Patronage, Tradition
The case of the Irish
PETER
and
Modernisation:
"Gombeenman"
GIBBON
M . D . HIGGINS
s p a r t o f a general m o v e m e n t t o w a r d the s t u d y o f c o m p l e x societies i n
p o l i t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y , the last f e w years has witnessed a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f
e m p i r i c a l studies i n p a t r o n - c l i e n t ties. M o s t o f this l i t e r a t u r e has been
essentially d e s c r i p t i v e i n character, b u t m o r e r e c e n t l y a t t e m p t s have been m a d e
t o analyse the p r o b l e m o f the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n transitions i n these ties a n d the
k i n d s o f s t r u c t u r a l change i m p l i e d b y the n o t i o n o f increasing social " c o m p l e x i t y " .
T h e concepts e m p l o y e d i n these analyses h a v e b y a n d large been those o f n e o W e b e r i a n " m o d e r n i s a t i o n " t h e o r y . Patronage as a p h e n o m e n o n w i t h i n c o m p l e x
societies has been ascribed t o the s u r v i v a l i n t h e m o f residual " t r a d i t i o n a l "
elements, w h i l e its displacement, first b y the p h e n o m e n o n o f " b r o k e r a g e " , a n d
later b y h o r i z o n t a l l y - a r t i c u l a t e d f o r m s o f p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i s a t i o n , has been ascribed
t o the e r a d i c a t i o n o f these elements b y the m o d e r n i s a t i o n process. T h r o u g h the
e x a m i n a t i o n o f the rise a n d fall o f I r i s h r u r a l society's m o s t characteristic o c c u p a n t
o f the r o l e o f p a t r o n — t h e " g o m b e e n m a n " — t h i s paper a t t e m p t s t o assess t h e
strengths a n d weaknesses o f this thesis, a n d m o r e generally, the t h e o r e t i c a l
p r o b l e m s raised b y efforts t o a c c o m m o d a t e the t y p i c a l categories o f p o l i t i c a l
a n t h r o p o l o g y w i t h d y n a m i c theories o f social change.
T h e e x p o s i t i o n a n d a r g u m e n t are i n f o u r sections. F i r s t l y , there is a discussion
o f the e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e o n patronage a n d b r o k e r a g e w i t h i n p o l i t i c a l a n t h r o ­
p o l o g y . S e c o n d l y , three case-studies are presented o f p a t r o n a g e a n d b r o k e r a g e
i n h i s t o r i c a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y I r i s h society. T h i r d l y , the adequacy o f e x i s t i n g
f o r m u l a t i o n s o f the p r o b l e m o f the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n patronage, t r a d i t i o n a n d
m o d e r n i s a t i o n is e x a m i n e d i n t h e i r l i g h t . L a s t l y , the weaknesses o f e x i s t i n g
f o r m u l a t i o n s are discussed i n r e l a t i o n t o the status o f the concepts t h e y e m b o d y .
A
I
T h e first appearance o f the terms " p a t r o n a g e " a n d " c l i e n t a g e " w i t h i n a
systematic d e s c r i p t i o n o f s t r u c t u r e d social relations appears i n W e b e r ' s ideal t y p e
o f p a t r i m o n i a l i s m , t o be f o u n d i n The Religion of China a n d elsewhere. T h e
n o t i o n s w e r e d e v e l o p e d m o r e extensively i n M a r c B l o c h ' s m o n u m e n t a l Feudal
Society, i n w h i c h the " g r o w t h o f ties o f personal dependence" is seen as the k e y
d e t e r m i n a n t i n the rise o f feudalism. T h e social relations d e n o t e d b y these n o t i o n s
differ l i t t l e as e m p l o y e d b y W e b e r , B l o c h o r m o d e r n p o l i t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s .
Patronage denotes a r e l a t i o n o f personal dependence a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n i n w h i c h
m u t u a l exchanges take place b e t w e e n a patron, w h o constitutes the source o f o n e
side o f the exchanges, a n d a client, w h o constitutes the source o f the other. T h e
dependence a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f the c l i e n t is c o n s t i t u t e d t h r o u g h the fact t h a t
i n the r e l a t i o n i t is always the p a t r o n , b y v i r t u e o f superior resources o f one k i n d
o r another, w h o determines the c u r r e n c y a n d v o l u m e o f the e x c h a n g e . W i t h i n
p o l i t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y the e x p l o r a t i o n o f these relations was pioneered b y Barnes,
M i t c h e l l a n d G l u c k m a n i n t h e i r article o n the A f r i c a n h e a d m a n , a n d advanced
a n d a d u m b r a t e d b y Fallers, M i t c h e l l a n d Fortes w i t h reference t o A f r i c a , b y
Foster a n d W o l f w i t h reference t o M e x i c o , Geertz a n d W e r t h e i m t o South-east
Asia, Boissevain t o the M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d B a r t h a n d Paine w i t h reference t o the
N o r w e g i a n a n d C a n a d i a n arctics.
1
I n the process o f the i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f these terms i n t o a n t h r o p o l o g y , another
n o t i o n has been added. T h i s is t h a t o f brokerage, w h i c h c o m m o n l y denotes the
r o l e o f the m i d d l e m a n w h o p u r v e y s goods, services a n d values o n b e h a l f o f the
p a t r o n a n d i n r e t u r n p u r v e y s the r e c i p r o c a l p a y m e n t s specified b y the exchange
back t o h i m , w h i l e m e d i a t i n g b o t h transactions i n m o r e o r less c o m p l e x w a y s .
W e w i s h n o w t o e x p l a i n h o w these n o t i o n s " w o r k " w i t h i n p o l i t i c a l a n t h r o ­
p o l o g y , t h a t is, w h a t theories specify the f o r m s a n d l i m i t s o f t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y .
A p a r t f r o m s t r u c t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d A m e r i c a n f o r m a l e t h n o g r a p h y , the
d o m i n a n t theoretical p o s i t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y i n a n t h r o p o l o g y t o d a y is t h a t o f
transactionalism. T h o s e w h o h o l d this p o s i t i o n argue t h a t since i n t e g r a t e d encapsu­
lated societies n o l o n g e r f o r m the object o f a n t h r o p o l o g y , the functionalist f r a m e
o f reference designed t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e m s h o u l d be discarded i n f a v o u r o f an
a p p r o a c h w h i c h studies the processes o f strategic n e g o t i a t i o n w h e r e b y n e w social
relations b e t w e e n m e m b e r s o f ex-encapsulated societies a n d the larger society
are f o r g e d . Characteristically, the m o d e l o f the e c o n o m i c m a r k e t and its b a r g a i n i n g
processes has been transposed t o this s t u d y , o n the g r o u n d s t h a t l i k e the n e w
c o n j u n c t u r e studied b y a n t h r o p o l o g y , i t c o m b i n e s b o t h the actions o f free agents
a n d certain tendencies t o r e g u l a r i t y i n the same. H e n c e the interest o f p o l i t i c a l
a n t h r o p o l o g y i n the f o l l o w i n g k i n d s o f relations: p a t r o n a g e a n d b r o k e r a g e ;
i . T h i s d e f i n i t i o n is derived f r o m R. Paine's essay, " A T h e o r y o f Patronage and Brokerage" i n
Paine, R. (ed.), Patrons and Brokers in the East Arctic, St. John's N e w f o u n d l a n d : Social & Economic
Papers, 1971. T h i s t e x t includes a comprehensive b i b l i o g r a p h y o n the subject.
f a c t i o n a l i s m ; friendship-cliques; i n d i v i d u a l - c e n t r e d c o a l i t i o n s ; social n e t w o r k s ,
a n d so o n .
W i t h i n this general tendency, t w o m a i n positions m a y be i d e n t i f i e d . T h e first,
w h i c h w e shall call " s t r o n g " transactionalism, posits t h a t p o l i t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y
has b e g u n t o discover certain universal f o r m s o f social relations characteristic o f
a l l societies u p t o a n d i n c l u d i n g c a p i t a l i s m a n d socialism. T h e p r o j e c t o f a n t h r o ­
p o l o g y s h o u l d therefore be a s t r i c t l y c o m p a r a t i v e one, analysing the different
c o n t e n t o f these relations i n terms o f the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f n e g o t i a t i n g strategies.
T h e second, w h i c h w e shall call " w e a k " transactionalism, posits t h a t these
relations, w h i l e i d e n t i f i a b l y r e c u r r i n g t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , are o n l y especially
significant i n the periods i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a n d d u r i n g the process o f
i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f p r e v i o u s l y encapsulated societies i n t o " c o m p l e x " societies. A s
" m o d e r n i s a t i o n " comes s l o w l y t o be diffused, t h e y lose m o s t o f t h e i r significance.
T h i s p o s i t i o n , w h i c h w e shall m a i n l y be c o n c e r n e d w i t h , incorporates elements
o f W e b e r ' s a c c o u n t o f e c o n o m i c a n d social d e v e l o p m e n t .
These positions are d u p l i c a t e d w i t h respect t o t h e question o f p a tr o n a g e a n d
b r o k e r a g e . A c c o r d i n g t o advocates o f " s t r o n g " transactionalism, p a tr o n a g e a n d
b r o k e r a g e are f o u n d i n f a i r l y constant p r o p o r t i o n s i n a l l societies, d i f f e r i n g i n
significance a n d c o n t e n t o n l y i n so far as i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s o f t h e society
successfully a d o p t t h e m as strategic r o l e s . A c c o r d i n g t o the " w e a k e r " v e r s i o n o f
transactionalism o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h i l e p a tr o n a g e a n d b r o k e r a g e are t o b e
f o u n d i n all societies, certain s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s exist w h i c h m a k e t h e m m o r e
o r less c o m m o n h i s t o r i c a l l y . S u m m a r i s i n g an extensive l i t e r a t u r e i m p l y i n g this
thesis, W e i n g r o d f o r m u l a t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p o s i t i o n s :
2
1. P a t r o n - c l i e n t ties are f o u n d m o s t l y i n three d i s t i n c t h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d s : w i t h i n
f e u d a l i s m , at the boundaries o f the d u a l e c o n o m y i n transitional societies, a n d
at t h e boundaries o f " l o c a l " a n d " n a t i o n a l " p o l i t i c a l arenas i n t r a n s i t i o n a l
societies.
