment has been
been established
established much
much
waters and
and thus an
earlier. The vegetation
in this
this unit
unit is
is Picea
Picea mariana,
mariana, ericaceous
shrubs,
earlier.
vegetation in
ericaceous shrubs, and
sphagnum
Ritchie's (1957)
(1957) mound
mound topography
topography
sphagnum mosses
mosses and
and corresponds
corresponds to
to Ritchie's
zone.
development
Thus, the Hudson
Hudson Bay
Bay Lowland is a good example of wetland development
be separated
separated in
area
as
important factors
factors of
as the important
of time
time and
and climate
climate can
can be
in an area
of uniform
uniform bedrock
bedrock geology
geology and physiography.
physiography. Figure
Figure 25
25 summarizes
summarizes the
the
Bay Lowland
Lowland starting
starting with
with coastal
coastal
development of wetlands
wetlands in
development
in the Hudson Bay
marshes and
ending with
plateaus depending
depending on
on the
the climate.
climate.
marshes
and ending
with bogs
bogs or
or peat plateaus
in poorly-drained
poorly-drained localities.
localities. In addition,
addition, upland
upland forest
forest can
can
place in
This takes place
evolve into swamps
swamps if regional
logging of the
evolve
regional hydrology
hydrology changes
changes and water logging
upland takes
takes place.
place.
Wetlands have
major source
source of
ofatmospheric
atmospheric
Wetlands
have been
been considered
considered to
to be aa major
gas that
that has
has been
been receiving
receiving increasing
increasing attention
attention due
due to
to its
its funcfuncmethane, aa gas
greenhouse gas
1989). In order
order to
to underundertions as a greenhouse
gas (Aselmann
(Aselmann and Crutzen 1989).
stand the
onemissions
emissionsfrom
from
the global
global budget
budget of
of methane,
methane, studies
studiesare
arenecessary
necessaryon
low latitudes.
latitudes. The
TheHudson
HudsonBay
BayLowland
Lowland
various wetlands, both in high and low
an important
important area
area for
for studies
studies of
of methane
methane emissions
emissions as
as itit isis the
thesecond
second
is an
largest continuous
continuous wetland
next to
to the
the vast
vast peatlands
peatlands of
of
largest
wetland complex
complex on
on earth next
Siberia and
and shares
shares a similar
similar ecology
ecology to
to these
these wetlands.
wetlands.
western Siberia
of
The Northern
Northern Wetlands
Wetlands Study
Study (NWS)
(NWS) was
was initiated
initiated under
underthe
theauspices
auspicesof
The
Canadian Institute
Institute for
for Research
Research in
in Atmospheric
Atmospheric Chemistry
Chemistry (CIRAC).
(CIRAC).
the Canadian
The purpose
purpose of
ofthis
this study
study was to assess the importance
importance of
of northern
northern wetlands
wetlands
The
as aa source/sink
source/sink of
of biogenic
biogenic gases to the
the atmosphere
atmosphere under
undercurrent
currentclimatic
climatic
as
conjunctionwith
with intensive
intensive
conditions with
with emphasis
emphasis on methane.
methane. This
Thiswas
wasininconjunction
conditions
of the
thephysical,
physical, chemical,
chemical, hydrological,
hydrological,and
andbiological
biologicalprocesses
processesininstudies of
studies
fluencing biogenic
biogenic gas
et al. 1991).
1991). A
A major
major field
field study
study
fluencing
gas production
production (Routet
(Roulet et
was carried
carried out
out during
during the
the summer
summer of
of 1991
1991 near
near Moosonee,
Moosonee, Ontario
Ontarioinvolving
involving
was
493
TIME
, PEAT
ACCUMULATION
TIME,
PEAT
ACCUMULATION
r.:INEROTROPHY,
MINEROTROPHY
LOW ACIDITY
LOW
i WETLANDSj
WETLANDS
OM6ROTROPHY,
OMBROTROPHY.
HIGH
HIGH ACIDITY
SALIX
SAUX
_________
...THICKET
— THICKET
POOR
DRAINAGE
POOR DRAINAGE
FRESHWATER
FRESHWATER
~
"
MARSH
., MARSH
','
BRACKISH
UNVEGETATED
BRACKISH
UNVEGETATED
MARSH
TIDAL
TIDAL
MARSH
FLAT ~
FLAT
~~' " ~
""
FEN
_
• -.FEN
(COASTAL)
(COASTAL)
t
FEN
FEN _
(INLAND)
(INLAND)
SALT
MARSH
MARSH IUPLANDSj
[UPLANDS
/
BOG
BOG _
PEAT
PEAT
PLATEAU
PLATEAU
SL
SH
SL SH
(WETLAND)
(WETLAND)
REGION
REGION
SWAMP
SWAMP
SH
TUNDRA
TUNDRA (WETLAND)
(WETLAND)
REGION
~
REGION
1
GOOD
DRAINAGE
GOOD DRAINAGE
BEACH
/
v I
BEACH
RIDGE
SALIX
RIDGE /
OR _ _ _ _ THICKET
THICKET
O~E
DUNE
PIONEER
PIONEER
COMMUNITY
COMMUNITY
t
RIVER
RIVER
/
•
BL to
to SL
SL
UPLAND, BL
UPLAND
TLAND)
(WETLAND)
FOREST (WE
FOREST
REGION
REGION
/
LEVEE
PIONEER
PIONEER
COMMUNITY
COMMUNITY
Figure
succession. Hudson Bay Lowland.
Lowland,
Wetland succession,
Figure 25.
25. Wetland
investigators
federal and provincial
provincial agencies,
agencies, Canadian
Canadian and
and
investigators from
from Canadian
Canadian federal
U.
S. universities,
universities, and NASA
NASA and
and the
the National
National Center
Center for
for Atmospheric
Atmospheric
U. S.
Research in the U.S. Preliminary
Preliminary results
results indicate
indicate that
that the
the Hudson
HudsonBay
BayLowLowland
peatlands are
less important
important source
source of
of methane
methane than
than anticipated
anticipated
land peatlands
are aa less
(Roulet 1991).
1991).
evaluation in
in Canada
Canada
Wetland
Wetland inventories, change and evaluation
Wetland inventories
Wetland
inventories for
Wetland inventories
for various
various purposes
purposes have
have been
been carried
carried out throughout
Canada
past (Rubec
(Rubec et
majorit} of these
these inventories
inventories
1988). The
The majority
et al.
al. 1988).
Canada in
in the
the past
the mineral
mineral wetlands,
wetlands, such
such as
as
focussed
focussed on
on peatlands
peatlands although
although some
some of
of the
marshes, were also
also surveyed.
surveyed. The
The inventory
inventory methodologies
methodologies varied.
varied. It became
obvious from
1982 (Morgan
from discussions
discussions during
during aa workshop
workshop held in 1982
(Morgan and Pollett
or methodology
methodology was
was
1983)
single data-gathering
data-gathering approach, system
system or
1983) that
that no single
used
used in Canada.
