Islamic Golden Age
1
Islamic Golden Age
This is a sub-article to Islamic history and Islamic science.
During the Islamic Golden Age (c.750 CE - c.1258 CE) philosophers,
scientists and engineers of the Islamic world contributed enormously to
technology, both by preserving earlier traditions and by adding their
own inventions and innovations. Scientific and intellectual
achievements blossomed in the Golden age.
An Islamic Silver Dirham from the year 729.
Foundations
Bernard Lewis wrote that Islamic
governments inherited:
the knowledge and skills
of the ancient Middle East,
of Greece and of Persia.
They added new and
important
innovations
from outside, such as the
manufacture of paper from
China
and
decimal
positional numbering from
India.[1]
The Islamic World expansion, 622-750.
Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography. Even prior to Islam's presence, the city of Mecca
served as a center of trade in Arabia and Muhammad was a merchant. The tradition of the pilgrimage to Mecca
became a center for exchanging ideas and goods. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and
Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its
merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural
landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to China (resulting in a significant population of
Chinese Muslims with an estimated 37 million followers, mainly ethnic Turkic Uyghur whose territory was annexed
to China), India, southeast Asia, and the kingdoms of western Africa and returned with new inventions.
Islamic Golden Age
2
Islamic art
The golden age of Islamic (and/or Muslim) art lasted from 750 to the
16th century, when ceramics (especially lusterware), glass, metalwork,
textiles, illuminated manuscripts, and woodwork flourished.
Manuscript illumination became an important and greatly respected art,
and portrait miniature painting flourished in Persia. Calligraphy, an
essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and
architectural decoration.
Marquetry and tile-top table from the year 1560.
Philosophy
Only in philosophy were Islamic scholars prevented from putting forth
unorthodox ideas. Nevertheless, Ibn Rushd and Persian polymath
Avicenna played a major role in saving the works of Aristotle, whose
ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and
Muslim worlds. They would also absorb ideas from China, and India,
adding to them tremendous knowledge from their own studies. Three
speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Avicenna, combined
Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through
Islam.
From Spain the Arabic philosophic literature was translated into
Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern
European philosophy. The Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides,
sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the
African who translated Greek medical texts and Al-Khwarzimi's
collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the
Golden Age.
Sciences
In Al-Andalus, Ibn Rushd founder of the
Averroism school of philosophy, was influential
in the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.
Islamic Golden Age
3
Many notable Islamic scientists lived and practiced during the
Islamic Golden Age. Among the achievements of Muslim scholars
during this period were the development of spherical trigonometry
into its modern form (greatly simplifying its practical application
to calculate the phases of the moon), advances in optics, and
advances in astronomy.
A manuscript written during the Abbasid Era.
Girih tiles arranged in Quasicrystal order is an example
of the advancements that had taken place in the Islamic
Golden Age.
Medicine
Medicine was a central part of medieval Islamic culture.
Responding to circumstances of time and place, Islamic physicians
and scholars developed a large and complex medical literature
exploring and synthesizing the theory and practice of medicine.
(from the National Library of Medicine digital archives)
The eye according to Hunain ibn Ishaq. From a
manuscript dated circa 1200.
Islamic medicine was built on tradition, chiefly the theoretical and
practical knowledge developed in Greece, Rome, and Persia. For
Islamic scholars, Galen and Hippocrates were pre-eminent
authorities, followed by Hellenic scholars in Alexandria. Islamic
scholars translated their voluminous writings from Greek into
Arabic and then produced new medical knowledge based on those
texts. In order to make the Greek tradition more accessible,
understandable, and teachable, Islamic scholars ordered and made
more systematic the vast and sometimes inconsistent
Greco-Roman medical knowledge by writing encyclopedias and
summaries. (from the National Library of Medicine digital
archives)
Islamic Golden Age
Pagan Latin and Greek learning was viewed suspiciously in Christian early medieval Europe, and it was through
12th century Arabic translations that medieval Europe rediscovered Hellenic medicine, including the works of Galen
and Hippocrates. Of equal if not of greater influence in Western Europe were systematic and comprehensive works
such as Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, which were translated into Latin and then disseminated in manuscript
and printed form throughout Europe. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries alone, The Canon of Medicine was
published more than thirty-five times. (from the National Library of Medicine digital archives)
In the medieval Islamic world, hospitals were built in all major cities; in Cairo for example, the Qalawun hospital
had a staff that included physicians, pharmacists, and nurses. One could also access a dispensary, and research
facility that led to advances in understanding contagious diseases, and research into optics and the mechanisms of the
eye. Muslim doctors were the first to use hollow needles to remove cataracts.