, 2. T h e s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s g i v i n g rise t o p a t r o n a g e a n d b r o k e r a g e are f e u d a l ­
i s m (patronage p r o p e r ) a n d the emergence o f a r e g u l a t i v e state i n t r a n s i t i o n a l '
2. I n an article i n the j o u r n a l Sociologisches Gids, Boissevain, a representative " s t r o n g " transactionalist, remarks: "Patronage must be studied as a universal p h e n o m e n o n . . . the relevant
questions are n o t w h e r e and w h y patronage occurs (since patronage occurs i n a l l societies) b u t h o w
patrons and clients operate their roles and w h a t other factors influence their operation. G i v e n
that this is a universal phenomenon, o u r object should be t o arrive at meaningful hypotheses
regarding the relation between strategy, resources and e n v i r o n m e n t . " "Patrons as B r o k e r s " ,
SG V o l . 16, 1968.
E v e n m o r e sharply, Paine concludes his analysis o f patronage w i t h the argument that n o t o n l y
is patronage a universal phenomenon, b u t that i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h o occupies patronage roles,
consideration o f status and r a n k are subordinate i n comparison w i t h particular people's 'general
strategic skills" (Paine, R., i b i d . ) . T h i s position w o u l d also be occupied b y . B a i l e y , w h o attempts
t o apply Game T h e o r y t o the study o f these relations ( i n Strategems and Spoils, O x f o r d ( B l a c k w e l l ) ,
1968).
societies i n w h i c h a u t h o r i t y remains dispersed a n d state a c t i v i t y
c i r c u m s c r i b e d (brokerage).
fairly
3. T h e s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s g i v i n g rise t o the decline o f p a t r o n a g e a n d b r o k e r a g e
are this t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e r e g u l a t i v e state (displacement o f p a t r o n a g e b y
b r o k e r a g e ) a n d the emergence o f a r e f o r m i n g state w i t h a large bureaucratic
apparatus (erosion o f b r o k e r a g e a n d t r a n s i t i o n t o supra-local p o l i t i c s ) .
3
O n the o n e h a n d , patronage, b r o k e r a g e a n d clientage as universal societal
a t t r i b u t e s ; o n the o t h e r , these roles as h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d social relationships
r i s i n g i n t h e p e r i o d o f f e u d a l i s m (conceptualised as p o l i t i c a l decentralisation) a n d
s l o w l y disappearing w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f bureaucratization a n d i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n .
A l m o s t a l l t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n p a t r o n a g e i m p l i e s o n e o r o t h e r o f these perspectives.
' B e f o r e passing d i r e c t l y t o o u r case-studies o f the o p e r a t i o n o f these relations i n
I r i s h r u r a l society, i t w o u l d be as w e l l t o r e v i e w the claims w h i c h have been m a d e
b y students o f I r i s h p o l i t i c a l s o c i o l o g y f o r the e x p l a n a t o r y m e r i t o f these p e r ­
spectives i n r e l a t i o n t o this p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n . A p i o n e e r i n g w o r k i n this respect was
C h u b b ' s The Government and Politics of Ireland. T h i s w o r k is c e n t r a l l y d e v o t e d t o
a c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f I r i s h p o l i t i c o - l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , b u t i t also b r i n g s
t o g e t h e r a n u m b e r o f sociological themes i n a discussion o f v a r i o u s " a n o m a l i e s "
i n I r i s h p o l i t i c s . These i n c l u d e : t h e character o f b o t h t h e m a j o r parties as v e r t i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d inter-class alliances; a lack o f serious i d e o l o g i c a l differences b e t w e e n
these parties; a c o m p r e h e n s i v e l o c a l i s m i n n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s ; a statistically-attested
e x t r e m e l y l o w degree o f p u b l i c confidence i n t h e a b i l i t y o f o r d i n a r y citizens t o
c o l l e c t i v e l y influence l o c a l o r n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t a l a c t i o n ; an absence o f
interest-groups o r p u b l i c campaigns i n n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s ; the d o m i n a n c e o f
n a t i o n a l a n d l o c a l p o l i t i c s b y t h e personal clienteles o f p o l i t i c i a n s ; a n d the constant
recurrence o f - c o r r u p t practices i n local g o v e r n m e n t . A t different places i n his
w o r k , C h u b b effectually ascribes a l l these anomalies ( " a n o m a l i e s " f o r a w e s t e r n
E u r o p e a n d e m o c r a c y ) t o the o p e r a t i o n o f p a t r o n a g e a n d brokerage. I n d e e d ,
a c c o r d i n g t o C h u b b , t h e r o l e o f p o l i t i c i a n s a n d p o l i t i c a l parties i n I r e l a n d is
essentially the a r t i c u l a t i o n o f these relations. C h u b b sees this as a consequence o f
residual " t r a d i t i o n " :
>
For generations, Irish people saw that t o get the benefits that public authorities
bestow, the help o f a m a n w i t h connections and influence was necessary. A l l that
democracy has meant is that such a m a n has been laid o n officially, as i t were, and
is n o w no longer a master but a servant, (p. 76)
C h u b b ' s analysis was c a r r i e d f u r t h e r b y B a x i n an article w h i c h appeared t w o
years l a t e r . L i k e C h u b b , B a x claims t h a t t h e d o m i n a n c e o f patronage a n d
4
3. W e i n g r o d , A . , "Patrons, Patronage and Political Parties", Comparative Studies in Society and
History, V o l . 10, 1967.
4. B a x , M . , "Patronage Irish Style: Politicians as B r o k e r s " , SG, V o l . 18, 1970.
b r o k e r a g e underlies Ireland's p o l i t i c a l anomalies. M o r e t h a n that, i t has been the
means b y w h i c h the v e r t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f I r i s h society has been secured f o r m o s t
o f the last h u n d r e d years. U n t i l independence (1922) says B a x , l a n d l o r d s acted as
the p r i n c i p a l p a t r o n s a n d b r o k e r s ; since the emergence o f an i n d e p e n d e n t r e f o r m i s t
a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t state apparatus, t h e y h a v e been displaced b y professional
p o l i t i c i a n s m e d i a t i n g b e t w e e n the f o r m e r clients o f the n o w powerless l a n d l o r d s
a n d the n e w state bureaucracy. T h e success o f the latter i n establishing themselves
has been based u p o n the scarcity-value o f the social benefits t h e y h a d p r i v i l e g e d
access t o , i n the e n d e m i c " p e r s o n a l i s m " a n d " l o c a l i s m " o f the " I r i s h character",
a n d i n t h e s t e r i l i t y o f the i d e o l o g i c a l disputes o f the p e r i o d . These causes w e r e
h e i g h t e n e d b y the i n t r o d u c t i o n b y the n e w r e g i m e o f the P r o p o r t i o n a l Representa­
t i o n electoral system w i t h m u l t i - m e m b e r constituencies. T h i s f o r c e d parties t o
p u t u p a n u m b e r o f candidates f o r each area, a n d candidates t o organise a personal
as w e l l as p o l i t i c a l f o l l o w i n g . A c c o r d i n g t o B a x a n d subsequent l i t e r a t u r e i n s p i r e d
b y his research, b r o k e r a g e is n o w c o m p l e t e l y e n d e m i c i n I r e l a n d , a n d infuses
e v e r y social t r a n s a c t i o n . I t is t i m e n o w t o e x a m i n e h o w m u c h the perspectives,
o u t l i n e d i n t h e o r e t i c a l a n d o p e r a t i o n a l terms, can a c t u a l l y e x p l a i n a b o u t I r i s h
r u r a l social relations, i n the l i g h t o f o u r three case-studies. These c o v e r respectively
p a t r o n a g e before independence o n the w e s t e r n seaboard; p a t r o n a g e t o d a y o n the
w e s t e r n seaboard; a n d patronage t o d a y i n a " m o d e r n i s e d " r u r a l area o f eastern
Ireland.
5
(i) Patronage in the Pre-Independence
Era: the Rule of the
"Gombeenman"
A l t h o u g h b o t h C h u b b a n d B a x i d e n t i f y l a n d l o r d s as the p r i n c i p a l occupants o f
the r o l e o f p a t r o n p r i o r t o Independence, m o s t o f the evidence suggests t h a t t h e i r
p o l i t i c a l , m o r a l a n d e c o n o m i c influence d e c l i n e d r a p i d l y f r o m t h e f a m i n e o n ­
w a r d s . B y the 1880s l a n d l o r d p o w e r h a d passed i n m a n y places t o another
source—the " g o m b e e n m a n " . " G o m b e e n " is a c o r r u p t i o n o f the I r i s h w o r d
(gaimbin) f o r interest, a n d the t e r m was o r i g i n a l l y c o i n e d t o describe the activities
o f r u r a l m o n e y l e n d e r s i n p r e - F a m i n e I r e l a n d . A f t e r t h e F a m i n e the t e r m became
transposed t o shopkeepers either p r a c t i s i n g u s u r y as a sideline, o r i n t e g r a t i n g
o r t h o d o x c o m m e r c i a l a n d usurious relations o f e x p l o i t a t i o n . Such shopkeepers
w e r e a c o m m o n p h e n o m e n o n e v e r y w h e r e i n the early capitalist w o r l d , b u t i n
c e r t a i n areas o f I r e l a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y the w e s t e r n seaboard, t h e " g o m b e e n m a n " was
n o t s i m p l y o n e entrepreneur a m o n g m a n y , b u t the effectual r u l e r o f large tracts o f
6
5. I n the short rime since its publication, Bax's w o r k has p r o v i d e d a focus for discussion b o t h o f
the typical careers o f recent recruits t o the Irish political elite ( C o h a n , A . : The Irish Political Elite,
D u b l i n : G i l l and M a c m i l l a n , 1971) and o f the basis o f the political successes o f the Fianna F i i l p a r t y
(Manning, M . , Irish Political Parties, D u b l i n : G i l l and M a c m i l l a n , 1971).