In the Newfoundland
Newfoundland inventories an ecological
ecological division
division based on wetland
wetland
494
494
volumes. In New
New Brunswick,
Brunswick,
types
types facilitated
facilitatedthe
the gathering
gatheringof
of data
data on
on peat volumes.
the data
data gathered
gathered to
to provide
the variation
in peat
peat
provide aa better understanding
understanding of the
variation in
the
and the
the data
and
data stored
stored in
in aa peat
peat information
information bank
bank can
can be
be used
used for
for resource
resource
planning
an exploratory
exploratory peatland
peatland
planning and
and ecological
ecological interpretation
interpretation.. In
In Ontario an
inventory
desiginventory was
was conducted
conducted and
and detailed
detailed inventories
inventories were
were carried
carried out in designated areas having
nated
having potential for peat utilization.
utilization. The Soil
Soil Survey of Canada,
which
the only
only agency
agency collecting
collecting data in
in aasystematic
systematic fashion
fashion
which isis at
at present the
on
wetlands across
uses inventory
inventory methodology
methodology based
the wetweton wetlands
across Canada,
Canada, uses
based on the
land
(Tarnocai 1983).
1983). These
flat bog,
bog, pattern
pattern fen,
fen,
land form
form (Tarnocai
These landforms
landforms (e.g.,
(e.g., flat
channel marsh,
marsh, and basin
channel
basin swamp)
swamp) provide
provide an overall framework
framework for establishing map
map units.
units. Most
Most of the inventories
carried out by
lishing
inventories carried
by the
the Soil
Soil Survey
Survey of
Canada
remotely sensed
Both LANDSAT
LANDSAT data and
and
Canada rely
rely heavily
heavily on
on remotely
sensed data.
data. Both
various types
types of
of aerial
aerial photography
photography are
are being
various
being used.
used . Field data collection
collection is
transect. This
This systematic
systematic data acquisition
acquisition facilitates
facilitates the
carried
carried out along aa transect.
generation of cross-sections
of the
the wetland
generation
cross-sections of
wetland from
from which
which peat
peat volumes
volumes and
and
tonnages of peat can be
be calculated.
calculated.
tonnages
According
of Canada
Canada 1986)
1986) the total
total
According to
to a recent estimate (National Atlas of
3
area of wetlands
area
wetlands in Canada
Canada is
is about
about 127,194
127,194 x 10
10 3 ha,
14% of
of the
the land
land
ha, or 14%
area
The total
total area
area of
ofpeatlands
peatlands(wetlands
(wetlands having
having greater
greater than
than
area of Canada. The
40 cm
cm of
of pea~)
peat) in
40
in Canada
Canada isis111,328
111,328 xx 10
1066 ha,
12% of the
the land
land area
area of
of
ha, or 12%
Canada. Thus, mineral
mineral wetlands
wetlands cover 2%
of Canada. Table
Table
2% of the land area of
1 shows
shows the
the area
area of
of Canadian
Canadian wetlands
wetlands (both
(both mineral wetlands and peatlands)
while
(Tarnocai 1984)
1984) indicates
indicates only
peatland areas,
areas, volume,
volume,
while Table
Table 6 (Tarnocai
only the
the peatland
by province
province and territory. No
No estimate
estimate was
was found
found in
in literature
literature
and tonnage by
for the area
area of
of wetlands
wetlands in
in Greenland.
Greenland.
overall objective
objective of the
the cooperative
cooperative wetlands
wetlands inventory
inventory in
in the
the MariMariThe overall
Prince Edward
Edward Island)
Island)
times (Provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince
provide information
information on
on the
the classification,
classification, size, distribution, and
and value
value
is to provide
to wildlife
wildlife and other
other resources
resources of
of wetlands
wetlands in
in the
the Maritimes.
Maritimes. Wetlands
Wetlands in
in
Maritime Provinces
Provinces are
are being
being surveyed
surveyed through
through aajoint
jointfederal-provincial
federal-provincial
the Maritime
initiative known
known as the
the "Wetland
"Wetland Mapping
Mapping and
and Designation
Designation Program",
Program",
initiative
in 1980.
1980. No
No wetlands
wetlands inventory exists
exists for
but peatland
peatland
undertaken in
for Quebec, but
inventories are in
in progress
progress (Gerardin
(Gerardin and
and Groudin
Groudin1986).
1986).
being carried
carried out in
in western
western Canada,
Canada, mostly
mostly to
to monitor
monitor
Inventories are being
wetland changes
(Rubec
et
al. 1988).
et af.
1988). In British
British Columbia,
Columbia, inventories
inventories are
are
changes
being carried out both
both in
in coastal
coastal estuarine
estuarine wetlands
wetlands and
and in
in interior
interiorBritish
British
being
Columbia. AAcoastal
coastalinventory
inventory(five-year
(five-yearstudy)
study)includes
includesmapping,
mapping,classifying
classifying
Columbia.
in
in 35
35 major
major areas,
areas, and
and the
theevaluation
evaluation of
of200
200 to
to300
300 wetlands
wetlands (G.
(G. Adams,
Adams,
Canadian
Canadian Wildlife
Wildlife Service,
Service, Saskatoon,
Saskatoon, personal
personal communication).
communication).
The Alberta
AlbertaFish
Fishand
andWildlife
WildlifeService
Service isiscarrying
carrying out
outaerial
aerialsurvey
surveywork
work
The
in
in cooperation
cooperation with
with the
the U.S.
U.S.Fish
Fishand
andWildlife
WildlifeService.
Service.This
Thisstudy
studyprovides
provides
spring
spring pond
pond index
index counts
counts and
and as
asshown
shown aasteady
steadyerosion
erosionofofwetlands
wetlandsfrom
from
Table 6.
6. Peat
Peat resources
resourcesof
ofCanada
Canada(Tarnocai
(Tarnocai1984).
1984).
Table
Peatland areas
areas
Peatland
Provinces
Provinces
and
and
territories
territories
Alherta
Alberta
British
Columbia
British Columbia
Manitoba
Manitoba
New Brunswick
Brunswick
New
Newfoundland-Labrador
Newfoundland-Labrador
Northwest
Territories
Northwest Territories
Nova
Scotia
Nova Scotia
Ontario
Ontario
Prince
Island
Prince Edward
Edward Island
Quebec
Quebec
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Yukon
Yukon Territory
Territory
Canada
Canada
3
ha xx 10
103
ha
% of
of land
land
%
area within
within
area
designated
designated
areas
areas
12,673
12,673
1.289
1,289
20,665
20,665
120
120
6,429
6,429
25.
