Macrae Robinson, Sarah Shapiro, Joe Wall
Miya Shitama, Linsey Martin, Nathan Ulmer
Geog 050
April 25, 2008
Mount Mitchell, Yancey County, North Carolina
The region in which Mt. Mitchell is located was originally called the Black Mountains
because of the dense forest growth. Before human impact, the slopes and ridges were so heavy
with red spruce, American chestnut, Frasier fir and rhododendron that the canopy was virtually
impenetrable by light. Naturally, the flora-rich environment fostered extensive animal life. Black
bears, gray wolves and mountain lions flourished alongside
smaller species, like the striped skunk and cedar waxwing.
Then in the late 19th and early 20th century, unmitigated
logging and forest fires combined with the introduction of
Chestnut Blight, caused unprecedented damage to eastern
hardwood and coniferous forests, including the lush growth
on Mt. Mitchell (Mount Mitchell State Park). Chestnut
blight, or Cryphonectria parasitica, is a fungal disease that
was accidentally imported from Asia to New York around
1900. It enters the tree through cracks in the bark and forms mortal cankers that strangle the stem
from the point of entry up (American Chestnut Cooperators’ Foundation). American chestnuts,
having never been exposed before, were especially vulnerable to this disease and within 40 years
the population was virtually destroyed (American Chestnut Cooperators’ Foundation ). This
detrimental composite of human influence took its toll on the richness of Mt. Mitchell’s flora and
fauna. The forests today are not nearly as dense, nor as tall as the original climax forests. Despite
the unfortunate injury it has endured, Mt. Mitchell continues to be one of the most ecologically
diverse environments in the east.
The Black Mountains are remnants of retreating glaciers of the Pleistocene Era (Mount
Mitchell/Mount Mitchell State Park). When the glaciers receded, numerous species remained in
the south and adapted to the changes as best they could, by inhabiting the coldest regions; the
spruce-fir forest peaks above 5,500 ft. As a result, many of the species found on Mount Mitchell
are more characteristic of southeast Canada and New England than the southeast United States.
Golden crowned kinglets (Regulus satrapa), Red crossbills (Loxia curvirostra) and red-slated
juncos (Junco hyemalis) are examples of birds that generally live in the northeast, but thrive in
the higher elevations of Mt. Mitchell.
The valleys and slopes in between the tall peaks constitute a rather impressive
temperature and climate scale that allows the Black Mountains to serve as home for a huge
variety of warm and cold-weather species. As previously mentioned, various boreal species, like
oxeye daisy (Heliopsis helianthoides) and Hobblebush (Viburnum alnifolim), populate the
coniferous forests above roughly 5,500 ft. Some other species found in these elevations are
Yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), red spruce (Picea rubens, which suffer notable damage
from acid precipitation and air pollution), red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris), Mountain ash (Sorbus
americana), and cedar waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum).
At elevations of about 3,500 to 5,500 ft. the hardwood forests are still similar to those in
the northeast. These forests are inhabited by American beech (Fagus grandifolia), gray squirrels
(Sciurus carolinensis), Spotted salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum), Eastern box turtles
(Terrapene carolina) and many other creatures common to the mountains of the southeast. This
belt of forest is somewhat of a transitional zone, wherein temperate and boreal species mix and
are unevenly distributed throughout. The general levels of elevation that encapsulate this zone
fluctuate with the seasons, rising and falling with seasonal temperatures. Also in the range of
3,500-5,500 ft. are mountain balds. These are expanses of land that have few to no trees and are
generally open. Some species that can be found on the balds are Meadow jumping mice (Zapus
hudsonius), Eastern screech owls (Megascops asio), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), and
white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus).
The white-tailed deer is one of the few animals whose population has increased since the
first interaction between humans and the Black Mountain. As an inverted result of extinction/
decrease in large predator populations, such as those of the Gray wolf (Canis lupus) or the
bobcat (Lynx rufus), the number of white-tailed deer has rebounded exponentially (Silver 2003,
29). The deer graze in the lowlands and valleys during the summer, subsisting on grasses and
small plants (like wood sorrel and clover). In the fall, they migrate up-slope into the hardwood
forests and balds to feed on fat-rich acorns and nuts, only to return to the valleys during the
winter (Silver 2003, 29). Thus, white-tailed deer, being so seasonally mobile, can be found most
anywhere on the mountain depending upon the time of year.