6. B y the 18 80s, w i t h the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the various L a n d Acts enabling tenant purchase,
Irish landlords w e r e almost always either absentees w i t h o u t local m o r a l o r political influence
(except i n U l s t e r ) ; or w e r e capitalist desmesne farmers e m p l o y i n g wage-labourers and exercising
influence o n l y over t h e m and the tenant farmers d i r e c t l y dependent o r T t h e m . See Lee, J., The
Modernization of Irish Society 1848-1918, D u b l i n : G i l l and Macmillan, 1973.
c o u n t r y a n d h u n d r e d s o f "subjects'. T h i s status was f r e q u e n t l y reflected i n t h e i r
a c q u i s i t i o n o f the t i t l e " k i n g " o r " l o r d " .
I t is p r o p o s e d t o r e v i e w the p a t r o n a g e functions o f the g o m b e e n m a n u n d e r
the f o l l o w i n g h e a d i n g s : e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l . T h e data f o r this
s t u d y are d e r i v e d f r o m p e r i o d " e x p o s u r e " novels, a n d f r o m official a n d unofficial
c o n t e m p o r a r y accounts o f I r i s h agrarian social relations.
Economic Patronage: T h e g o m b e e n m a n o f the p e r i o d 1870-1930 t y p i c a l l y
exercised e c o n o m i c p a t r o n a g e t h r o u g h c r e d i t r e t a i l i n g i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h
m o n e y l e n d i n g . I n o r d e r t o secure a d e p e n d e n t clientele he m a d e cash loans a n d
c r e d i t freely available t o s m a l l farmers, ostensibly w i t h o u t reference t o security.
I n r e t u r n , he b o t h charged interest a n d insisted that his debtors b o u g h t goods o n l y
f r o m his store. H a v i n g established dependence, he w o u l d t h e n charge inflated
r e t a i l prices t o his c u s t o m e r i n o r d e r b o t h t o secure as m u c h p r o f i t as possible a n d
t o keep the c u s t o m e r f a l l i n g f u r t h e r i n t o debt. T h i s secured t i e d clientele f o r b o t h
p u r c h a s i n g a n d r e t a i l i n g . I t enabled t h e g o m b e e n m a n t o attain a m o n o p o l y i n
m a r k e t i n g the p r o d u c e o f clients, a n d f u r t h e r enabled h i m n o t o n l y t o p a y f o r
t h e m b e l o w m a r k e t p r i c e b u t t o m a k e a second p r o f i t b y insisting that the p r o d u c e
be b a r t e r e d f o r shop-goods. T h e g o m b e e n m a n was also enabled t o create a
b o n d e d l a b o u r - m a r k e t , t h e m o s t f a m e d e x a m p l e o f w h i c h was t h a t f o r the
k n i t t i n g industry i n west D o n e g a l .
7
8
9
A n o t h e r means o f the c r e a t i o n o f b o n d s o f m o n o p o l i s t i c e c o n o m i c dependence
was the " t r u s t a u c t i o n " . U n d e r this system prospective clients i n need o f ready
cash w o u l d sell t h e i r stock t o each o t h e r t h r o u g h the g o m b e e n m a n (acting i n the
7. T h e transposition o f the title " k i n g " is especially significant, since i t was t r a d i t i o n a l l y reserved
i n Irish-speaking areas t o designate the senior l i v i n g male i n the lineage o f the deposed Celtic
landholder. G a i n i n g this title reflected displacing the personage o c c u p y i n g this role w i t h i n the
local-level status hierarchy.
8. T h e novels i n question are the w o r k s o f the D o n e g a l author Patrick M a c G i l l (The Rat Pit,
L o n d o n : H e r b e r t Jenkins, 1915; Children of the Dead End, L o n d o n : H e r b e r t Jenkins, 1914); and the
G a l w a y novelist L i a m O'Flaherty (particularly House of Gold, L o n d o n : Jonathan Cape, 1929).
T h e most i m p o r t a n t unofficial descriptions o f the e c o n o m y o f this r e g i o n d u r i n g the p e r i o d are
t o be f o u n d i n the biographical w o r k s o f W . L . M i c k s (History of the Congested Districts Board,
D u b l i n : Maunsell, 1925) and Patrick Gallagher, the founder o f the co-operative m o v e m e n t i n
D o n e g a l (My Life, or Paddy the Cope, L o n d o n : Jonathan Cape, 1936). T h e principal official reports
dealing d i r e c d y o r i n d i r e c t l y w i t h Irish r u r a l social relations i n this p e r i o d are Royal Commission
on Labour ( V o l . 4, A g r i c u l t u r a l Labour i n Ireland), L o n d o n : H M S O , 1893; Royal Commission on
Congestion, L o n d o n : H M S O , 1906-1908; Departmental Committee on Agricultural Credit in Ireland,
L o n d o n : H M S O , 1914; and Commission on the Gaeltacht, D u b l i n : G o v e r n m e n t Stationery Office,
1926.
9. Here, k n i t t i n g machines p r o v i d e d b y the B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t for starting h o m e industries,
fell i n t o the hands o f gombeenmen, w h o h i r e d t h e m o u t t o the wives o f dependent clients. I n
conjunction w i t h their hire, the g o m b e e n m a n sold w o o l o n credit t o the h o m e - w o r k e r . W h e n
the h o m e - w o r k e r returned the finished garment its value was calculated b y the gombeenman b y
deducting f r o m a set price the rent o f the machine and the cost o f the w o o l . H e then paid the
remainder i n shop-goods. M a c G i l l (Children of the Dead End, i b i d . , p . 4-8) estimated that a w o m a n
w o r k i n g 16 hours w o u l d earn about i l d . w o r t h o f shopgoods after the g o m b e e n m a n had made
his f o u r separate profits f r o m the transaction.
capacity o f m o c k " a u c t i o n e e r " ) at a r t i f i c i a l l y inflated prices. T h e g o m b e e n m a n
passed o n the cash v a l u e o f the sale m i n u s c o m m i s s i o n t o t h e " b u y e r " , w h o h a d
t h e n f o u r m o n t h s t o repay the d e b t at 6 per cent interest. T h e stock w o u l d t h e n
be i m m e d i a t e l y resold t o t h e o r i g i n a l o w n e r a n d the process repeated.
A l t h o u g h engaged i n m a n y o t h e r varieties o f e c o n o m i c o p e r a t i o n ( r o a d
contracting paid i n truck, share-cropping i n fishing, fattening o f livestock o n
l a n d seized—usually i l l e g a l l y — f r o m i n s o l v e n t clients, etc.) these w e r e the p r i n c i p a l
modes o f e x p l o i t a t i o n t h r o u g h w h i c h p a t r o n a g e was exercised. W h a t t h e y shared
was the c r e a t i o n o f ties o f m o n o p o l i s t i c personal dependence.
Political Patronage: G o m b e e n m e n w e r e e x t r e m e l y p r o m i n e n t t h r o u g h o u t the
p e r i o d i n e v e r y m a j o r I r i s h p o l i t i c a l p a r t y , a l t h o u g h the z e n i t h o f t h e i r influence
was p r o b a b l y reached i n the I r i s h p a r l i a m e n t a r y p a r t y u n d e r O ' B r i e n a n d
R e d m o n d . T h e r e w e r e f i v e basic f o r m s o f p a t r o n - c l i e n t p o l i t i c a l relations at
this t i m e :
1 0
(a) T h e use o f ties o f m o n o p o l i s t i c e c o n o m i c personal dependence t o secure
a bloc o f s u p p o r t f o r electoral a n d o t h e r p o l i t i c a l purposes.
(b) T h e use o f resources o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h elected office t o secure favours
f r o m p a r t y a n d state w h i c h d i r e c t l y p r o m o t e d t h e g o m b e e n m a n ' s
economic position.
(c) T h e use o f resources o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h elected office t o neutralise o r
e l i m i n a t e p o l i t i c a l opponents.
(d) T h e use o f e c o n o m i c resources t o secure the s u p p o r t o f local notables f o r
p o l i t i c a l projects a n d ventures (donations t o the C h u r c h , the H u n t , etc.).
(e) T h e use o f resources o b t a i n e d b y elected office t o o b t a i n favours f o r
dependent a n d n o n - d e p e n d e n t clients.
E x a m p l e s o f each o f these practices can r e a d i l y be p r o v i d e d , b u t t i m e does n o t
p e r m i t t h e i r i l l u s t r a t i o n . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t the m o s t characteristic
c o m b i n a t i o n o f the practices t o be f o u n d i n o p e r a t i o n o n the w e s t e r n seaboard
d u r i n g this p e r i o d was the c r e a t i o n o f t i e d blocs o f p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t , a n d the use
o f these t o g a i n access t o s e m i - l e g i t i m a t e means o f f u r t h e r i n g the e c o n o m i c
p o s i t i o n o f the g o m b e e n m a n .
Ideological Patronage: W i t h respect t o those d i r e c t l y e c o n o m i c a l l y dependent
u p o n h i m , t h e g o m b e e n m a n served as a m o n o p o l i s t i c source o f certain i d e o l o g i c a l
relations. H e d i d this i n three w a y s :
First, he o f t e n i m p o s e d an effectual m o r a l o r d e r o f his o w n o n a l o c a l i t y , usually
s u p p o r t e d i n this v e n t u r e b y a semi-dependent curate o r parish priest.
10. T h e first serious historian o f the Party was m o v e d t o describe its conventions as being
composed o f " h a l f g o m b e e n m e n and h a l f political priests" ( O ' D o n n e l l , F., History of the Irish
Parliamentary Party, L o n d o n : Longmans & C o . , 1910, v o l . I I , p . 468).
Second, as the l o c a l official representative o f n a t i o n a l i s m , he b o t h i n t e r p r e t e d
n a t i o n a l i s m t o the l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t e d t h e i r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l
grievances t o the n a t i o n a l p a r t y a n d state a p p a r a t u s .
T h i r d , as l o c a l representative o f i n d u s t r y a n d c o m m e r c e , the g o m b e e n m a n
w o u l d act o u t a r o l e o f i n n o v a t i o n i n " c o m m e r c i a l " i d e o l o g y , i n t r o d u c i n g n o t i o n s
o f n o r m a l business practice, legal o b l i g a t i o n , o u t s t a n d i n g enterprise, etc.