111
25,111
158
158
22,555
22,555
88
11
,713
11,713
9,309
9,309
1.298
1,298
20
11
38
38
22
17
17
88
33
25
25
I1
99
16
16
33
111,328
111,328
12
12
% of
of total
total
%
Canadian
Canadian
peatlands
peatlands
II
11
1
17
17
19
##
6
23
##
20
II
11
88
11
Indicated
Indicated
weights
of peat
pe at
weights of
with
+50%
with + 50% water
water
content
content
Indicated
Indicated
peat
peat
volumes
volumes
Indicated
Indicated
oven
oven dry
dry
weight
of
weight of
peat
peat
m3 X
x 10
1044%
M
%
Tonnes
Tonnes
Tonnes
Tonnes
4x 1044
xX 104
X 10
10
J
316,822
38,685
516,605
4,800
257,160
577,553
6,320
676,653
312
312
351,381
351,381
232,737
232,737
25,968
25,968
3,004,996
3,004,996
11
11
11
17
##
8
##
22
##
12
12
88
11
36,118
36,118
4,410
4,410
58,893
58,893
466
466
24,945
24
,945
65,841
65
,841
613
613
77,138
77,138
30
30
40,057
40
,057
26,532
26,532
2,960
2,960
54,177
54,177
6,615
6.615
88,339
88.339
698
698
37,417
37 ,417
98,762
98,762
920
920
115,708
115
.708
45
45
60,086
60 ,086
39,798
39.798
4,441
4.441
335,339
335,339
507,006
507
.006
0/0
%
11
II
I1
17
17
##
88
19
19
##
23
23
##
12
12
88
I1
#Less
1% .
#Less than
than 1%.
++ Oven
dry
weight basis.
basis.
Oven dry weight
+>-
1.0
V1
496
496
agriculture,
agriculture, aggravated
aggravated by
by drought.
drought. In
In the southern area of Alberta, wetland
inventory work
work is
is concerned
concerned with
with the
the possible
possible loss
loss of
of wetlands
wetlands which
which are
are
inventory
maintained
irrigation canals.
canals. Habitat
Habitat loss
loss was
was quantified
quantified
maintained form seepage of old irrigation
with respect
respect to
to upgrading
upgrading of
of irrigation
irrigation.. The
The thrust
thrust of the
the present program is
with
to retain habitat and
to
and includes
includes landowner
landowner contact.
contact. Some
Some wetland
wetland acquisition
acquisition
is carried
carried out
out with
with Ducks
Ducks Unlimited
Unlimited,, a private organization,
under the
the Wetis
organization, under
Wetlands for
for Tomorrow program.
lands
program .
Wetland
monitoring and evaluation
evaluation of
of change
change in
in Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan is being
being
Wetland monitoring
carried out by
by the
the Canadian
Canadian Wildlife
Wildlife Service
Service (CWS)
(CWS) in
in cooperation
cooperation with
with
carried
Lands
are using
using aerial
aerial photography
photography provided
provided by
by U.S.
U.S. Fish
Fish
Lands Directorate. They are
and
Wildlife Service
land use
use change,
change, aimed
aimed at
at wetlands
wetlands over aa
and Wildlife
Service to
to look
look at land
three Prairie Province
This isis to
tocoincide
coincide with
with Ducks
Ducks Unlimited
Unlimited work
work
three
Province area. This
which isis providing
providing subsampling
subsampling over
over three
three provinces
or mapping
mapping work
work,, also
which
provinces or
five years
years using
using
providing detailed groundtruthing.
groundtruthing. This
Thiswill
will be
be redone
redoneevery
everyfive
Canada Land Data System.
System.
Canada
The
major federal
federal wetland
wetland monitoring
monitoring effort
effort is
is the
the Canada
Canada Land
Land Use
Use
The major
Monitoring Program
Program (CLUMP). This
This program
program established
established the
the Prime
Prime WetWetMonitoring
lands
provide aa national
nationaloverview
overview of
ofland-use
land-use change
change issues
issues and
and
lands Projects to provide
dynamics on
on wetlands
wetlands in
in southern
southern Canada,
Canada , improve
improve federal
federal wetland
wetland proprodynamics
grams, and encourage
grams,
encourage provincial
provincial wetland
wetland initiatives.
initiatives. A
A national
nationaloverview
overview
was
was obtained
obtained by monitoring wetland conversion trends around major Canadian cities and special
special regional
regional studies
studies (Lands
(Lands Directorate
Directorate1986).
1986).
Wetlands loss
loss in
in Canada
Wetlands
Many areas of southern
southern Canada
Canadahave
have declined
declined in
in the
the areal
arealextent
extentof
ofwetlands
wetlands
(Rubec
al. 1988).
(Rubec et
et al.
1988). Lynch-Stewart
Lynch-Stewart (1983)
(1983) has
has attempted
attempted to
to document this
in southern Canada. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately , this
this is
is aa hard
hard task
task as
as she
she points
points out.
out.
in
There is
is aa lack
lack of
ofinteragency
interagency coordination
coordination and
and integration
integration which
which leads
leads to
to
and duplication
duplication of
of data.
data .She
Shewas
was able
abletotofind
find
incompleteness, inconsistency, and
15 quantitative studies in all
all of southern Canada.
Canada. Changes
Changes that
that occurred
occurred
only 15
ofwetlands
wetlandsbeing
beinglost
losttotoover
over70%.
70%.Some
Somewetlands
wetlands
from less
less than
than 1%
1% of
ran from
in other
other cases
cases total
totaldestruction
destruction of
ofthe
thewetland
wetlandoccurred.
occurred.
while in
were altered while
in parts
parts of
of Alberta
Alberta where
where
In some
some areas,
areas, wetlands
wetlands were
were created
created such
such as in
In
created new
new artificial
artificial wetland
wetland habitat.
habitat.
Unlimited has
has created
Ducks Unlimited
of British
British Columbia,
Columbia,major
majorlosses
losses have
have occurred
occurred ininwetwetthe Province
Province of
In the
lands in the
Deltadue
duemainly
mainly totoagriculture.
agriculture. For
For example,
example, aa
the Fraser
Fraser River
River Delta
27% loss
loss took
took place
place from
from 1967
1967 to
to 1982,
1982, but
but much
much of
ofthis
thisloss
loss was
was from
from
27%
"natural"
" natural" wetland
wetland to
to wetland
wetland use
usefor
forrecreation
recreationand
andconservation
conservation (Lands
(Lands
Directorate 1986).
1986). In the
the last
last century,
century ,however,
however, marsh
marsh habitat
habitathas
hasbeen
beenlost
lost
dyke construction
constructionfor
forflood
flood control,
control,landfills
landfills for
for urban
urbanand
andindustrial
industrial
by major dyke
development,
development , and
and dredging
dredging for
for shipping.
shipping. Past
Past development
development also
also has
has led
led toto
497
wetland losses
losses elsewhere
elsewhere in
in coastal
coastal British
BritishColumbia
Columbia(Lynch-Stewart
(Lynch-Stewart1983).
1983) .
Near
British Columbia,
Columbia, 70%
70% of
of wetlands
wetlands have
have been
been converted
' converted
Near Vancouver, British
to agriculture
agriculture and near
near Victoria,
Victoria , 58%
58% of
ofwetlands
wetlands were
were lost
lost totoagriculture.
agriculture .