The lower slopes of Mt. Mitchell (elevations of 3,500 ft. and below) are home to two
different types of natural communities, depending upon aspect. The south and east facing slopes
are generally oak-hickory forests. These forests tend to be drier and slightly warmer, as a result
of greater sun exposure which strips the moisture from the soil. Some species that inhabit oakhickory forests are wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), trout
lily (Erythronium americanum), box elder (Acer negundo), bloodroot (Sanguinaria Canadensis),
and predictably white oak (Quercus alba), red oak (Quercus rubra) and pignut hickory (Carya
glabra). The north and northeast lowlands tend to collect and maintain more moisture than the
oak-hickory forests. These are the cove hardwood forest areas. As a consequence of less sun
exposure (that would neutralize the amount of collected precipitation), the species that occupy
the north and northeast lowlands must be adapted to wet and dynamic environments. Frequent
floods occur that wash out the flora, change stream patterns and uproot small plants and trees
(Silver 2003, 22). Flora and fauna commonly found in these wetter lowlands are river birch
(Betula nigra), raccoons (Procyon lotor), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), Chestnutsided warblers (Dendroica pensylvanica), trillium (Trillium grandiflorum) and yellow poplar
(Liriodendron tulipifera).
Although the ecology of Mt. Mitchell and Black Mountains has changed monumentally
over the past century as a result of detrimental human impact (including non-native pests and
diseases), it remains one of the most rich and diverse environments in the eastern United States.
The climate of the upper elevations (5,500 ft. and above) is similar to that of New England and
Canada, and as such, boasts species that are characteristic of boreal forests. The environment of
the midlands and lowlands is more similar to the neighboring regions of the southeast. Naturally
then, Mt. Mitchell also hosts species that are common to the Blue Ridge and Appalachian
Mountains, as well. This wide range of climate and environment gives Mt. Mitchell a depth of
flora and fauna that is rarely found in any other single location in the United States.
It is thought that the region was inhabited by early Eastern Woodland Indian cultures as
early as 15,000 years ago. An archaeological site on the campus of nearby Warren Wilson
College contains evidence of cultures dating as far back as 5,000 BC.
When the first white explorers came to the region in the seventeenth century the Cherokee
homeland was well established. In fact, the current route of I-40 follows closely an important
Indian trail that crossed the Blue Ridge at Swannanoa Gap, the Suwali Trail. Trading with the
Indians brought more settlers to the region. A treaty signed in 1777 officially delineated the
boundary of settlement along a line that followed the Black Mountains from Yeates Knob to
Potato Knob. This opened up the valleys of the Toe and Cane rivers to settlement by the whites.
Throughout the early 1800s the pioneer families of the region staked out their homesteads.
French botanist Andre' Michaux is credited as being the first white man known to have
set foot in the Black Mountains. It was Michaux who first called the mountains by their current
name, arriving at "parties basses de la Montagnes Noire" (the lower portions of the Black
Mountains) on November 25th , 1789. Over the next several days Michaux collected over 2,500
specimens of trees, shrubs, and other plants.
While botany was the primary motivation for the first scientists, it was physical
geography and geology that brought the regions most famous scientist to the Black Mountains.
Elisha Mitchell came to the Blacks as a part of the North Carolina Geologic Survey in 1825.
While working with the survey in 1827 and 1828 Mitchell made his first trips west of the Blue
Ridge. In 1827, he first saw the Blacks and commented even then that they seemed higher than
Grandfather Mountain, which was then regarded as the highest peak in the region.
In 1835 Mitchell returned to the Blacks to measure their peaks and ascertain whether
they were truly the highest. The trip was the first of many, and later a great controversy would
develop over whether Mitchell had ever been to the highest peak in the Blacks. With no maps
and only local guides, finding the high peak and then climbing and measuring its height was
quite a challenge.
His 1835 trip included the peaks of Roan Mountain, Grandfather, Table Rock, Celo
Knob, and Yeates Knob, then finally up the steep slopes of Mitchell itself. The trip up and down
Mt. Mitchell covered an estimated 18 miles and an elevation change of 3,800 ft. While on the
high peak, Mitchell measured the temperature and barometric pressure, readings which later
enabled him to determine the height of the peak.
Throughout the late 1840s travel up the mountains to the ridge crest increased and
several trails were established by the early 1850s. As travel up the mountain continued to
increase, a tourist industry sprang up and several inns were established along the route. In the
mid 1850s the high peak of the region was considered to be the current Mt. Gibbs, several miles
south of Mt. Mitchell. On September 8th, 1855, Clingman ascended the Bla ck Mountains and
measured the height of Mt. Gibbs. He then continued on to Mt.
Mitchell and measured the height there. He was surprised to
discover that Mt. Mitchell was the higher of the two. He
immediately claimed to be discoverer of the high peak and
published his claim. Upon reading Clingman's claim, Mitchell was
determined to defend his own discovery, and the ensuing
controversy ultimately cost Mitchell his life.