I t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t the balance o f patronage a n d b r o k e r a g e roles o c c u p i e d b y
t h e g o m b e e n m a n i n this p e r i o d w e r e o f a patronage f o r m . B r o k e r a g e was n o n ­
existent i n a n y e c o n o m i c f o r m , subordinate i n p o l i t i c a l f o r m t o straight p a t r o n c l i e n t relations, a n d n o m o r e t h a n e q u a l l y significant i n i d e o l o g i c a l relations.
11
(ii) Patronage on the Western Seaboard
Today
O n m o s t o f the w e s t e r n seaboard the great age o f p a tr o n a g e appears t o have
passed. N o l o n g e r d o giants o f o l d l i k e the M c D o n a g h f a m i l y o f G a l w a y , o r the
Sweeney f a m i l y o f the Glenties ( c o u n t y D o n e g a l ) possess effectual empires, w h i c h
i n the M c D o n a g h s ' case at least c o v e r e d o v e r a t h o u s a n d square miles. T h e r e is n o
d o u b t , h o w e v e r , that g o m b e e n m e n r e m a i n a n d that i n m a n y instances t h e i r
degree o f p o w e r , i f n o t the p h y s i c a l area o f t h e i r influence, is u n d i m i n i s h e d . I n
Inisheer (the smallest o f the A r a n Islands) the p r i n c i p a l shopkeeper is still referred
t o l o c a l l y as " t h e k i n g " . I n I n i s h k i l l a n e , a parish o f c o u n t y C l a r e studied b y
B r o d y , the general storekeeper still effectually m o n o p o l i s e d a l l f o r m s o f p o w e r ,
a n d l i k e the g o m b e e n m e n o f o l d h a d the parish priest o p e r a t i n g a c c o r d i n g t o his
instructions. T h e data f o r this s t u d y are d e r i v e d f r o m the recent a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
studies o f Messenger a n d B r o d y , f r o m i n t e r v i e w s w i t h l o c a l i n f o r m a n t s , a n d
f r o m p r o l o n g e d personal o b s e r v a t i o n .
Economic Patronage: W h i l e m o n e y l e n d i n g , t o g e t h e r w i t h its masked f o r m s such
as the trust a u c t i o n , has d e c l i n e d substantially as a source o f g o m b e e n e c o n o m i c
p o w e r , c r e d i t - r e t a i l i n g c o m b i n e d w i t h gross indebtedness remains the r u l e rather
t h a n the e x c e p t i o n o n the w e s t coast. Reliance u p o n the g o m b e e n m a n as p r i n c i p a l
source o f personal a n d agrarian c r e d i t , a n d its correlate o f b o n d e d clientage,
r e m a i n u n d i m i n i s h e d . A l t h o u g h i t is n o t r e p o r t e d i n a n y o f the recent a n t h r o 1 2
1 3
1 4
11. Sometimes this interpretation w o u l d be l i t e r a l ; the gombeenman w o u l d be the principal
m e m b e r o f the local elite speaking b o t h Irish and English.
12. I n a recent fictionalised description about a "respected" c o u n t y G a l w a y gombeenman, the
author has his hero n o t o n l y called the " B r o w n L o r d " b y his subjects, b u t has the latter h a i l i n g
h i m as the true " k i n g " o f the area. M a c k e n , W . , Brown Lord of the Mountain, L o n d o n : Pan
Books, 1971.
13. B r o d y , H . , Inishkillane: Change and Decline in the west of Ireland, N e w Y o r k : H o l t , Reinhardt
& W i n s t o n , 1969.
,
14. I n 1958 an official o f the U S D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e w h o was commissioned t o produce
a survey o f credit i n r u r a l Ireland concluded that almost all small farmers were indebted i n some
degree t o shopkeepers and merchants, and that even a m o n g larger farmers the commonest means
o f obtaining credit for f a r m maintenance o r i m p r o v e m e n t was t o defer indefinitely payment o n
seeds, feeds and shop-goods. Gilmore, F., Report on Agricultural Credit in Ireland, D u b l i n : C S O ,
1958.
1
v.
p o l o g i c a l field-studies, i t is a fact t h a t the use o f d e b t - b o n d a g e t o create a
m a n i p u l a t o r y w o r k - f o r c e p a i d i n t r u c k still occurs i n some areas. I n C o n n e m a r a i t .
is c u s t o m a r y f o r establishments t o p a y i n groceries f o r o u t w o r k such as t h e m a k i n g
o f novelties f o r tourists. T h e r e is also evidence o f the c o n t i n u e d practice o f the
b a r t e r i n g o f shop-goods f o r peasant m a r k e t p t o d u c e .
T o some e x t e n t even, n o v e l f o r m s o f e c o n o m i c patronage a n d b r o k e r a g e have
appeared. Messenger reports f r o m Inisheer t h a t since t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a meanstested u n e m p l o y m e n t assistance benefit ( w h i c h m o s t islanders c l a i m ) m o n o p o l i s a ­
t i o n b y " t h e k i n g " o v e r the exchange i n t o S t e r l i n g o f overseas e m i g r a n t relatives'
remittances has g i v e n h i m r e n e w e d e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o w e r , since p r a c t i c a l l y
the w h o l e island is at his m e r c y o f disclosing t h e i r t r u e i n c o m e s t o t h e H o m e
Assistance Officer.
Political Patronage: G o m b e e n m e n are still d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y p r o m i n e n t i n l o c a l
a n d n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t . C h u b b ' s analysis o f the social c o m p o s i t i o n o f c o u n t y
c o u n c i l l o r s a n d p a r l i a m e n t a r y deputies shows t h a t publicans, s m a l l shopkeepers
a n d s m a l l businessmen, w h o m a k e u p t o 3-2 p e r cent o f t h e e m p l o y e d a d u l t
p o p u l a t i o n , represented 31 p e r cent o f c o u n t y c o u n c i l l o r s , 34 p e r cent o f p a r l i a ­
m e n t a r y deputies a n d 20 per cent o f ministers i n the last (Fianna Fail) g o v e r n m e n t .
Nevertheless, there seems t o h a v e been a change i n the character o f the p a t r o n a g e
exercised. I n its o l d e r f o r m , p o l i t i c a l p a t r o n a g e h a d been l a r g e l y c o m m e n s u r a t e
w i t h the use o f c l i e n t ties t o g a i n electoral office f o r the g o m b e e n m a n ' s o w n
personal e c o n o m i c aggrandisement. A l t h o u g h each o f the f o r m s o f p o l i t i c a l
p a t r o n a g e already n o t e d m a y still be f o u n d i n o p e r a t i o n t o d a y , there can be l i t t l e
d o u b t t h a t there has been a change i n emphasis i n p o l i t i c s i n the W e s t t o w a r d the
m o b i l i s a t i o n o f c l i e n t ties t o secure electoral office, w h i c h is n o w used as a s t e p p i n g stone t o achieve f u r t h e r p o l i t i c a l a d v a n c e m e n t t h r o u g h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
extension o f a n e t w o r k o f dependence a m o n g s t clients u p o n bureaucratic f a v o u r s .
A s a c o r o l l a r y , i t c o m m o n l y appears t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ^ ours h a v e s o m e w h a t
displaced d e b t - b o n d a g e as a source o f the r e c r u i t m e n t o f a p o l i t i c a l bloc. I n o t h e r
w o r d s , there is considerable evidence f o r suggesting t h a t l o c a l - l e v e l p o l i t i c a l p o w e r
o n the w e s t e r n seaboard t o d a y depends j u s t as m u c h o n the successful m a n i p u l a t i o n
o f b r o k e r a g e o r m i d d l e m a n ties as i t does o n p a t r o n a g e ties. T h e increasing
i m p o r t a n c e o f b r o k e r a g e as a means o f establishing a n d m a i n t a i n i n g p o l i t i c a l
p o w e r is b o r n e o u t b y an e x a m i n a t i o n o f the newest f o r m o f p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n
based o n personal dependence t o e m e r g e i n the W e s t . T h e source o f dependence i n
this case is t h e H o m e Assistance Officer, responsible f o r the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the
d o l e . O c c u p a n t s o f this p o s i t i o n are f r e q u e n t l y said t o be a p p o i n t e d as p o l i t i c a l
1 5
16
15. C h u b b , B . , The Government and Politics of Ireland, C o n d e n : Stanford U n i v . Press, 1970,
pp. 94-6.
16. Nevertheless, the degree o f reliance o f some politicians o n mobilisation o f direct dependents
(and, o f course, relatives) is still v e r y h i g h . Messenger witnessed Inisheer's " k i n g " haranguing his
clients at the p o l l i n g b o o t h o n election day (Messenger, i b i d . , p . 65), w h i l e direct observation o f
similar phenomena elsewhere i n G a l w a y leads us t o believe that this and similar practices r e m a i n
common.
favours, a n d are o f t e n accused o f a d m i n i s t e r i n g the d o l e a c c o r d i n g t o p o l i t i c a l
criteria. M a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n m a y take the f o r m o f m a k i n g c o n d i t i o n a l the p a y m e n t
o f w e l f a r e b e n e f i t o n electoral c o m p l i a n c e , o r o f p a y i n g benefit t o the u n e n t i t l e d
i n r e t u r n f o r p r o m i s e d f u t u r e c o m p l i a n c e . S o m e evidence o f this practice m a y be
the discrepancy b e t w e e n the n u m b e r o f illiterate adults r e c o r d e d i n the census f o r
t h e w e s t e r n seaboard, a n d t h e considerably larger n u m b e r o f adults w h o c l a i m
the p r i v i l e g e o f the p u b l i c v e r b a l v o t e reserved f o r illiterates (before p o l l i n g
station officials w h o w o u l d o f t e n g e n e r a l l y i n c l u d e the H o m e Assistance O f f i c e r ) .