In
interior British
British Columbia,
Columbia, wetlands
wetlands are being
being lost
lost to
to increased
increased ranging
ranging
In interior
and
grazing activities.
activities . The
Prairie Provinces
Provinces of Alberta,
Alberta, Manitoba,
Manitoba, and
and
and grazing
The Prairie
Saskatchewan are characterized by an abundance of shallow ""potholes"
potholes" from
from
less
than one
one hectare
hectare to
to several
several hundred
hundred hectares
hectares in
in size.
size . This
This "prairie
"prairie
less than
pothole region" as
as itit isis called,
called, provides
provides habitat
habitatfor
forrearing
rearingof
ofapproximately
approximately
America waterfowl
waterfowl as
as well
well as many
many other
one-half of the population of North America
migratory
birds.
These
provinces
are
sites
of
major
wetland
loss
due to
to
migratory birds. These provinces are sites
major wetland loss due
agricultural activities
activities such
in filling,
filling, and
and cultivation.
cultivation. No
No overall
overall
such as
as drainage, in
studies
made of losses
losses over
but estimates
estimates run
run up
up
studies have
have been made
over the
the entire area, but
6
to a total of approximately 1.2 x 10
106 ha. Since settlement
settlement to
to 1976,
1976, this
this occurs
occurs
directly
the loss
loss of
of wetland
wetland basins
basins to
toagriculture
agriculture and
andindirectly
indirectly through
through
directly in
in the
deterioration
of marsh-edge
marsh-edge vegetation
vegetation which
which isis essential
essential for
for waterfowl
waterfowl habihabideterioration of
tat. In
In southwestern
southwestern Manitoba,
Manitoba, Rakowski
Rakowski et
decline
(1974) cited
cited a 57% decline
et al.
al. (1974)
in
wetland areas
areas from
from 1929-1974
1929-1974 and
and predicted
predicted further
further losses.
losses. Schick
Schick
in total wetland
of the
the original
original presettlement
presettlement wetland
wetland area
area
(1972)
only 39%
39% of
(1972) reported
reported that
that only
remained
in the
the Alberta
Alberta prairie
prairie parkland
parkland region.
region. InInsouthwestern
southwestern SaskatSaskatremained in
chewan,
Millar (1981)
(1981) observed
1979, 84%
84% of
of wetlands
wetlands on
on sample
sample
chewan, Millar
observed that
that by 1979,
by human
human activities.
activities. Major
Major drainage
drainage projects
projects
transects
been affected
affected by
transects had
had been
account for about
about 20%
20% of
ofthe
the total
totalloss
losswhile
whilethe
themost
mostsignificant
significantcumulative
cumulative
losses
caused by
by drainage
drainage of
of small
small potholes
potholes by
by landowners
landowners or
or small
small
losses are
are caused
drainage projects. Further
Further details
details are
are given
given in
inLynch-Stewart
Lynch-Stewart (1983).
(1983).
Ontario has
has been
been well
well docudocuSerious
Serious decline
decline in
in wetland
wetland area
area in
in southern Ontario
mented. Snell
Snell (1982)
(1982) has compared the extent
extent of
of wetland
wetland area
area in
in 38
38 countries
in
(late 18th
18th and
and early-mid
early-mid 19th
19th centuries)
of the
the late
late
in pre-settlement (late
centuries) to that of
million hectares
(70% of area) has been
1960s.
1960s. She
She estimated
estimated that
that over
over one
one million
hectares (70%
converted
other uses.
uses.Agricultural
Agricultural reclamation,
reclamation,specifically
specifically drainage,
drainage, is
is
converted to other
the major cause
cause of
of such
such decline.
decline. A
A net
net decline
declineof
of1.8%
1.8% occurred
occurredfrom
from1967
1967
to 1982. Similar findings
findings on
by Bardecki
Bardecki (1981)
(1981) who
on wetland
wetland loss were made by
showed
that
85%
of
wetlands
loss
in
the
period
1966-1970
was
due to
to
showed that 85% of wetlands loss in the period 1966-1970 was due
agricultural
areas affected:
affected: (1)
(1) southwestern
southwestern OntaOntaagricultural conversion.
conversion. Three major areas
rio,
eastern Ontario,
Ontario, and
and (3)
(3) the
the area
area south
south of
ofGeorgian
Georgian Bay.
Bay. In
In the
the
rio, (2) eastern
three most southwestern Ontario counties,
counties, between
between 81
81 and
and 98%
98% of
of wetlands
wetlands
have
Another major
major area
area of
ofwetland
wetland loss
loss isis the
the prime
prime waterfowl
waterfowl
have been lost. Another
habitat
the lower
lower Great
Great Lakes.
Lakes. Up
Up toto35%
35%ofofcoastal
coastalwetlands
wetlands there
there
habitat of the
were lost to development
development by
by 1978
1978 (Lands
(Lands Directorate
Directorate1986).
1986). Wetland
Wetlandloss
loss isis
significant
Canadian shoreline of
of Lake
Lake Ontario
Ontario(Whillans
(Whillans 1982).
1982) .
significant along
along the
the Canadian
An estimated loss
loss of 57%
57% occurred
occurred with
with greater
greater than
than 80%
80% wetlands
wetlands loss
loss in
in
some
some areas such as Toronto.
Quebec
is another area
area of
of wetland
wetland loss.
loss. From
From November
November to
to March,
March, this
this
Quebec is
province
major wintering
wintering ground for
for hundreds
hundreds of
of thousands
thousands of
of aquatic
aquatic
province is
is a major
498
birds.
wetlands here are
are thus
thus of
ofinternational
international importance.
importance. Important
Important
birds. The wetlands
wetlands
located along
along the
the lower
lower St.
St .Lawrence
Lawrence River
River valley
valley where
where
wetlands are
are also located
some
42% of wetlands
wetlands were
were lost
lost between
between 1950
1950 to
to 1965,
1965, mostly
mostly due
due to
to
some 42%
agricultural
. An
salt marshes
marshes here have
have also
also
agricultural conversion
conversion.
An estimated
estimated 32%
32% of salt
been
(Lands Directorate
Directorate 1985).
1985). Urbanization
Urbanization in
parts of Quebec
Quebec has
has
been lost (Lands
in parts
also led to wetlands
in these
these urban
urban centres
centres
also
wetlands decline.
decline. Factors
Factors causing
causing decline
decline in
include
landfill, industry,
industry, and
and road
road construction
construction
include agriculture,
agriculture, urban growth, landfill,
(Lands
1986, Rubec
et al.
al. 1988).
(Lands Directorate 1986,
Rubec et
The Atlantic provinces
provinces of
Canada are an
an important
important area
area for
for coastal
coastal salt
salt
of Canada
marshes.
declined in area by
by some
some 65%
65% due
due to
to dyking
dyking
marshes. These marshes have declined
and
filling for
agriculture. Tantramar
Marsh on the
the Nova
Nova Scotia
Scotia -- New
New
and filling
for agriculture.
Tantramar Marsh
Brunswick
head of
of the
the Bay
Bay of
ofFundy
Fundy isis the
the largest
largest single
single block
block
Brunswick border
border at the head
of marshland
marshland in the
the Maritimes
Maritimes and
and contains
contains some
some of
of the
the most
mostproductive
productive
habitat in
in eastern
eastern Canada
Canada(Jackson
(Jacksonand
andMaxwell
Maxwell1971).