During an 1856 trip to the region, Mitchell was unable to clear up any of the uncertainty
of his early claims to discovery of the high peak, so he returned to the Cane River valley in 1857
for what would be his final effort. On June 27, 1857 at approximately 8:19 PM Elisha Mitchell
slipped on a rocky ledge above a 20 ft waterfall and fell to his death. The 1882 U.S. Geological
Survey upheld his measurement of Black Mountain as the highest peak and officially named it
Mount Mitchell in Elisha Mitchell’s honor.
In the 1850s the mountain was just beginning to experience the destructive power of
humans, as it soon became a tourist area. In the early 1900s the lumber barons of the northeast
nearly cleared the forests off the mountains in less than 20 years. Now the area is protected and
is known as the Mt. Mitchell State Park.
Mt. Mitchell is part of the Appalachian Mountains which extends roughly 1500 miles
from Newfoundland to Alabama. More specifically, it is classified as being part of the Black
mountain range- a smaller ranger within the Appalachians which contains some of the tallest
peaks East of the Mississippi.
Mt. Mitchell’s tectonic past spans almost 1 billion years back to the creation of the super
continent Pangea. The rocks left behind on Mt. Mitchell are folded and twisted, leaving behind
evidence of a tumultuous past. The oldest rocks found within the park are roughly 1 billion years
old.
The large mountains of the Appalachians actually used to be a quiet seabed. However,
after Pangea formed, a continent to continent collision occurred drastically altering the
landscape. The continent to continent collision produced two plates which both pushed upwards
instead of subducting under one another. This effect created the mountains we see today. While
this was a major step in creating the mountain we see today, there were many other occurrences
that shaped Mt. Mitchell.
This Taconic Orogeny, which occurred roughly 470 million years ago, pictured below,
was the next step in building the mountains. This hot spot collision created more movement and
thrusting within the two plates.
After this event occurred, another collision occurred. The continent now considered Africa
collided with the North American plate. This collision coincided with the age of the dinosaurs.
Furthermore, this collision produced the mountains we now see today. However, these
mountains were once much taller than they are today. The mountains were originally covered
with softer sedimentary rocks from the seabed. Over time, this softer rock has been eroded away
leaving behind granite and other harder rocks.
Mount Mitchell, North Carolina is home to some of North Carolina’s most staggering
climate records. With the coldest temperature at -34°F and the longest single snowfall of 60
inches, the climate of Mount Mitchell can be considered extreme and hard for the trees to climb
up the mountain slope. Weather is no doubt a factor when analyzing the alpine timberline of
Mount Mitchell. The process that occurs along the Eastern (wind-facing slope) of Mount
Mitchell is classified as a “deepening” event. A “deepening” event is when precipitation under
goes a transition such as rain to snow, rain to freezing rain or sleet to snow. This process can also
be defined as adiabatic cooling. Freezing rain and sleet can have devastating effects on these
trees and their limbs. Snow does not have this adverse
affect as it typically insulates the trees and protects the
tree’s internal temperature from dropping. This causes a
lot of moisture to reach the summit, which makes for a
wet climate on the slopes of Mount Mitchell. This can be
crucial for the spruce and fir trees as they germinate at
about 77°F and need all the water they can get. On an
average July afternoon the temperature averages at about
68°F at the peak of Mount Mitchell, so it is important for
the trees to get this moisture.
Acid rain is one of the more devastating factors in the variation of the alpine treeline.
Pollutants are carried over in clouds from far distances. These pollutants, when released on the
trees and on the soils have damaging effects and metals such as aluminum are released when the
low pH rain hits the soil. Carbon dioxide from emissions of fossil fuels and other pollutants
combine with water to make a weak acid, carbonic acid. This acid rain not only eats away at the
bark of trees but also poisons the soil. It leaches out vital nutrients, like calcium that the tree or
other organism might need. This acid rain has already eaten away at the observation deck that
has recently been dismantled that used to sit atop Mount Mitchell. The weak acid can cause large
amounts of damage to stone structures as well as the mountain face. Most of the trees that cannot
survive the rains are already exposed to another alpine process
The Balsalm Woolly Adelgid is another one of the mountain treeline processes. Nonnative to the Appalachian Mountains, these small wingless beetles bore into trees and are
originally from Europe. The hole that they leave behind is exposed to outside weather and water
and minerals can no longer move up and down the trees. The natural self-defense of the trees is
to ooze sap and fill the hole, to
ensure that nutrients and water
can still move up and down the
tree. These beetles bore into
spruce and fir feeding on the
wood and releasing toxins. These
toxins retard the growth of the tree and prevent any “filling” of the hole by sap oozed out by the
tree. This can ultimately kill the tree. Mount Mitchell does not remove these dead trees from the
area, as they provide the forest ground with many habitats for fungi and small animals and
insects. The beetle does still kill these trees at a fast rate, but provides other species with a
habitat.