Ideological Patronage: T h e g o m b e e n m a n ' s f u n c t i o n o f m o r a l patronage has
suffered s o m e t h i n g o f a parallel decline, a l t h o u g h his b r o k e r a g e functions r e m a i n
t o a great e x t e n t intact. A l t h o u g h g o m b e e n m e n appear almost e v e r y w h e r e as
a m o n g s t the m o s t a u t h o r i t a t i v e figures i n the c o m m u n i t y i t was o n l y f r o m
Inisheer t h a t i t was r e p o r t e d that despite resistance, " t h e k i n g " was still able t o
p u b l i c l y r e p r i m a n d the g r o w n m e n o f the island as t o t h e i r manners, m o r a l s
a n d misdemeanors a c c o r d i n g t o his o w n personal code.
17
T h e m o r a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l functions o f the g o m b e e n m a n appear t o have
c h a n g e d l i t t l e , h o w e v e r . T h e g o m b e e n m a n still tends t o o c c u p y a m o n o p o l i s t i c
o r s e m i - m o n o p o l i s t i c p o s i t i o n i n i n t e r p r e t i n g ideas a b o u t c o m m e r c i a l life a n d
p o l i t i c s t o t h e c o m m u n i t y , a n d o f i n t e r p r e t i n g back t o p a r t y a n d state l o c a l - l e v e l
e c o n o m i c a n d social grievances.
(iii) Patronage
in "modernised"
Ireland:
Wicklow
in the
'fifties
L o w l a n d W i c k l o w is b y I r i s h standards prosperous a n d m o d e r n i s e d , b e i n g the
l o c a t i o n o f q u i t e large c o m m e r c i a l farms, p o p u l o u s a n d r e l a t i v e l y w e l l - o f f villages
a n d some small-scale i n d u s t r y . T h i s case-study is o f social relations i n the v i l l a g e o f
Baltinglass. T h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f these relations became clearly visible i n a f a m o u s
l o c a l i n c i d e n t w h i c h o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e early 1950s, t h e so-called " B a t t l e o f
B a l t i n g l a s s " . First, a r e s u m e o f the events o f t h e " B a t t l e " . A t this time, I r e l a n d
was r u l e d b y a c o a l i t i o n g o v e r n m e n t , i n w h i c h the t h e n N a t i o n a l L a b o u r P a r t y
was g i v e n t h e M i n i s t r y o f Posts a n d Telegraphs. D u r i n g the p e r i o d o f office o f
the L a b o u r m i n i s t e r , the j o b o f postmaster i n Baltinglass was a w a r d e d t o the son
o f t h e l o c a l N a t i o n a l L a b o u r P a r t y organiser, w h o was a shopkeeper a n d f a r m e r .
A n o u t c r y was raised l o c a l l y , ostensibly o n b e h a l f o f the t e m p o r a r y i n c u m b e n t
postmistress, i n w h o s e f a m i l y the post h a d been h e l d f o r e i g h t y years. A l t h o u g h
this o u t c r y was i n the n a m e o f the p r i n c i p l e o f h e r e d i t a r y office, i t was i n fact l e d
b y a n u m b e r o f l o c a l r i v a l g o m b e e n m e n , w h o s e m a i n objections appear t o have
been t h a t t h e L a b o u r m e r c h a n t w o u l d reap an u n f a i r t r a d i n g advantage f r o m
h a v i n g the post-office installed i n his s h o p - c u m - b a r , a n d t h a t access t o the l o c a l
telephone exchange f o r the m e r c h a n t w o u l d g i v e h i m the o p p o r t u n i t y o f spreading
18
1
' 17. Records o f numbers o f illiterate voters are n o t kept. T h i s statement is based u p o n reports o f
local L a b o u r Party officials.
.
18. T h e sources o f this account are Earl, L . , The Battle of Baltinglass, L o n d o n : Harrap & C o . , 1952
and c o n t e m p o r a r y press accounts.
m a l i c i o u s gossip a b o u t his rivals. I n the e n d , after b o t h camps h a d p u r s u e d a
n u m b e r o f strategies, the son o f the m e r c h a n t was f o r c e d t o resign a n d the
t e m p o r a r y i n c u m b e n t was m a d e p e r m a n e n t . I n the process, a n u m b e r o f
characteristics a b o u t the l o c a l o p e r a t i o n o f p a t r o n a g e a n d b r o k e r a g e ties w e r e
exposed.
Economic Patronage: Ties o f m o n o p o l i s t i c personal dependence i n the e c o n o m i c
sector w e r e o f a r a t h e r different k i n d i n W i c k l o w t o those i n the areas c o v e r e d b y
the o t h e r case-studies. First, p a t r o n a g e based o n customer-clientage was l i m i t e d
effectively t o t h a t created b y d e b t - b o n d a g e . M a r k e t i n g a n d e m p l o y m e n t f o l l o w e d
n o r m a l capitalist lines, b e i n g c o n s t i t u t e d b y relations b e t w e e n " f r e e " agents. I n
t h e second instance m e r c h a n t businesses i n Baltinglass t e n d e d o n t h e w h o l e t o be,
b y I r i s h standards, f a i r l y large, a n d a g o o d deal o f the v i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n was
dependent d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y u p o n o n e o r o t h e r o f the m e r c h a n t families f o r
e m p l o y m e n t . I n a p e r i o d o f g e n e r a l l y h i g h v i l l a g e u n e m p l o y m e n t a n d shortage o f
o t h e r sources o f r e m u n e r a t i o n , shop e m p l o y m e n t c o n s t i t u t e d a c o m p e l l i n g p a t r o n c l i e n t t i e . T h i r d , besides t h e shopkeepers a n o t h e r set o f e c o n o m i c patrons existed,
n a m e l y t w o local g r o u n d - l a n d l o r d s , r e c e i v i n g capitalist g r o u n d - r e n t f r o m local
shopkeepers a n d farmers. A t this t i m e i n I r i s h l a w , g r o u n d l a n d l o r d s h a d the r i g h t
t o e v i c t u n d e r q u i t e a w i d e n u m b e r o f circumstances, a n d i t was the threat o f such
a c t i o n b y the L a b o u r m e r c h a n t ' s g r o u n d l a n d l o r d w h i c h appears t o have e v e n t u a l l y
p r o v e d decisive i n his son's r e s i g n a t i o n .
Political Patronage: I n Baltinglass p r i o r t o the " B a t t l e " , p o l i t i c a l patronage was,
o n the w h o l e , restricted t o :
(a) T h e use o f ties o f m o n o p o l i s t i c personal dependence t o secure a p o l i t i c a l
clientele, essentially f o r l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t electoral purposes.
(b) T h e use o f resources o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h e l e c t i o n t o secure favours f o r
clients n o t y e t t i e d t o the b r o k e r .
U p t o the a p p o i n t m e n t o f the n e w postmaster, n o b o d y appears t o h a v e exercised
sufficient p o w e r s o f p o l i t i c a l patronage t o h a v e been able t o either d i r e c t l y p r o m o t e
t h e i r o w n business career, r e m o v e enemies f r o m p u b l i c j o b s , crush local pockets o f
p o l i t i c a l resistance t o causes h a r m f u l t o the p a t r o n , o r " b u y " the p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t
o f local notables. T h e r e is l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t u p t o the " B a t t l e " , m o s t o f the area's
p o l i t i c a l " p a t r o n a g e " was i n fact brokerage. T h e " B a t t l e " itself, w h i c h i n r e a l i t y
represented an a t t e m p t b y one g o m b e e n m a n t o p r o m o t e his business interests
t h r o u g h his p o l i t i c a l connections (themselves r e l y i n g o n his h o l d i n g elected
office), r e i n t r o d u c e d o n e o f the o l d e r k i n d s o f p o l i t i c a l patronage. F o r the m o s t
p a r t t h o u g h , b r o k e r a g e h a d so f i r m l y been established as the l o c a l p o l i t i c a l n o r m ,
t h a t i n i t i a l m o b i l i s a t i o n against the m e r c h a n t was organised a l m o s t w h o l l y t h r o u g h
b r o k e r a g e . T h e i n c u m b e n t postmistress's i n i t i a l strategy o f resistance was t o
c o n t a c t local " n o t a b l e s " , w h o she b e l i e v e d c o u l d act as b r o k e r s f o r h e r (a r e l a t i v e
o f a f r i e n d o f another cabinet m i n i s t e r , the l o c a l c l e r g y , c o u n t y c o u n c i l l o r s , a n d
p a r l i a m e n t a r y deputies). I n a d d i t i o n , h e r v a r i o u s supporters d u p l i c a t e d this
strategy w i t h t h e i r o w n appeals t o i n f l u e n t i a l notables. I t was n o t u n t i l these
strategies failed t h a t the t w o sides began t o m o b i l i s e t h e i r economic clients f o r street
d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d o t h e r p o p u l a r actions. W h e n these i n t u r n d i d n o t realise
t h e i r g o a l , d i r e c t exercise o f the single tie o f e c o n o m i c patronage i n w h i c h the
L a b o u r m e r c h a n t was a subordinate m e m b e r o f the o p p o s i n g f a c t i o n was
necessitated.
Ideological Patronage: I d e o l o g i c a l patronage p r o p e r d i d n o t exist i n Baltinglass,
b u t the l o c a l i t y possessed a n u m b e r o f i d e o l o g i c a l b r o k e r s . D u r i n g the " B a t t l e " ,
t h e i r r o l e was essentially t h a t o f p r o v i s i o n o f different rhetorics t h r o u g h w h i c h i t
c o u l d be f o u g h t o u t . I n t h e c a m p o f the i n c u m b e n t postmistress, f o r e x a m p l e , a
c o n f l i c t c o u l d be discerned b e t w e e n traditionalists, w h o w i s h e d t o see the c o n f l i c t
' p u b l i c i s e d n a t i o n a l l y i n terms o f an a f f i r m a t i o n o f the p r i n c i p l e o f h e r e d i t a r y
office, a n d those, such as a local p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e p u t y , w h o expressed the affair
as an e x a m p l e o f t h e c o a l i t i o n g o v e r n m e n t ' s i n d u l g e n c e i n j o b b e r y a n d
corruption.
\
1 9
II
A s a p r e l u d e t o discussing a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l attempts t o relate changes i n relations
o f p a t r o n a g e a n d b r o k e r a g e t o s t r u c t u r a l change i n the l i g h t o f the evidence
presented, l e t us first t r y t o summarise the p r i n c i p a l changes i n the different
aspects o f p a t r o n a g e w h i c h w e delineated.