Commerce and travel
Apart from the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, navigable rivers were
uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. Navigational
sciences were highly developed, making use of a rudimentary sextant
(known as a kamal). When combined with detailed maps of the period,
sailors were able to sail across oceans rather than skirt along the coast.
Muslim sailors were also responsible for reintroducing large three
masted merchant vessels to the Mediterranean. The name caravel may
derive from an earlier Arab boat known as the qārib.[2] An artificial
canal linking the Nile with the Gulf of Suez was constructed, linking
the Red Sea with the Mediterranean (although it silted up several
times).
During the Islamic Golden Age, travel to distant lands took place. The
Introductory summary overview map from
use of paper spread from China into the Muslim world in the eighth
al-Idrisi's 1154 world atlas (note that South is at
century CE, arriving in Spain (and then the rest of Europe) in the 10th
the top of the map).
century CE. It was easier to manufacture than parchment, less likely to
crack than papyrus, and could absorb ink, making it ideal for making
records and making copies of the Koran. "Islamic paper makers devised assembly-line methods of hand-copying
manuscripts to turn out editions far larger than any available in Europe for centuries."[3] It was from Islam that the
rest of the world learned to make paper from linen.[4] (from the digital archives of The National Library of Medicine)
4
Islamic Golden Age
5
Architecture and engineering
The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia),
the ancestor of all the mosques in the western
Islamic world,[6] is one of the best preserved
and most significant examples of early great
mosques. Founded in 670, it dates in its
present form largely from the 9th century.[7]
The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted
of a three-tiered square minaret, a large
courtyard surrounded by colonnaded porticos
and a huge hypostyle prayer hall covered on
its axis by two cupolas.[6]
The Great Mosque of Kairouan (also known as the Mosque of Uqba), founded
in 670, dates in its present state from the 9th century; it is one of the
[5]
masterpieces of Islamic architecture. The Great Mosque of Kairouan is
located in the city of Kairouan, in Tunisia.
The Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul
Isometric laser scan data image of the Bab
al-Barqiyya Gate in the 12th century Ayyubid
Wall. This fortified gate was constructed with
interlocking volumes that surrounded the entrant
in such a way as to provide greater security and
control than typical city wall gates.
The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq was
completed in 847. It combined the hypostyle
architecture of rows of columns supporting a
flat base above which a huge spiralling
minaret was constructed.
The Moors began construction of the Great
Mosque at Cordoba in 785 marking the
beginning of Islamic architecture in Spain and
Northern Africa (see Moors). The mosque is
noted for its striking interior arches. Moorish
architecture reached its peak with the
construction of the Alhambra, the magnificent
palace/fortress of Granada, with its open and
breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue,
and gold. The walls are decorated with
stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions,
and arabesque design work, with walls
covered in glazed tiles.
Another distinctive sub-style is the
architecture of the Mughal Empire in India in
the 16th century. Blending Islamic and Hindu
elements, the emperor Akbar constructed the
royal city of Fatehpur Sikri, located 26 miles
west of Agra, in the late 1500s.
Islamic Golden Age
6
Mongolian invasion and gradual decline
The Crusades put the Islamic world under pressure by
invasion in the 11th and 12th centuries, but a new and
far greater threat came from the East during the 13th
century: in 1206, Genghis Khan established a powerful
dynasty among the Mongols of central Asia. During the
13th century, this Mongol Empire conquered most of
the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the
east and much of the old Islamic caliphate (as well as
Kievan Rus) in the west. Hulagu Khan's destruction of
Baghdad in 1258 is traditionally seen as the
A Seljuq, Shatranj (Chess) set, glazed fritware, 12th century.
approximate end of the Golden Age. Later Mongol
leaders, such as Timur, destroyed many cities,
slaughtered hundreds of thousands of people, and did irrevocable damage to the ancient irrigation systems of
Mesopotamia. Muslims in lands subject to the Mongols now faced northeast, toward the land routes to China, rather
than toward Mecca.
Eventually, most of the Mongol peoples that settled in western Asia converted to Islam and in many instances
became assimilated into various Muslim Turkic peoples. The Ottoman Empire rose from the ashes, but (according to
the traditional view) the Golden Age was over.
