S U M M A R Y
T h e m a i n object of the present study of Keats's poetry is a critical examination
of the reflection of objective reality i n the poet's m i n d and w o r k . T h e research has
been undertaken because the author is convinced that its results w i l l furnish a sound
basis for a better understanding a n d evaluation of Keats's contribution to E n g l i s h
poetry. A s it is the first monographic study of the poet i n Czech since F . C h u d o b a ' i
essay written i n 1913 many facts and loci communes of later K e a t s i a n research have
been introduced for the benefit of those readers w h o cannot read E n g l i s h . It was
also necessary for the author to translate many poems and letters of w h i c h no Czech
translation has been published.
Keats's poems and verses reveal clearly enough three p r i n c i p a l sources of inspi­
ration, three different aspects of objective reality reflected in their ideological con­
tent and artistic f o r m : (1) nature and society, (2) the poet's private life, and (3) lite­
rature and art. T h i s has suggested to the author the three p r i n c i p a l parts in w h i c h
to deal w i t h the m a i n problem of his research. T h e first, Keats and His Age, e x a m i ­
nes the reflection of natural and social reality i n Keats's m i n d and poetry; the se­
cond, Keats's Poetic Autobiography,
examines and illustrates the influence of
Keats's personal life, experience, and character o n his views and creative develop­
ment; and the t h i r d , Literary Sources of Keats's Work, examines Keats's indebted­
ness to literary and artistic influences i n general, and his relation to Spenser
in particular.
T h i s purely methodological d i v i s i o n obviously does not imply any real sepa­
ration of the three i n d i v i s i b l e aspects either of objective reality or its subjective
reflection and expression i n Keats's poetry.
I
T h e first part consists of six chapters, of w h i c h the first two form a general
introduction to the w h o l e book. T h e first chapter called The Historical
Development
of England
between the French
Revolution
and the Reform
Bill of 1832, characteri­
ses the age i n w h i c h K e a t s and the other E n g l i s h romanticists l i v e d as a period of
great revolutionary changes i n economic, social and political life of the people. A ?
a result of these changes G r e a t B r i t a i n was transformed from a m a i n l y agricultural
country into an industrial and commercial state, w h i l e i n the political sphere it chan­
ged definitely from an aristocratic-bourgeois monarchy into a bourgeois democratic
colonial empire.
T h e second chapter called The English Romantic Movement, sums up the cor­
responding ideological and literary development of the age. It discusses the attempts
at a definition of romanticism and the romantic method of artistic creation, a n d
gives a brief outline of the p r i n c i p a l representatives of E n g l i s h romanticism. A d o p ­
ting the division of the E n g l i s h romanticists into t w o politically and ideologically
antagonistic camps (reactionaries and revolutionaries), the author points out what
W o r d s w o r t h , Coleridge, Scott etc. have i n common w i t h their younger contempo­
raries B y r o n , Shelley, K e a t s etc., and w h y they could favourably influence, and
often were on friendly terms w i t h , one another. T h e place of K e a t s is, p r e l i m i n a r i l y ,
shown to be among the ranks of progressive and revolutionary writers of his time.
T h e progressive character of his v i e w s a n d poems is illustrated and corroborated
in the f o l l o w i n g chapters.
IS
80-98
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T h e t h i r d chapter called The Reflection
of Social Reality in Keats''s Early
Poems, proves (the author hopes, convincingly) that K e a t s was neither apolitical nor
escapist. H i s greatest a m b i t i o n was to d o some good to the w o r l d . H e w a l k e d
through life w i t h his eyes a n d ears eagerly open to whatever was going on around
h i m . A n d he prepared himself conscientiously for his future career, first as doctor,
then as professional writer. If he d i d not take a more active part i n public life, it was
not for lack of good w i l l o r interest, but for want of experience w h e n he was young,
and of health w h e n he reached maturity. Several among his earliest poems show his
keen interest i n contemporary social problems and political struggles. A n d a l l
through his life he openly took sides w i t h the democratic forces of progress, peace,
and liberty.