(i) Relations of Economic Patronage: D e b t - b o n d a g e created b y c r e d i t - r e t a i l i n g
appears t o h a v e r e m a i n e d f a i r l y constant i n extent, b e i n g an i m p o r t a n t factor i n
each o f the cases considered. H o w e v e r , i t is c e r t a i n t h a t the degree o f d e b t - b o n d a g e
i n i n d i v i d u a l cases has d i m i n i s h e d f r o m its a l a r m i n g character d u r i n g the p e r i o d
1870 t o 1930. F o r e x a m p l e , cases o f g o m b e e n m e n seizing the p r o p e r t y o f i n s o l v e n t
clients are p r a c t i c a l l y u n h e a r d o f t o d a y . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o r o l l a r y o f c r e d i t r e t a i l i n g , m o n e y - l e n d i n g , appears o n the o t h e r h a n d t o h a v e d i m i n i s h e d b o t h i n
e x t e n t a n d degree. T h e o t h e r various f o r m s o f usurious a n d semi-usurious e c o n o m i c
relations organised t r a d i t i o n a l l y a r o u n d d e b t - b o n d a g e are also o n t h e decline,
a n d are n o w m o r e o r less c o n f i n e d t o the r e m o t e r parts o f the w e s t e r n seaboard.
These relations h a v e o n the w h o l e been replaced b y t h e n o r m a l c o m m e r c i a l
relations o f a society d o m i n a t e d b y the capitalist m o d e o f p r o d u c t i o n . I n I r e l a n d ,
h o w e v e r , w i t h its t r a d i t i o n a l shortage o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r i n d u s t r i a l e m p l o y m e n t
a n d i n v e s t m e n t , o t h e r w i s e p u r e l y capitalist e c o n o m i c relations such as those
b e t w e e n s h o p - o w n e r s a n d shop-assistants, a n d g r o u n d l a n d l o r d s a n d g r o u n d
lessees occasionally c o m m a n d a characteristic o f the g e n e r a t i o n o f personal
dependence t y p i c a l o f p a t r o n - c l i e n t ties.
(ii) Relations of Political Patronage: T h e generalisation c a n be m a d e t h a t there
appears t o h a v e been a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m patronage exercised o n the basis o f the
19. T h i s was t o p r o v e o f some embarrassment t o the traditionalists, w h o at the stage o f the
" B a t t l e " w h e n this conflict arose w e r e t r y i n g t h r o u g h their o w n ' b r o k e r a g e resources t o fix u p a
compensatory local g o v e r n m e n t j o b f o r the displaced i n c u m b e n t postmistress.
m o b i l i s a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t clients t o g a i n electoral positions t h r o u g h
w h i c h the g o m b e e n m a n c o u l d p r o m o t e his business interests, t o p a t r o n a g e a n d
b r o k e r a g e m o b i l i s e d i n a c o m b i n e d fashion t o create blocs consisting b o t h o f
d e p e n d e n t clients a n d " f r i e n d s " w o n o v e r t h r o u g h favours. W i t h t h e i r s u p p o r t
the " m o d e r n " g o m b e e n m a n hopes t o g a i n electoral p o s i t i o n , t h r o u g h w h i c h he
m a y e x t e n d his w e b o f friends a n d l a u n c h a p o l i t i c a l career.
T h i s process is reflected i n the increasing i m p o r t a n c e ( w h i c h B a x notes i n his
article) o f professional politicians i n the a r t i c u l a t i o n o f p a t r o n a g e a n d b r o k e r a g e
relations.
A g a i n , h o w e v e r , i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t p o l i t i c a l p a t r o n a g e o f the o l d f o r m
m a y be m o b i l i s e d i n " e x t r e m e " situations. T h i s i m p l i e s , o f course, t h a t a basis f o r
i t i n e c o n o m i c a n d social relations remains.
(iii) Relations of Ideological Patronage: T h e same k i n d o f t r a n s i t i o n appears t o
h a v e o c c u r r e d i n this aspect o f patronage, a l t h o u g h i n a m o r e e x t r e m e f o r m .
I d e o l o g i c a l p a t r o n a g e i n the sense o f a g o m b e e n m a n b e i n g able t o dictate his o w n
personal code o f m o r a l imperatives a n d o b l i g a t i o n s o n a c o m m u n i t y , has n o w
been a l m o s t e n t i r e l y displaced. I t has g i v e n w a y t o a noticeable b r o a d e n i n g o f
relations o f b r o k e r a g e , o f service as an i d e o l o g i c a l i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n society
i n general a n d / o r the state a n d l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s .
O n the w h o l e , o u r case-studies therefore appear, w i t h some reservations, t o
bear o u t the " w e a k " transactionalist thesis p o s i t i n g a general t r a n s i t i o n f r o m
p a t r o n a g e based o n p a t r i m o n i a l a n d patriarchal e c o n o m i c a n d i d e o l o g i c a l ties, t o
b r o k e r a g e , based o n " p r i m i t i v e " p o l i t i c a l parties. C e r t a i n special features o f I r i s h
society, n o t a b l y scarcity o f e c o n o m i c resources a n d the P r o p o r t i o n a l Representa­
t i o n v o t i n g system, h a v e served t o shield b r o k e r a g e f r o m the incursions usually
m a d e u p o n i t b y the t r a n s i t i o n o f the i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t a n d r e f o r m i n g state. U n d e r ­
l y i n g this p o s i t i o n is, as w e h a v e seen, the n o t i o n o f s t a t e - f o r m a t i o n a n d d e v e l o p ­
m e n t as the t y p i c a l means b y w h i c h a u t o n o m o u s p o l i t i c a l empires o f l o c a l patrons
are replaced b y v a r i o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d p o l i t i c a l intermediaries possessing
differential degrees o f l a t i t u d e i n the n e g o t i a t i o n o f the relations b e t w e e n the d u a l
c o m p o n e n t s o f the society. E a r l i e r , this c o n c e p t i o n was t e r m e d " n e o - W e b e r i a n " .
B y this i t was m e a n t t h a t this thesis i n t u r n p r e s u m e d the n o t i o n o f h o m o l o g o u s
cross-institutional paths o f m o d e r n i s a t i o n , secularisation a n d i n t e g r a t i o n f o l l o w i n g
f r o m the progressive expansion o f the r o l e o f r a t i o n a l - l e g a l a u t h o r i t y , e m b o d i e d
i n the s t a t e .
O n the o t h e r h a n d , there r e m a i n a n u m b e r o f anomalies b e t w e e n the evidence
a n d these theses, w h i c h i t is necessary t o e x a m i n e closely i n o r d e r t o see h o w far
t h e y have i n fact been c o n f i r m e d . T h e anomalies w e w i s h t o deal w i t h are three
in number.
First, i t w i l l be n o t e d f r o m the evidence that despite the general t r e n d t o w a r d
20
20. Representative statements o f this broader thesis are t o be f o u n d i n the theses o n modernisation
o f B e n d i x and o f A l m o n d and P o w e l l . See B e n d i x , R., Citizenship and Nation-Building, N e w
Y o r k : W i l e y , 1964 and A l m o n d , G . and Powell, G., Comparative Politics & Developmental Approach,
B o s t o n : L i t t l e , B r o w n & C o . , 1966.
V
4°
ECONOMIC
A N D SOCIAL
REVIEW
\
the displacement o f patronage b y b r o k e r a g e , there are certain decisive f o r m s o f
social relations o f a p a t r o n a g e n a t u r e w h i c h b o t h r e m a i n , a n d w h o s e existence
c a n n o t be ascribed t o the " s h i e l d i n g " f u n c t i o n o f e c o n o m i c scarcity o r P r o ­
p o r t i o n a l Representation. F o r e x a m p l e , i n each case-study i t was clear t h a t c r e d i t r e t a i l i n g , the m o s t c o m m o n basis o f patronage, was e x t r e m e l y c o m m o n , a n d
t h a t i t r e m a i n e d decisive i n d e t e r m i n i n g c e r t a i n relations o f p o l i t i c a l s u b o r d i n a t i o n .
I t was even observed h o w n e w f o r m s o f e c o n o m i c b o n d a g e c o u l d c o m e i n t o
existence, f o r e x a m p l e , t h r o u g h t h e m o n o p o l y o f the l o c a l g o m b e e n m a n i n
e x c h a n g i n g remittances o f f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y t o a p o p u l a t i o n dependent u p o n the
secrecy o f this o p e r a t i o n . T h e preservation a n d even r e p r o d u c t i o n o f these relations
have t a k e n place despite w h a t can u n d i s p u t a b l y be regarded as the " m o d e r n i s a t i o n "
o f I r i s h society, i n the f o r m o f the emergence o f a nation-state w i t h its o w n
bureaucratic, repressive a n d i d e o l o g i c a l apparatuses, i n the shape o f a shift f r o m
a s c r i p t i o n t o a c h i e v e m e n t as the basis o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n o f d o m i n a n t status
g r o u p s , i n the g r o w t h o f c o m m e r c i a l a g r i c u l t u r e , o f per capita i n c o m e a n d gross
n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t , a n d so o n .