1971). By
By 1920,
1920, 80%
80% of
of the
the
Tantramar
Marsh was
was cultivated
cultivated for
for hay
hay and
andused
usedfor
forgrazing,
grazing,which
which severely
severely
Tantramar Marsh
limited
concern for the long-term
long-term
limited waterfowl
waterfowl and
and wildlife
wildlife habitat.
habitat. At present, concern
management of competing interests has
has been
been acknowledged
acknowledged by the CWS
CWS and
Lands
Environment Canada.
Bay of
Fundy is
is also
also of
Lands Directorate
Directorate of
of Environment
Canada. The
The Bay
of Fundy
international importance for
for seabird
seabird and
and shorebird
shorebird species
species (Pearce and Smith
1974).
Inland
wetlands in
New Brunswick
Brunswick are
not on
on aa major
major flyway
flyway but
but do
do
Inland wetlands
in New
are not
provide
dispersal route
route for waterfowl
waterfowl which
Bay of
provide aa dispersal
which travel
travel up
up from
from the
the Bay
Fundy
and the
the St.
St. Johns
JohnsRiver
RiverValley.
Valley.Staging
Staging areas
areas for
for waterfowl
waterfowl are
are
Fundy and
particularly
wetlands south of Fredericton, New
New Brunswick.
Brunswick. Other
Other
particularly active
active in wetlands
threats
to
Atlantic
wetlands
besides
agriculture
include
urbanization
threats Atlantic wetlands besides agriculture include urbanization and
road construction. Potential
Potential threats
threats are
are peat
peatmining
miningand
andtidal
tidalpower
powerprojects
projects
(Wells
Hirvonen 1988).
1988).
(Wells and Hirvonen
Wetland
protection
Wetland evaluation and protection
This
evaluation and protection in three
three
This section
section will
will concentrate
concentrate on
on wetland
wetland evaluation
Ontario, Quebec,
Quebec,and
andthe
theMaritime
MaritimeProvinces.
Provinces.This
Thisemphaemphaareas of Canada: Ontario,
sis is
is due to
to aa lack
lack of
ofwetland
wetland evaluation
evaluation and
and conservation
conservation policy
policy in
in other
other
sis
parts of Canada.
Ontario
Ontario is developing
developing a wetland
wetland policy
policy initiated by
by public
public and government
government
concern
future of
of wetlands.
wetlands. In
In 1981
1981 the
the Government
Government of
of Ontario
Ontario
concern about
about the future
released a discussion
Policy for
discussion paper
paper entitled
entitled "Towards a Wetland Policy
for Ontario".
Ontario".
Written
an inter-ministerial
inter-ministerial committee
committee representing
representing Ontario's resource
resource
Written by an
ministries
ministries,, this paper was designed to solicit public input concerning wetland
management. Of
Of the
the 520
520 responses
responses which
which were
were received,
received ,519
519 recognized
recognized the
the
499
499
need to
to protect
protect at least some wetlands.
need
wetlands . Ontario's
Ontario's wetlands
wetlands are under
under much
much
pressure due
due to
to rapid urbanization
pressure
urbanization (see
(see Bardecki
Bardecki and
and Patterson
Patterson 1989).
1989).
The Guidelines
Guidelines for
for Wetlands
Wetlands Management
Management inin Ontario
Ontario,
released in
in the
The
, released
spring
of
1984
and
discussed
earlier,
are
a
political
precursor
to
policy.
policy.
spring of 1984 and discussed earlier , are a political precursor
They "represent
"represent the Province
They
Province of Ontario's
Ontario's concern
concern for
for wetlands
wetlands and
and wetland
wetland
management". Incorporated are the
management".
the public's
public's concern for the proper managemanagelocal interests includincludment
ment of wetlands
wetlands recognizing
recognizing that
that other provincial and local
ing agriculture,
agriculture, housing,
housing, forestry, and recreation
ing
recreation must
must also
also receive
receive considerconsideration in land-use
ation
land-use planning.
To provide
To
provide an objective
objective base
base for
for many
many of
of the
the concerns
concerns with
with which
which the
the
guidelines deal,
deal, southern Ontario's
Ontario's wetland
wetland evaluation
evaluation system
system was
was incorporincorporguidelines
ated
into
the
decision-making
process
advocated
by
the
guidelines.
ated into the decision-making process advocated by the guidelines . The
The
evaluation system
system,
whichisis now
now being
being used
used by
by the
evaluation
, which
the Ministry
Ministry of Natural
Natural
Resources and
and other agencies,
agencies, ranks
ranks wetlands
wetlands according
according to
to aa point
pointsystem
system
Resources
based on their
based
their biological,
biological , social,
social, hydrological,
hydrological, and
and special
special features
features values.
values.
The system
is unique
unique in southern Ontario.
The
system is
Ontario. The
The evaluation
evaluation system
system serves
serves as
as
(EC/OMNR
guidelines in identifying
identifying valuable wetlands
wetlands (EC/OMNR
aa cornerstone of the guidelines
1984, Glooschenko
Glooschenko 1985).
1984,
1985) .
Although
evaluation system
southern Ontario, the
the
Although the
the evaluation
system pertains
pertains only
only to
to southern
guidelines encompass
encompass all
allof
ofOntario's
Ontario's wetlands,
wetlands, both
both northern and southern.
guidelines
southern .
These guidelines
represent the Province
These
guidelines represent
Province of
of Ontario's
Ontario's concern
concern for
for wetland
wetland
management in
in both
both southern and northern Ontario.
and wetland
wetland management
The wetland guidelines were designed to
to be
be incorporated
incorporatedby
by municipalities
municipalities
into their
into
their municipal
municipal planning
planning process.
process. As
As part
part of
ofthe
thegovernment
governmentpolicy
policy
Ontadevelopment, the
the guidelines
guidelines were
were submitted
submittedtotoall
all843
843 municipalities
municipalities in
in Ontadevelopment,
rio. These
These were
were asked
asked to
to comment
comment on
on their
theirappropriateness,
appropriateness, applicability,
applicability,
and potential
potential impact.
impact. Ultimately,
Ultimately, the
theguidelines
guidelines will
will be
be revised
revised according
according to
to
input by
other government
government and
and public
public agencies
agencies and
and will
will
by municipalities
municipalities and other
be incorporated
incorporated into
into the
the Planning
Planning Act
Act as
asofficial
official Government
Government Policy.
Policy. The
wetland policy for Ontario is
is under
under development.
development.
centred on the
the St.
St. LawrLawrFederal interest in wetlands in Ontario has been centred
St. Lawrence
Lawrence River
River lowlands
lowlands region
region has
has been
been
ence River
River wetlands.
wetlands. The St.
ence
identified by
by the
the American-Canadian
American-Canadian Planning
Planning Committee
Committee for
for the
the North
North
identified
Waterfowl Management
Management Plan
Plan as
asaahigh
highpriority
prioritywaterfowl
waterfowlstaging
staging
American Waterfowl
and black
black duck
duck area.
area.