T h e fourth chapter called Keats's Social Criticism, presents and analyses d o c u ­
ments from Keats's poems and letters w h i c h show the poet's increasing hatred of
oppression, exploitation, injustice and political reaction i n the years following W a t e r ­
loo, as w e l l as the growth of his social and poetic a m b i t i o n to assist the people a n d
the friends of liberty i n their struggle against tyrannical rulers, governments and
classes.
Keats's sincere love of the people (shown for instance i n his »Robin Hood« etc.)
and his militant humanism form the m a i n object of discussion i n the fifth chapter
called Keats's Humanism. T h o u g h he h a d doubts and misgivings about beourgeois
progress, K e a t s never lost his deep faith i n the final coming of a better future for
men and w o m e n a l l over the w o r l d . T h i s faith was based on his conviction of the
essential goodness a n d selflessness of m a n . B u t his o w n experience taught h i m
that the obstacles i n the w a y of a better future for a l l , i . e. tyranny, capitalistic
exploitation, militarism, religious superstition and clericalism etc., h a d first to be
annihilated. A s the most important factor i n the struggle of the poor and oppressed
for improvement of their condition he regarded education. I n educating the masses
a progressive w r i t e r could be of great assistance, and K e a t s hoped to become such
a w r i t e r and thus ensure to himself the only k i n d of immortality i n w h i c h he seems
to have believed i n his last years.
T h e sixth chapter called Keats's Progressive Romanticism, vindicates K e a t s ' s
place among E n g l i s h progressive romanticists and discusses his personal and literary
relations w i t h B y r o n , Shelley, H a z l i t t and L e i g h H u n t . T h e last two, being among
his intimate friends, exercised the most potent influence on his political and aesthe­
tic v i e w s . A s to B y r o n and Shelley, K e a t s shared many of their political ideas a n d
convictions, and to a certain extent a d m i r e d their poetry, but he differed from them
i n one essential p o i n t ; he never reached their conviction that existing social
contradictions could be solved by a violent revolution. Keats's idea of revolution
(as e m b o d i e d for example i n his fragmentary epic poem »Hyperion«) is not based
o n scientific historical knowledge and shows that K e a t s had not transgressed the
limitations of bourgeois critical reformism.
II
There is practically no single poem of Keats's into w h i c h his personal life or
character have not penetrated, directly or indirectly. T h a t is w h y the second part
of this study is the longest. A n o t h e r cause of its extensiveness is the fact that for
the use of Czech readers it was regarded necessary to register and discuss some d a t a
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af Keats's biography that are not reflected i n his poems but help us to understand
them and bring up to date our K e a t s i a n literature.
T h u s the first chapter called The Period of Preparation, recounts m a i n l y those
facts of Keats's life w h i c h preceded his earliest k n o w n attempts at original compo­
sition. T h e period i n question covers the formative years of the poet (1795-1813).
U n m i s t a k a b l e allusions to Keats's c h i l d h o o d and youth, however, are to be found
in only a few of his poems, though the seeds and roots of the m a i n characteristic
features of his poetry, such as his love of nature, his love of the country, his hatred
of cruelty and oppression, his a d m i r a t i o n for beauty, etc., are to be l o o k e d for i n that
period of growth and preparation.
T h e second chapter called Medical Studies and First Poems, gives account of
Keats's a w a k e n i n g to the pleasures of literature and poetry i n the last few terms
at school and d u r i n g the first years of apprenticeship, and discusses also the possible
influence of his m e d i c a l studies and training o n his poetry. T h o u g h K e a t s began
w r i t i n g rather late (in the author's o p i n i o n not earlier than i n his nineteenth year),
he made up for it by his r a p i d intellectual and artistic development, especially after
his coming to L o n d o n and finding many literary and artistic friends w h o recognized
his talent and helped h i m to fulfil its promise.