Secondly, this patronage appears not t o exist as a s u r v i v a l o r relic i n the m o s t
r e m o t e a n d b a c k w a r d areas ( t h o u g h i t is there t h a t i t finds its f o r m i d a b l e
expression), b u t as an o u t g r o w t h o f certain ties w h i c h are i n n o recognisable sense
" t r a d i t i o n a l " at a l l . O n the c o n t r a r y , these ties are anchored i n a certain f o r m o f
c o m m e r c i a l r e l a t i o n specific to commodity economy. C r e d i t - r e t a i l i n g , despite its
e l e m e n t o f barter a n d its f r e q u e n t association w i t h f o r m s o f usurious e x p l o i t a t i o n
based o n barter, was o n l y i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the I r i s h c o u n t r y s i d e w i t h the passing
o f t h e classically p a t r i m o n i a l phase o f l a n d l o r d r u l e . C r e d i t - r e t a i l i n g spread t o the
W e s t o n l y w h e n a n u m b e r o f c o n d i t i o n s c o m b i n e d t o d e t e r m i n e i t : w h e n , after
t h e F a m i n e the subsistence e c o n o m y o f the feudalised c o t t i e r - p o p u l a t i o n e m p l o y e d
b y tenant-farmers l a r g e l y f o r l a b o u r - r e n t h a d collapsed w h e n the r e m a i n i n g small
subsistence landholders w e r e f o r c e d t o a d o p t an e l e m e n t o f c o m m e r c i a l f a r m i n g
t o p r o v i d e an i n c o m e w i t h w h i c h t o p a y w h a t w e r e n o w cash-rents; a n d w h e n ,
because o f a lack o f a m a r k e t i n rentable a n d purchasable land* a m b i t i o u s peasants,
t o g e t h e r w i t h some r e t u r n e d e m i g r a n t s , s o u g h t t o m a k e t h e i r career i n n o n a g r i c u l t u r a l relations i n a n o n - i n d u s t r i a l society. T h e f o r m s o f the p e n e t r a t i o n o f
patronage i n t o the I r i s h c o u n t r y s i d e w e r e i n fact n o n e o t h e r t h a n the f o r m s o f the
penetration o f petty-capitalism.
•
T h e t h i r d a n o m a l y arises i n the question o f the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m patronage t o
b r o k e r a g e . Despite the fact t h a t p a t r o n a g e did decline, a n d did surfer displacement
b y b r o k e r a g e w i t h s t a t e - f o r m a t i o n a n d m o d e r n i s a t i o n , a n d despite the t r e m e n d o u s
d e v e l o p m e n t o f b r o k e r a g e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the p o l i t i c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l spheres,
i t appears t h a t w h e n p u t t o the test, as i n W i c k l o w , patronage appears t o possess
greater efficacy t h a n b r o k e r a g e i n " d e l i v e r i n g the g o o d s " . T h e q u a n t i t a t i v e
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f b r o k e r a g e ties has n o t l e d t o b r o k e r a g e b e c o m i n g a q u a l i t a t i v e l y
stronger p o l i t i c a l resource t h a n patronage. F o r w i t h the e n o r m o u s q u a n t i t a t i v e
expansion i n the o b t a i n i n g o f favours f o r a l l a n d s u n d r y b y p o l i t i c a l brokers, there
has been a d i s t i n c t m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n i n each p a r t i c u l a r consequent r e l a t i o n o f this
t y p e . N o l o n g e r is i t possible t o use b r o k e r a g e t o achieve large-scale frauds, as i t
was i n the days o f the C o n g e s t e d D i s t r i c t s B o a r d . T h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y
o f b r o k e r - c l i e n t deals are q u i t e t r i v i a l i n c o n t e n t , a n d o f t e n constitute n o m o r e
t h a n personalised f o r m s o f o b t a i n i n g n o r m a l legal entitlements.
I t s h o u l d n o w be possible t o summarise a n u m b e r o f criticisms o f the o r t h o d o x
t h e o r y o f p a t r o n a g e a n d b r o k e r a g e suggested b y these anomalies
1. Patronage is neither e x t i n g u i s h e d as a p h e n o m e n o n , n o r displaced b y
b r o k e r a g e w i t h the onset o f p o l i t i c a l m o d e r n i s a t i o n a n d the g r o w t h o f
b r o k e r a g e as a p h e n o m e n o n .
2. Patronage does n o t r e q u i r e the " s u r v i v a l " o f feudal o r t r a d i t i o n a l social
relations t o sustain i t .
3. Despite the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f ties o f dependence t h r o u g h t h e g r o w t h o f
b r o k e r a g e ; p a t r o n a g e still appears i n the last instance t o be a m o r e effective
means o f e n f o r c i n g p o w e r .
T h e o r t h o d o x thesis c a n n o t m e e t these criticisms. I n fact, i n o r d e r f o r these
" a n o m a l i e s " t o be accounted f o r , t h e y m u s t be t a k e n as the r a w m a t e r i a l f o r new
answers t o the question o f the causes o f p a t r o n a g e a n d brokerage, a n d t h e i r n a t u r e
as a means o f e n f o r c i n g p o w e r .
'
T h e answers w h i c h appear here are l a r g e l y i n the f o r m o f suggestions f o r f u r t h e r
research. T a k i n g first the question o f p a t r o n a g e , a n y answer w o u l d h a v e t o
proceed b y l o o k i n g f o r factors c o m m o n t o b o t h the t y p i c a l social site o f p a t r o n a g e feudalism-and p e t t y - c a p i t a l i s m , as i t was t o be f o u n d i n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y r u r a l
I r e l a n d . Such a factor w o u l d be compulsory a n d monopolistic character o f the social
relations o f p r o d u c t i o n i n b o t h m o d e s o f p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s characteristic e l e m e n t
o f feudal social relations d i d n o t r e q u i r e a f u l l y - f l e d g e d f e u d a l i s m o r p a t r i a r c h a l i s m
t o sustain i t i n r u r a l I r i s h p e t t y - c a p i t a l i s m , o r even a c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n t h e latter
a n d the f o r m e r . Instead i t c o u l d h a v e been called i n t o b e i n g , as L a c l a u has p o i n t e d
o u t w i t h respect t o L a t i n A m e r i c a , b y the e q u i l i b r a t e d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e
d o m i n a n t capitalist m o d e o f p r o d u c t i o n as i t penetrates a society w i t h a l o c a l
shortage o f the disposable c o n d i t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n o f l a n d a n d l a b o u r - p o w e r .
T h i s " f e u d a l " social r e l a t i o n m a y o r m a y n o t exist i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h o t h e r
elements o f the feudal m o d e o f p r o d u c t i o n w i t h i n a g i v e n social f o r m a t i o n . B u t
w h e t h e r o r n o t i t exists as p a r t o f f e u d a l i s m p r o p e r , i t w i l l h a v e its o w n d i s t i n c t
p o l i t i c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l effects: p a t r o n a g e can therefore be analysed i n terms o f
b e i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n o f such an e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n a n d such a set o f effects.
F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m this, b r o k e r a g e can be analysed i n terms o f the dissolution o f
2 1
2 2
2 1 . Laclau, E., " C a p i t a l i s m and Feudalism i n L a t i n A m e r i c a " , New Left Review 69 (September/
October 1971).
22. P r i o r t o the Famine, another different set o f c o m p u l s o r y and monopolistic social relations
existed between a huge cottier p o p u l a t i o n and a small n u m b e r o f commercial tenant farmers. I n
this case, they arose as a consequence o f the penetration o f earlier forms o f the capitalist m o d e o f
p r o d u c t i o n i n the situation o f a local shortage o f m o n e y capital.
this social r e l a t i o n . F o r u n l i k e patronage, b r o k e r a g e is distinguished b y its n o n c o m p u l s o r y character. I t is the o u t c o m e o f v o l u n t a r y strategies b y ostensibly " f r e e "
partners. L i k e the serf, w h o s e legal tie t o his m a n o r i a l l o r d was u n d e r w r i t t e n b y the
latter's m o n o p o l i s t i c disposal o v e r l o c a l l a n d , the small f a r m e r o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y C o n n a c h t c o u l d n o t shift his clientage, even w h e n n o t i n legal bondage,
since the g o m b e e n m a n possessed m o n o p o l i s t i c c o n t r o l o v e r l o c a l r e t a i l i n g a n d
m a r k e t i n g . T h e emergence o f b r o k e r a g e appears, i n the w e s t o f I r e l a n d at a n y
rate, t o be related t o the multiplication o f l o c a l g o m b e e n m e n , t h r o u g h the e m e r ­
gence o f greater n u m b e r s o f petty-capitalists f r o m the ranks o f the f a r m i n g
p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g the b o o m years d u r i n g , and i m m e d i a t e l y preceding, the first
W o r l d W a r . T h e effects o f such changes m a y be s o u g h t b y e x a m i n i n g the
w e a k e n i n g o f the dependence o f less i n d e b t e d clients, a n d .the s t i m u l a t i o n o f
c o m p e t i t i o n f o r t h e i r c u s t o m . I t is i n these circumstances that n e w strategies f o r
t h e c r e a t i o n o f clientele w o u l d c o m e i n t o p l a y , a n d t h a t p o l i t i c s w o u l d b e c o m e
c o n c e i v e d as a means o f establishing factionalised sets o f dependents. A n y subse­
q u e n t c o m p e t i t i o n i n the p r o v i s i o n o f favours w o u l d o f course depend o n some
l e v e l o f p o l i t i c a l m o d e r n i s a t i o n h a v i n g t a k e n place, b u t such m o d e r n i s a t i o n c o u l d >
never represent the necessary a n d sufficient c o n d i t i o n o f the emergence o f this
phenomenon.
F i n a l l y , h o w can p a t r o n a g e be m o r e effective as an i n s t r u m e n t o f p o w e r t h a n
b r o k e r a g e i I f the causes o f b r o k e r a g e are really t o be sought w h e r e w e have
suggested,' t h e n i t w o u l d f o l l o w t h a t allegiance i n l o c a l - l e v e l p o l i t i c s c o u l d be
characterised i n terms o f the relations b e t w e e n l o c a l notables a n d d o u b l y - a r t i c u l a t e d
sets o f dependents. T h e p o l i t i c a l l y - i n v o l v e d petty-capitalist m a y have a f a c t i o n
m a d e u p o f clients dependent o n either his p a t r o n o r b r o k e r roles, o r b o t h . I n any
conflict, b r o k e r a g e relations c o u l d sustain neither w i t h d r a w a l b y clients dependent
o n a different p a t r o n , rior a n y excessive d e m a n d placed u p o n t h e m b y a b r o k e r .
B e i n g always i n p r i n c i p l e transferable, t h e y w o u l d always be w e a k e r t h a n the
e n d u r i n g * basis o f f r a c t i o n a l allegiance t o be f o u n d i n c o m p l e t e e c o n o m i c
dependence.