Causes of decline
There is little agreement on the precise causes of the decline, but in
addition to invasion by the Mongols and crusaders and the destruction
of libraries and madrasahs, it has also been suggested that political
mismanagement and the stifling of ijtihad (independent reasoning) in
the 12th century in favor of institutionalised taqleed (imitation)
thinking played a part. Ahmad Y Hassan has rejected the thesis that
lack of creative thinking was a cause, arguing that science was always
kept separate from religious argument; he instead analyses the decline
in terms of economic and political factors, drawing on the work of the
14th Century writer Ibn Khaldun.[8]
Trade Routes inherited by Muslim civilization
were ruined by invading Crusaders, Mongols and
the Portuguese. According to Ibn Khaldun such
invasions ruined economies and caused a rise in
banditry and piracy.
Islamic Golden Age
7
Opposing views
Some commentators have disputed the importance of the Golden Age,
going as far as to call it a myth, intended to distract attention from
modern Islam. Srdja Trifkovic's book The Sword of the Prophet is
highly critical of Islam in the Golden Age. It is indisputable that
Islamic regimes, such as the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad under
Harun ar-Rashid or al-Andalus were very wealthy in comparison with
their neighbours, preserved a large amount of Greek philosophy, and
transmitted Eastern ideas such as the concept of zero ('0'), believed to
have been developed in India. (See also: Arabic numerals). However,
some critics claim that all this flourished in spite of Islam rather than
because of it, arguing that the caliphate and other Islamic governments
emphasized rigid interpretation of Qur'anic orthodoxy, deploying
Greek philosophy and science solely to buttress its authority. As in
Christendom, persecution, exile and death were frequently meted out to
philosophers whose writings did not conform to the canon.
"Ali Baba" by Maxfield Parrish.
The issue of Islamic Civilization being a misnomer has also been
raised by a number of recent scholars, including the secular Iranian historian, Dr. Shoja-e-din Shafa in his recent
controversial books titled Rebirth (Persian: ‫ )ﺗﻮﻟﺪﻯ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ‬and After 1400 Years (Persian: ‫ ﭘﺲ ﺍﺯ‬1400 ‫)ﺳﺎﻝ‬, in which he
questions whether it makes sense to talk of a category such as “Islamic science”. Shafa states that while religion has
been a cardinal foundation for nearly all empires of antiquity to derive their authority from, it does not possess
adequate defining factors to justify attribution in the development of science, technology, and arts to the existence
and practice of a certain faith within a particular realm. While various empires in the course of mankind's history had
an official religion, we do not normally ascribe their achievements to the faith they practiced. For example, the
achievements of the Christian Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire and all subsequent European empires that
advocated Christianity are not normally considered one civilization.
Notes
[1] What Went Wrong?, Lewis, 2002
[2] "History of the caravel" (http:/ / nautarch. tamu. edu/ shiplab/ 01George/ caravela/ htmls/ Caravel History. htm). Nautarch.tamu.edu. .
Retrieved 2011-04-13.
[3] Islam's Gift of Paper to the West (http:/ / web. utk. edu/ ~persian/ paper. htm)
[4] Kevin M. Dunn, Caveman chemistry : 28 projects, from the creation of fire to the production of plastics, Universal-Publishers, 2003, page
166 (http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?id=JOtJKgWkPuQC& pg=PA166& dq=make+ paper+ from+ linen+ arabs& hl=fr&
ei=wFYeToPMMoqTswaAkvGiAg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=10& ved=0CFAQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage& q=make paper
from linen arabs& f=false)
[5] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic art and spirituality, SUNY Press, 1987, page 53 (http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?id=H5PZli-7V9EC&
pg=PA53& dq=great+ mosque+ of+ kairouan+ islamic+ architecture& hl=fr& ei=AFAeTu7yB875sgbl3a2QAg& sa=X& oi=book_result&
ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CDoQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage& q=great mosque of kairouan islamic architecture& f=false)
[6] John Stothoff Badeau and John Richard Hayes, The Genius of Arab civilization: source of Renaissance. Taylor & Francis. 1983. p. 104 (http:/
/ books. google. fr/ books?id=IaM9AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA104& dq=oleg+ grabar+ kairouan+ mosque& cd=3#v=onepage& q=oleg grabar
kairouan mosque& f=false)
[7] Great Mosque of Kairouan (Qantara mediterranean heritage) (http:/ / www. qantara-med. org/ qantara4/ public/ show_document.
php?do_id=399& lang=en)
[8] Ahmad Y Hassan, Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century (http:/ / www. history-science-technology. com/
Articles/ articles 8. htm)
Islamic Golden Age
References
• Donald R. Hill, Islamic Science And Engineering, Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0748604553
External links
• Islamic web (http://www.islamicweb.com/history/hist_golden.htm)
• Wiet, Gaston. "Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid Caliphate." (http://www.khamush.com/sufism/golden.
htm) Chapter 5
8
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