Keats's friendly association w i t h these men of letters and artists is discussed
in the t h i r d chapter called Keats's Friends. T h e greatest part of it is devoted to
Keats's relation w i t h L e i g h H u n t whose influence on Keats's poetry is often over­
rated or m i s j u d g e d ; among Keats's numerous other friends attention is p a i d to
H a y d o n , Reynolds, B r o w n , B a i l e y and a few others, a l l of w h o m played an important
role i n Keats's life and affected also his artistic creation.
T h e fourth chapter called Keats's Brothers and Sister, discusses the poet's
devotedness to his younger brothers George and T o m and to his sister F a n n y . T h e i r
m u t u a l affection may be traced not only i n Keats's correspondence but also i n some
of his poems, e. g. »The E p i s t l e to M y Brother George«, the sonnet »Small, busy
flames«, »Endymion«, etc.
T h e fifth chapter entitled Keats and Nature, illustrates and evaluates the
realistic foundations and character of Keats's nature poetry and imagery, chiefly as
shown i n the poems published i n 1817 and i n »Endymion«, i . e. before K e a t s saw
mountainous scenery and d r e w a l l his pictures of nature from his experience of the
South of E n g l a n d countryside and seaside.
T h e sixth chapter called The Scottish Tout describes Keats's w a l k i n g tour w i t h
B r o w n to N o r t h - W e s t E n g l a n d and Scotland i n 1818, and gives a detailed account
of his impressions as k n o w n from his letters and expressed i n his verses composed
during the journey. F r o m these documents w e learn to understand better Keats's
real attitude to nature and scenery - the inspiration of some of his greatest poetic
achievements - but also his attitude to man, his sincere love of the poor and simple
inhabitants of E n g l a n d , Scotland and Ireland, his interest i n their w a y of life and
their character, last but not least, i n the improvement of their material and cultural
conditions.
T h e seventh chapter The Period of Mature Creation ( d i v i d e d i n t w o sections,
»Trials of Life« a n d »Keats's Loves«) discusses Keats's experiences i n the last t w o
years of his creative career (from autumn 1818 to February 1820) and their reflection
and influence on his last poems. T h e first section deals w i t h his reaction to the criti­
cal attacks on his »Endymion« and to T o m ' s death. T h e second discusses his relation
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to w o m e n i n general, and to those w i t h w h o m he was or may have been i n love,
i n particular. R e g a r d i n g his relation w i t h M r s . Isabella Jones, the author accepts the
discoveries concerning the person of this friend of Keats's made by R . G i t t i n g s , but
he cannot accept Gittings's hypothetical conjectures regarding Isabella Jones as
Keats's mistress and inspirer of the »Bright Star« sonnet, »The E v e of St. Agnes« etc.
Gittings's evidence is inconclusive a n d highly improbable. T h e author therefore
agrees w i t h C o l v i n , M u r r y and other biographers and critics of K e a t s w h o regard
the above-mentioned poems as expressions of Keats's love for his fiancee F a n n y
Brawne.
Ill
T h e t h i r d part of the present study concerned w i t h the literary a n d artistic
sources of Keats's poetry cannot d e a l w i t h the subject as exhaustively as it deserves
because the material is extremely copious. F o r want of space the author has h a d to
content himself w i t h a brief i n d i c a t i o n of his attitude to the much-debated question
of literary influences i n general, and w i t h a v i n d i c a t i o n of his approach to the pro­
blem of Keats's indebtedness in particular (in the first two chapters). T h e n he pro­
ceeds to discuss i n detail the generally acknowledged but not yet critically and fully
examined influence of E d m u n d Spenser on Keats's w o r k (in the fourth chapter).
T h e first chapter called Keats's Relation to Literature and Art illustrates and
analyses i n a few selected typical examples the effect of poetry and works of art
upon Keats's senses, m i n d and creative talent. It shows that a poem or a picture that
appealed to his sense of truth and beauty could inspire h i m as powerfully and effecti­
vely as nature or l i v i n g men and w o m e n . W o r k s of art were to h i m not only »things
of beauty« to be enjoyed but also objects of serious and profitable study.