1985-86, the
the Canadian
Canadian Wildlife
Wildlife Service
Service (CWS)
(CWS) cooperated
cooperated with
with the
the
In 1985-86,
Ontario Ministry
Ministry of Natural
Natural Resources
Resources in
in an
an initial
initial study
study of
of St.
St. Lawrence
Lawrence
River wetlands.
wetlands . The objectives
objectives of
of this
this study
study were
were three-fold:
three-fold: (1)
(1) to
to take
take
River
inventory
data for
for wetland
wetland areas
areasalong
alongthe
theSt.
St.Lawrence
Lawrence
inventory and update
update size
size data
River;
River; (2)
(2) to
to document
document the
the status
statusof
ofthese
thesewetlands
wetlandswith
with respect
respect to
toaquatic
aquatic
vegetation,
vegetation , waterfowl
waterfowl habitat,
habitat,significant
significantwildlife
wildlife species,
species,waterfowl
waterfowl use;
use ;(3)
(3)
to
to identify
identify issues
issues affecting
affecting these wetlands
wetlands that
that are
are of
ofrelevance
relevance totoCWS
CWS
500
concerns.
fall surveys
surveys of
of migrant
migrant waterfowl
waterfowl
concerns. CWS also conducted spring and fall
use
Lawrence River-Ontario
River-Ontario shorelines.
shorelines. Future
Futurework
workwill
willinclude:
include:
use of the St. Lawrence
An initial survey
1. An
survey of migrant
migrant waterfowl
waterfowl use
use of habitat
habitat on
on staging
staging areas.
areas.
during
and fall
fall migration
migration periods.
periods.
during the spring and
Identification of specific
problems facing
facing St.
St. Lawrence
2. Identification
specific problems
Lawrence River
River wetlands,
wetlands.
such
degradation, disturbance,
disturbance, conversion,
conversion, etc., and
and suggestions
suggestions for
such as
as degradation,
amelioration.
3. Determination of
of wetland
wetland management
management needs
needs and
and identification
identification of
ofapproappropriate habitat management
management techniques
techniques and management
management agencies.
agencies.
guidelines for
for the
the longterm protection and
4. Development of federal
federal policy
policy guidelines
management of the St. Lawrence
Lawrence River wetland resource and exploration,
exploration,
with
provincial government, of alternative
alternative mechanisms
mechanisms for
for achieving
achieving
with the provincial
preservation of selected
selected wetland habitat.
habitat.
Quebec
There
present no
no evaluation
evaluation or
or inventory
inventory of
of wetlands
wetlands in
in Quebec
Quebec with
with
There is at present
0
peatlands in
in Quebec
Quebec below
below 54°
54 N.
N. The
Theinventory
inventorystresses
stresses
the exception of peatlands
peat
with potential
potential economic
economic use.
protected, in theory
theory at
at least,
least,
peat with
use. They
They are
are protected,
by
the Environment
Environment Quality
Quality Act
Quebec Department
Department of the
the
by the
Act under
under the Quebec
Environment (Environment Canada/Province
Canada/Provinceof
Quebec1985)
1985) and
and legislatlegislatof Quebec
ive
in the
the planning
planning stage.
stage.
ive measures are in
of land
land by
by governgovernSome
acquisition of
Some degree of protection results from the acquisition
six
ment or private conservation
conservation groups. The
The CWS
CWS administers
administers aa network
network of
ofsix
National
Wildlife Reserves,
4,900 ha of
of habitat
habitat and
and many
many
National Wildlife
Reserves, thus
thus protecting
protecting 4,900
of Recreation,
Recreation,
islands
Department of
islands in
in the
the St.
St. Lawrence
Lawrence Estuary.
Estuary. The Quebec Department
Fish and Game also protects
protects 9,700 ha of riparian land
land along
along the
the St.
St. Lawrence
Lawrence
and Ottawa Rivers.
Rivers. A
A number
number of
of migratory
migratory bird
bird sanctuaries
sanctuaries (14)
(14) have been
probestablished.
established. At present, gaps in
in the Quebec Environment Quality Act, problems in
in applying
the Act and
applying the
and the
the lack
lack of
ofaawildlife
wildlife habitat
habitat protection
protection act,
act,
lems
leave most waterfowl habitats vulnerable.
vulnerable .
The St. Lawrence
Lawrence Valley
Valley is
is the area where
where the
the need
need for
forhabitat
habitatmanagemanageurgent. Shoreline
Shoreline wetlands
wetlands have
have been
been mapped
mapped here.
here. Of
Of the
the
ment
ment is most urgent.
target
marshes of Lake
Lake St.
St. Frances
Frances and
and the
the Beauharnois
Beauharnois region
region
target areas, the marshes
significant. The
The wetlands
wetlands of
of the lower Laurentians also
are especially significant.
also call
call for
rapid action
they are
are threatened or
rapid
action because
because they
or disturbed
disturbed by
by farm
farm reclamation
reclamation
and lumbering operations.
Maritime
Maritime Provinces
Wetlands in
in the Maritime
are being
Wetlands
Maritime Provinces
Provinces are
being surveyed
surveyed through
through aa joint
joint
federal-provincial
Mapping and
and Designation
Designation
federal-provincial initiative
initiative known
known as
as "Wetland Mapping
in 1980
1980 and includes
includes all wetlands over 0.25
0.25 ha
Program". The
The process
process began
began in
in size.
system, the Maritimes
Maritimes wetland
wetland inventory
inventory isis to
to be
be
size. Similar to Ontario's system,
501
501
used
municipal. and town
town planning
planning agencies
agencies in
in
used in
in assisting
assisting federal.
federal, provincial, municipal,
making land
land use
wetland areas
areas..
making
use decisions
decisions regarding
regarding wetland
The end
end products
are aa computer
computer data
data base
The
products of the
the inventory
inventory are
base and a series
of
atlases. When
When completed,
completed, the wetlands
wetlands inventory
inventory will
available to
of atlases.
will be
be available
to
assist
municipal, and town
town planning
planning agencies
agencies in
in making
making
assist federal,
federal, provincial, municipal,
will help
help the
the province
province to
to develop
develop
decisions
Also, it will
decisionsrelating
relatingto
to land
land use.
use. Also,
wetland
wide variety
variety of wetland
wetland policies
policies and
and will
will provide
provide aa data
data base
base for
for a wide
research and management programs.
research
this program
program is
is provision for the implementation
implementation
High
High among the plans of this
of
Under this
this
of aa federal-provincial
federal-provincial agreement
agreement for
for wetland
wetland habitat
habitat protection. Under
agreement
wetlands could
could be designated
designated for
for protection
protection by
by both
both
agreement important
important wetlands
levels
government and neither
neither would
would finance
finance activity
activity which
which would
levels of
of government
would alter
the
habitats. Thus
Thus government
government assistance
assistance for
for agricultural
agricultural drainage,
drainage.
the natural habitats.
industrial
industrial installations,
installations,sewage
sewagetreatment
treatmentplants
plantsand
andso
so on
on would
would not
not be
hoped that
thatsuch
suchfederal-provincial
federal-provincial
approved
for designated
designated wetlands.
wetlands. It isis hoped
approved for
agreements
developed soon after
after completion
completion of the
the inventory.
inventory. ReReagreements can
can be developed
of Nova
Nova Scotia
Scotia has
has used
used such
such wetlands
wetlands information
information
cently,
government of
cently, the government
in the development
development of
ofprovincial
provincial water
water policies.
policies.