_>
III
I n c o n c l u s i o n , i t m i g h t be asked w h a t k i n d s o f general issues are raised as
p r o b l e m s f o r f u r t h e r analysis b y this discussion. A p a r t f r o m the p r o b l e m o f
d e v e l o p i n g research i n the w a y suggested, these appear t o be t w o i n n u m b e r , a n d
b o t h c o n c e r n t h e efficacy o f the i n c o r p o r a t i o n b y p o l i t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y o f the
theories a n d assumptions o f m o d e r n i s a t i o n t h e o r y . T h e first is that o f w h e t h e r
m o d e r n i s a t i o n t h e o r y is an adequate t o o l f o r the analysis o f the process o f social,
p o l i t i c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l t r a n s i t i o n i n c o m p l e x societies, the second is that o f
w h e t h e r , because o f the n a t u r e o f its o w n categories and concepts, p o l i t i c a l
a n t h r o p o l o g y c o u l d b e i n t e g r a t e d w i t h any o t h e r k i n d o f t h e o r y o f change
w i t h o u t a b a n d o n i n g its t r a d i t i o n a l object.
First, the question o f the adequacy o f m o d e r n i s a t i o n t h e o r y f o r the general
c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f the k i n d s o f changes described i n this paper. I t c o u l d be said
t h a t the findings o u t l i n e d a b o v e s t o o d as a q u e s t i o n - m a r k i n r e l a t i o n t o n o t i o n s
a n d theories o f an u n i n t e r r u p t e d , linear, e v o l u t i o n a r y a n d expressive m o d e r n i s a ­
tion process. T h e basis o f the c o n t i n u e d significance o f p a t r o n - c l i e n t relations i n
the I r i s h c o u n t r y s i d e appears t o d e p e n d n o t u p o n the " s u r v i v a l " o f vestigial
t r a d i t i o n a l o r p a t r i m o n i a l social structures, b u t o n the emergence a n d s o l i d i f i c a t i o n
o f n e w f o r m s o f usurious p e t t y - c a p i t a l i s m , recreating feudalised social relations o f
p r o d u c t i o n i n its m a r c h o f progress. I n the I r i s h case, " p r o g r e s s " appears i n
a c t u a l i t y t o h a v e t a k e n the f o r m o f the c o m b i n e d a n d u n e v e n d e v e l o p m e n t o f
different m o d e s o f p r o d u c t i o n c o m b i n i n g a d i v e r s i t y o f elements f r o m classical
" f e u d a l i s m " a n d classical " c a p i t a l i s m " , w h i c h w h i l e u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v i n g t h e i r
co-presence f r o m the d o m i n a n c e o f successive f o r m s o f m e t r o p o l i t a n capitalism,
c a n n o t be regarded as transparent "expressions" either o f its d e v e l o p m e n t a l
principles, o r o f a n y sociologised d e s c r i p t i o n o f its rationalistic properties. I n
I r e l a n d at least, n e i t h e r the e c o n o m y n o r the state d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h a progression
o f s i m p l e e v o l u t i o n a r y stages, n o r d i d changes i n the rest o f the social f o r m a t i o n
appear t o " c o r r e s p o n d " d i r e c t l y t o changes o c c u r r i n g i n the "essential" sector. I n
o u r case studies at least, the clue t o transitions i n p a t r o n - c l i e n t relations s h o u l d be
s o u g h t n o t i n a n y general t h e o r y o f m o d e r n i s a t i o n , b u t i n some t h e o r y w h i c h is
able t o grasp the specificity o f p a r t i c u l a r f o r m s o f u n e v e n e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l
development and their determination.
T h i s c o n c l u s i o n leads i n e v i t a b l y t o o u r second general issue: is i t i n fact possible
t o a m a l g a m a t e p o l i t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y w i t h a different, i.e. n o n - e v o l u t i o n i s t , t h e o r y
o f social change w h i l e still r e t a i n i n g its characteristic subject-matter a n d m e t h o d ­
o l o g y ? I t appears u p o n reflection t h a t social a n t h r o p o l o g y has always been
associated w i t h some k i n d o f e v o l u t i o n i s m . E v e n after M a l i n o w s k i a n d RadcliffeB r o w n banished its w o r s t excesses, as t h e y appeared i n late n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
a n d early t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y " c u l t u r a l " a n t h r o p o l o g y , e v o l u t i o n i s m still crept back
i n t o the n e w a n t h r o p o l o g y i n the account o f the d e v e l o p m e n t o f increasingly
effective f u n c t i o n a l e q u i l i b r a t i o n b e t w e e n n o r m a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d w h a t was
rather n a i v e l y called ' actual b e h a v i o u r " .
A s w e have seen, this e v o l u t i o n i s m has persisted i n the m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n the
transactionalist analysis o f social processes a n d the sociological analysis o f t h e i r
l o c a t i o n w i t h i n r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g c o m p l e x societies. I n this c o n t e x t , "actual
b e h a v i o u r " is seen as a series o f adjustments t o e v o l v i n g m o d e r n i s a t i o n . T h e
question is w h e t h e r this is m e r e l y chance, o r w h e t h e r "actual b e h a v i o u r " a n d its
structure as i t is u n d e r s t o o d b y o r t h o d o x anthropologists, can be v i e w e d i n a n y
o t h e r c o n t e x t . T h e a r g u m e n t at this p o i n t m u s t o f necessity t u r n t o an e x a m i n a t i o n
o f this n o t i o n o f " a c t u a l b e h a v i o u r " . I t w i l l be a r g u e d t h a t because o f the p u r e l y
e m p i r i c i s t c o n c e p t i o n o f social structure t h a t this c o n s t i t u t i v e theoretical object
i m p l i e s , p o l i t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y has no option b u t t o associate i t s e l f w i t h an
e v o l u t i o n i s m w h o s e inadequacy w e h o p e t o have d e m o n s t r a t e d . I n t r a d i t i o n a l
a n t h r o p o l o g y , "actual b e h a v i o u r " was s t u d i e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the analysis
o f n o r m a t i v e j u r i d i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . B o t h f o r m s o f analysis w e r e regarded as
essentially descriptive i n c o n t e n t , a n d b o t h w e r e c i r c u m s c r i b e d , as B a n a j i has
p o i n t e d o u t , b y the p u r e l y descriptive categories o f " r o l e " , "status", " c o n f l i c t " ,
" a u t h o r i t y " , " p r e s t i g e " a n d " s e n t i m e n t " . Social structure was regarded s i m p l y as
an aggregate o f different constellations o f the data subsumed b y these categories.
F u n c t i o n a l i s m , i n a sense, was n o m o r e t h a n an i n j u n c t i o n t o s t u d y this a g g r e g a t i o n
as a u n i t a r y t o t a l i t y , t h a t is, w i t h o u t s t r u c t u r e d c o m b i n a t i o n s a n d oppositions a n d
w i t h n o n e b u t a. formal r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e .
I n m o d e r n transactionalism these descriptive categories are replaced b y others
o f precisely t h e same status: "action-sets", " q u a s i - g r o u p s " , "social n e t w o r k s " ,
" f a c t i o n s " , a n d o f course, p a t r o n - c l i e n t a n d p a t r o n - b r o k e r - c l i e n t relations. Social
structure is again c o n c e i v e d as an aggregate o f these relations. Its existence i n
b o t h cases is o n l y at a p u r e l y e m p i r i c a l level, a n d is g i v e n n o theoretical determinacy.
I n consequence o f t h e absence o f a n y c o m p l e x abstract c o n c e p t i o n o f social
structure w h i c h c o u l d account t h e o r e t i c a l l y f o r evenness a n d uneveness w i t h i n
the t o t a l i t y , the d i a c h r o n i c conceptualisation o f the societies i n question m u s t
i n e v i t a b l y take the f o r m o f the m o v e m e n t f r o m o n e substantively u n i t a r y a n d
u n t h e o r i s e d aggregate o f sub-structures t o another. A n y particular change m u s t
therefore b e c o n c e i v e d s i m p l y i n terms o f temporal succession rather t h a n d e t e r m i n e d
s t r u c t u r e d t r a n s i t i o n , a n d change i n general m u s t be c o n c e i v e d i n the f o r m o f a
succession o f s i m p l e , linear a n d i n d i v i d u a l l y u n t h e o r i s e d steps. I t is this w h i c h
poses the insuperable p r o b l e m o f i n t r o d u c i n g a c o m p l e x d y n a m i c i n t o the
process. I f a n y d y n a m i c is t o be i n t r o d u c e d i t m u s t be a p u r e l y external o n e : one
f i x i n g this series o f o t h e r w i s e a r b i t r a r y successions i n t o a p a t t e r n o f stages i n an
o n g o i n g process. E v o l u t i o n i s m is i n fact the o n l y d y n a m i c c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o this
r e q u i r e m e n t . I t appears t o be called f o r t h , o f necessity, b y t h e a t t e m p t t o d y n a m i s e
a n e m p i r i c i s t c o n c e p t i o n o f society w h i c h refuses a n y i n t e r n a l l y theorised c o n ­
c e p t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n its parts.
2 3
T h e general issues raised b y these reflections i n fact b r i n g us rather u n e x p e c t e d l y
t o a r e a l l y f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m f o r f u r t h e r analysis, n a m e l y , w h e t h e r a n t h r o ­
p o l o g y can a l l o w itself t o l e n d n o t i o n s l i k e " p a t r o n a g e " a n d " b r o k e r a g e " the
status o f its m o s t abstract a n d indissoluble categories, s i m p l y o n t h e basis t h a t t h e y
d e n o t e types o f so-called " a c t u a l b e h a v i o u r " t o be m e t w i t h significant r e g u l a r i t y .
T h e answer t o this q u e s t i o n depended o n w h e t h e r the A n g l o - S a x o n t r a d i t i o n i n
t h e d i s c i p l i n e can free itself f r o m the r e d o l e n t e m p i r i c i s m w h i c h has characterised
i t f r o m its i n a u g u r a t i o n , a n d take u p some different, n o n - a g g r e g a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n
o f social structure w h i c h w o u l d a l l o w the u t i l i s a t i o n o f such r e l a t i v e l y concrete
concepts w i t h i n a p r o v e n l y adequate t h e o r y o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f social
formation.
Sheffield
Polytechnic,
University College
Galway.
23. Banaji, J., " T h e Crisis o f B r i t i s h A n t h r o p o l o g y " , New
December 1970.
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