T h e second chapter called Keats's Reading tries to establish as fully as possible
(on the basis of Keats's, his friends', and his students' evidence) the extent of
Keats's knowledge of authors, artists, thinkers, scholars and scientists and their
works. T h e alphabetical lists of writers and books etc. prove that he was a
voracious reader, a frequent visitor of galleries, theatres and concerts. Several preser­
v e d volumes w i t h his markings and notes prove that he was also a critical student
w h o constantly compared what he read w i t h what he knew from his o w n experience.
Keats's indebtedness to literary sources has been discussed by most K e a t s i a n
biographers and critics, though not always w i t h due respect to objective evidence.
T h e t h i r d chapter called »La Belle Dame Sans Merck and »Rhododaphne« illustra­
tes the unreliability of some suggestions or conjectures as to Keats's alleged sources
or models. M a n y w i d e l y different parallels for nearly every line of Keats's famous
b a l l a d have been »discovered« by diligent source-hunters (Finney, D e Selincourt,
A m y L o w e l l , W . Beyer, R . G i t t i n g s etc.) i n Shakespeare, Spenser, W i e l a n d , o l d
E n g l i s h ballads and romances etc., but no one has suggested Peacock's mythological
poem »Rhododaphne« (published shortly before the composition of Keats's poem)
as his most probable literary inspiration. A detailed comparison of the t w o poems
shows quite clearly numerous and conspicuous analogies and parallels i n the theme,
images, v e r b a l expressions, ideas, characters and metrical form w h i c h cannot be
dismissed as mere chance coincidences. T h o u g h the author cannot produce any
objective proof of K e a t s ' actual reading of Peacock's poem, the resemblance between
the t w o works leaves no doubt i n his o w n m i n d that »La B e l l e Dame« was influen­
ced by »Rhododaphne«.
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T h e fourth and last chapter deals w i t h the relation of K e a t s and Spenser. T h e
author has selected this subject for detailed discussion because Spenser's influence
on K e a t s was the first and the most permanent of a l l (with the possible exception
of Shakespeare). It was Spenser w h o inspired K e a t s to write, his earliest k n o w n
poem, and Spenser's influence is still strong and clear in Keats's last poem, »The
C a p and Bells«.
T h e chapter consists of four sections, the first discussing and interpreting
Keats's first poem »Imitation of Spenser«, the second, the t w o fragmentary romances
»Specimen of an Induction to a Poem« and »Calidore, the third, Spenser's influence
on Keats's later poems. T h i s section also discusses Spenser's and Keats's conceptions
of poetry and its social function. T h e last section is devoted to a discussion of Keats's
H e l l e n i s m w h i c h is a characteristic feature of a great part of his poetry and has
manifested itself especially i n his preference for themes and images d r a w n from
classical G r e e k mythology. Spenser, w h o like most E n g l i s h Renaissance poets and
writers, was also a great admirer of classical myths and literature, undoubtedly
fostered and strengthened Keats's interest in the subject and most probably influen­
ced the idealistic philosophy as w e l l as the imagery and composition of Keats's
mythological allegory »Endymion«.
T h e foregoing critical examination of Keats's relation to Spenser makes it clear
(as w o u l d the examination of his relation to any other author, E n g l i s h or foreign,
classical or modern) that from the very beginning of his literary career this great
romantic poet was never a slavish imitator. L i k e some of his most favourite authors,
Spenser, Chaucer, Shakespeare, M i l t o n etc., K e a t s d r e w inspiration and strength
from the best works of the past and present, but he generally took only w h a t he
found true and beautiful refusing anything that he regarded as false or bad. A n d
what he used he transformed according to his o w n knowledge, experience and ideals
so as to make it suit his o w n purpose.
In his life and poetry K e a t s ardently pursued the i d e a l of truth and beauty.
T h e author of this w o r k hopes that the results of his inquiry into the sources of
Keats's inspiration e x p l a i n w h y , in his best poems, he has achieved that unity of
truth and beauty w h i c h he regarded as the hall-mark of perfect art.
K a r e l Stepanik
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