National and
and international
internationalaspects
aspects of
ofwetlands
wetlands protection
protection
The long-term
long-term downward
downward trends
trends of
ofmigratory
migratory waterfowl,
waterfowl, especially
especially black
black
(Anas rubripes),
duck, (Anas
duck,
rubripes) , goldeneye
green-winged
goldeneye (Bucephala
(Bucephala c/angula),
clangula), and green-winged
teal (Anas crecca)
crecca) populations due to
to loss
loss of nesting
nesting habitat,
habitat, wetland
wetland draindrainteal
age, and
and degradation
degradation of
of migration
migration and
and wintering
wintering habitat
habitat is of
of concern
concern to
to
age,
Canadian and
and U.S.
U.S. federal
federal governments
governments (EC/USDI
(EC/USDI1985).
1985). Designated
Designated
both Canadian
areas of Key
Key Priority
Priority Habitat
Habitat listed
listed in
in this
this document
document are:
1) the
the upper
upper
areas
are: 1)
Atlantic coast, 2)
2) the
the lower
lower Great
Great Lakes
Lakes -- St.
St. Lawrence
Lawrence basin,
basin, and
and3)
3)Prairie
Prairie
It was
was recognized
recognized that
that efforts
efforts to
to maintain
maintainand
andenhance
enhancewaterfowl
waterfowl
potholes. It
ofpublic
public agencies
agencies alone.
alone.
habitat in
in North
North America
America are
arebeyond
beyondthe
thecapability
capabilityof
habitat
long-term solutions
solutions will
will require the coordinated
coordinated action
action of
ofgovernments,
governments,
Thus long-term
organizations and
and the
the involvement
involvement of
of landowners.
landowners.
private organizations
program is
is intended
intended to
tobenefit
benefit both
bothwaterfowl
waterfowl and
and agricultural
agricultural proproThe program
by emphasizing
emphasizing land and water
water management
management and
and working
working to
to prevent
prevent
duction by
soil erosion.
erosion. Strategies
Strategies are
are aimed
aimed atataffecting
affecting small
small changes
changes ininland-use
land-use
soil
practice over aa large
large area.
area. These
These are
are planned
planned to
todemonstrate
demonstratethat
thatagriculture
agriculture
that wetlands
wetlands are
are prepreand wildlife
wildlife production are compatible
compatible pursuits,
pursuits, and that
and
served. The
The plan
plan was
was jointly
jointly signed
signed by Canada
Canada and the
the U.S.
U.S. inin1986.
1986. Its
Its
served.
6
in protecting
protecting and
and improving
improving 1.5
1.5 xx 10
106 ha of
of Canada
Canada
implementation will
will aid
aid in
implementation
3
prairie
prairie wetlands,
wetlands, 28
28 xx 103
10 ha
ha of
of Great
GreatLakes-St.
Lakes-St. Lawrence
Lawrence wetlands,
wetlands, and
and
4,000 ha
ha of
of Atlantic
Atlantic wetlands
wetlands important
important as
as waterfowl
waterfowl habitat.
habitat.
4,000
The Canadian
CanadianWildlife
Wildlife Service
Service isisalso
alsoacquiring
acquiringwaterfowl
waterfowland
andwildlife
wildlife
The
502
habita
ts. To date,
date, 44
44 national
national wildlife
wildlife areas,
habitats.
areas, many
many of
ofthem
themwetlands,
wetlands, have
have
been acquired
acquired and more
more are
are being
being considered.
considered.
On
an international
international basis,
basis, Canada
Canad aisisinvolved
On an
involved in
in the
the World
WorldConservation
Conservation
Strate
gy which
which recognizes
recognizes wetlan
ds as
Strategy
wetlands
as of
of global
global significance.
significance. Canada
Canad a also
also
signed
Ramsar Convention
Convention on
on Wetlands
signed the
the Ramsar
Wetlands of
ofInternational
International Importance.
Importance .
Twen
ty-eight sites
designated for protection
Twenty-eight
sites have
have been
been designated
protection (Rubec
(Rube c et
et alal1988)
1988)
These
sites
are
locate
d mainly
mainly in marshes
These sites
located
marshes in
in southern
southern Canada
Canad a that
that are
are
impor
tant waterfowl
waterfowl habitats.
important
habitats .
There
are factors
factors impeding
impeding wetland
wetland protection
There are
protection in Canada.
Canad a. A
A major
major probproblem
is
fragm
ented
jurisd
iction
for
wetlands. No
lem is fragmented jurisdiction
wetlands.
No single
single federal
federal agency
agency exists
exists
to
conduct wetland
wetland research.
research. Federal,
Feder al, provincial,
to conduct
and
municipal
agencies
provincial, and municipal agencies
share
land-use management
management responsibilities
responsibilities and this
share land-use
this can often cause
cause coordicoordination
problems in wetland
wetland management
manag ement and
nation problems
However,
and conservation.
conservation. However, it
it
appea
rs
that legislators
legislators and government
gover nmen t agencies
appears that
to
recognize
agencies are
are beginning
beginning to recognize
the importance
importance of
of wetland
wetland conservation.
conservation.
Recom
mendations for
for research,
research, management
management and
Recommendations
and conservation
conservation of
ofCanadian
Canadian
wetlan
wetlands
ds
In
large country
country such
such as
as Canada,
Canad a, which
which isis characterized
In aa large
characterized by
by cold
cold climates
climates
and
remot
e areas
areas with
with limited
limited access,
access, itit isis difficult
and remote
carry
out
research
difficult to
to carry out research
becau
se of
such problems
problems as limited
limited access,
because
of such
access, short
short field
field seasons,
seasons, and
and high
high
costs
of
travel
to
condu
ct resear
ch. Limited
costs of travel conduct
research.
areas
Limited funds
funds tend to be
be spent
spent in
in areas
such
populated areas of southern
south ern British
such as
as the
the populated
British Columbia
Columbia and Ontario
Ontar io where
where
threat
s exist
exist to wetlands.
wetlands. Another
Anoth er factor
threats
factor that
that influences
influences research
research is
is the
the
econo
mic
impor
tance
of
the
wetlan
d.
economic importance
wetland. For
For example,
example, wetlands
wetlands that
that are
are imporimportant
waterfowl habita
ts, such
marshes in the prairies
tant waterfowl
habitats,
such as marshes
and
salt
marshes
prairies
salt marshes on
on
the
Pacific and
and Atlantic
Atlantic coasts,
coasts, receive
receive more
the Pacific
funds
than
arctic
more research
research funds than arctic
wetlan
ds. Salt
Salt marshes
marshes in British
British Columbia
Columbia have
wetlands.
have received
received greater
greateremphasis
emphasis
than
other
salt
marsh
areas in
in Canada
Canad a due
than other salt marsh areas
spawning
due to
totheir
theirimportance
importanceas
as spawning
areas
for salmon,
salmon, aa commercially
commercially impor
areas for
important
species.
In addition,
tant specie
s. In
addition, until
until the
the
rise
in
intere
st
in
peat
as
a
poten
tial energy
energy source
rise in interest
potential
source in
in the
the early
early1980s,
1980s, peatland
peatla nd
resear
ch was
was limite
d. In general,
general, wetlands
wetlands research
research
limited.
research has
has not
not been
beengiven
given high
high
priori
ty in Canada
Canad a and
and funding
funding for
for such
priority
has
been
minimal.
such research
research has been minimal.
In
terms of
of recommendations
recommendations for
for future
future research,
In terms
research, we
we see
seethe
thefollowing
following
areas as priorities:
priorities:
1.
Wetland dynamics
dynamics —
- Succe
ssion of
1. Wetland
Succession
of wetlan
wetland
vegetation,
d vegeta
tion, both short- and
and
long-t
erm,
is
an
impor
tant ecological
ecological process.
long-term,
important
understand
process. It
It is
is necessary
necessary to under
stand
how
ds respon
d to
s natura
how wetlan
wetlands
respond
to variou
various
naturall and anthropogenic
perturbations
anthropogenic pertur
bations
in
order to
to predict
predict the
theimpact
impactofofvarious
in order
variousmanagement
management options.
options. More
More
resear
ch
is
neede
d
on
all
aspect
of this
research is needed on all aspectss of
this process
process in
in Canada,
Canada, including
including
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - --
-
-
- - -- --
503
development
is especially
especially needed
needed for
for
development of
of predictive
predictive models.
models. This
This data
data is
wetland
projects .
wetland restoration
restoration and creation projects.
2. Hydrology
the hydrology
hydrology of
of Canadian
Canadian wetlands,
wetlands ,
Hydrology -—Little
Littleisis known
known on
on the
especially
large peatland
peatland modifications
modifications upon
especially the
the potential
potential impact
impact of large
upon regional hydrology.
of hydrological research on Canadian
Canadian
hydrology. The current status of
wetlands
(1990).
wetlands was
was reviewed
reviewed by
by Roulet (1990).
The role
3. The
role of
of peatlands
peatlands as
as fish
fish and
andwildlife
wildlife habitat
habitat—
- Very little
little research
research
has
the ecological
ecological importance
importance of peatlands and
and such
such
has been carried out on the
necessary before large
large developments
developments such
such as
as energy
energy developdevelopresearch is necessary
ment
and forest
forest drainage
drainage take place
place in peatlands.
ment and
4. The impact of wetlands on water
water quality
quality —
- Little
Little research
research has
has been done
receiving water bodies
on the influence
influence of wetlands
wetlands on
on the water quality of receiving
such
streams and
lakes. Research
Research is also
also necessary
necessary on
role of
of
such as
as streams
and lakes.
on the role
wetlands
and contaminants.
contaminants.
wetlands as
as aa sink
sink for
for nutrients and
It is not possible
management
possible in
in this
this paper
paper to go into problems relating to the management
Canada. The
The country
countryconsists
consists of
ofmany
many political
political jurisdictions
jurisdictions
of wetlands
wetlands in Canada.
including
local-government levels.
levels. A federal
federal policy
policy
including federal,
federal, provincial,
provincial, and local-government
is
intend to
to discuss
discuss needs
needs
is currently
currently under
under government
government review.
review. We
We do not intend
relating
legislation. However,
However, we do
do recomrecomrelating to required wetland protection legislation.
mend several
need further
further consideration
consideration in
in order
ordertotoassist
assistgoverngovernseveral areas that need
improved wetland
wetland protection:
protection:
ment agencies
agencies in improved
. ment
5. Inventories
Inventories -—Improved
Improvedwetland
wetlandinventories
inventoriesare
areneeded
neededfor
for all
all areas
areas of
Canada with emphasis on
Canada. These
These then
then will
will serve to
to assist
assist
on southern Canada.
managers
determining specific
merit
managers in
in determining
specific wetlands
wetlandsor
or wetland
wetland areas
areas that merit
conservation.
conservation.
6. Wetland
- Improved
Wetland evaluation —
Improved methodologies
methodologies are
are necessary
necessary in
in order
order to
determine
preserved and
which ones
not
determine which
which wetlands
wetlands must
must be
be preserved
and which
ones are not
significant.
include various
various considerations
considerations such
such as
aswildlife
wildlife
significant. This
This would
would include
in
habitat,
hydrological role,
habitat, hydrological
role, commonness
commonness or
or rarity
rarity of
of the wetland type in
the locality, etc.
etc.
7. Impact of land use
use activities
activities on
on wetlands
wetlands —
- More
More research is necessary on
how
example, how can
how various
various activities
activities impact
impact on
on local
local wetlands.
wetlands. For
For example,
agricultural
protection of
of pothole
pothole
agricultural practices be
be made more compatible with protection
marshes
prairies? How
How does
does water-level
water-level regulation
regulation in
in reservoirs
reservoirs
marshes in
in the prairies?
Lakes affect
affect wetland vegetation? How can a peatland
peatland
and the lower Great Lakes
be drained so as not
not to
to deleteriously
deleteriously impact
impact on
on receiving
receiving waters?
waters?
available for
8.
Regional needs
needs —
- There
8. Regional
There is
is little
little information available
for some Canadian
wetland types and geographic localities. These include
include the Mountain
Mountain WetWetland
Regions,
southern
Ontario
swamps,
Great
Lakes
marshes
and
salt
land Regions,
swamps, Great Lakes marshes and salt
marshes
and St.
S1. Lawrence
Lawrence River.
River. With
With the
theexcepexcepmarshes on the Atlantic Ocean and
tion of the Mountain Wetlands,
Wetlands, the
the other
otherwetlands
wetlands are
are in
in areas
areas of
of developdevelopment, including
including agriculture, urbanization, and
and recreation.
recreation.
-
------------
504
Ackno
wledgements
Acknowledgements
The
autho rs wish
wish to thank
thank Elizabeth
Elizab eth McCurdy
The authors
McCurdy and Dianne
Dianne Crabtree
Crabt ree of
of the
the
Natio
nal
Water Research
Research Institute,
Institu te, Burlington,
Burlin gton, Ontario,
National Water
and
Carina
Ontar io, Canada
Canad a and Carin a
Herna
ndez for
for the
the Faculty
Faculty of
ofEnvironmental
Envir onmen tal Studies,
Hernandez
Studies. York
York University,
University , for
for
their typing of the
the manuscript.
manuscript.
Refere
References
nces
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G . D.
D .(1988)
(1988) Wetlands
Wetlands of the Prairies
Adams,. G.
Prairies of Canada.
Canada . p.
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155-198 . In
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g Group
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