Teresa Noguera
______________________________________________________________
Visual Literacy and Visual Literature: Literarts that Have
to be Learnt
1. Introduction
The work I am about to share with you today is part of my doctoral work which
explores the pedagogical potential of a narratological approach to narrative learning as
well as the contribution the learning of visual language might make towards the
development of children’s visual communication. It is this latter aspect which forms the
basis of this presentation and which I intend to discuss here. The aims of this
presentation are: first, to provide a brief rationale for my study; second, to outline a few
theoretical foundations for the premise that the language of art/vision has to be learned
like other languages and that this learning can be facilitated through instruction; and
finally to examine two of the children’s narrative paintings in order to provide the
foundation for the discussion of some of the research findings and my final argument.
Before I start, however, I would like to note that in this study consideration was given to
the idea of narrative painting as a frozen image, trapped in time, and showing only a little
window of the narrative time.
2. Background to the research
This research emerged from a personal interest in the processes of composition
in writing (literature) and visual arts (photography and painting), as well as from the
dissatisfaction I felt in trying to help primary-age children fulfil their potential as
authors using the approaches prescribed in the National Curriculum and the former
National Literacy Strategy documents. In an attempt to enhance these young
children’s learning, and to help them achieve their potential, I devised and implemented
an ‘arts’ approach to narrative learning and composition, which I called ‘Narrative
Painting Programme’. The rationale for such an approach is based on the premise(s)
that all the arts have the process of composition in common and share many of the same
structural elements, and so they can play complementary and mutually enriching roles in
the development of this specific aspect; and that in order to effectively
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communicate/compose in a language, be it ‘art,’ ‘writing,’ or ‘French,’ it is imperative
that one first learns to ‘speak’ it
3. Visual Language Learning, why do it?
Art education provides a foundation for learning visual literacy and visual
literature for they both draw heavily on the field of art and on visual language (Heid,
2005). An important goal of art education is to enhance a student’s ability to use the
language of vision, for visual artists need an understanding of the language with which
they work (ibid.). Artists also need an understanding of the medium, or “material means
of communication” (Ryan, 2004, p.20), as the choice of medium modifies the way in
which visual information is shaped, presented and received (Selden & Smith, 1996).
Although visual language holds true across a number of media (i.e., film, painting,
sculpture, etc), it is important to remember that each form of media has its distinct
characteristics, skills and literacies (Bamford, 1994).
It has been suggested that visual language knowledge and skills come
‘naturally’, that they do not have to be learned, but a closer look shows this not to be true
at all (Bruner, 1996). To some extent, visual language skills develop with little external
input required, yet these cognitive skills tend to be only of the lower order kind
(Bamford, 1994). Ausburn (1978) cautioned that the superficiality of people’s visual
language skills suggests that higher order (cognitive) skills do not develop unless they are
identified and nurtured. Similarly, because most people are born with the capacity to
develop vision and visual abilities, their development is usually left to chance (Broudy,
1979). But ‘capacity’ is not synonymous with ‘skill’, although humans are all capable of
using language there are degrees of skilfulness, effectiveness and awareness with which a
language (be it visual, oral, written or sign) is used (Quinn, 1994).
The perceiver, like the creator, needs a rich and developed background of a
language for effective communication to take place between them (Dewey, 1934).
Although visual communication is taught at the most advanced levels of visual art
training, the concepts of visual communication are barely touched upon, if they are
covered at all, at the lower levels of education. If as suggested by research the best time to
learn a language is at a very early age, it is imperative that schools start teaching the
language of vision as soon as children enter school (Albers & Murphy, 2000). For the
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purposes of everyday life, ‘seeing’ is a means of practical orientation, of determining with
one’s eyes where things are and what they are doing. For visual artists, on the other hand,
‘seeing’ is a complex conceptual process that depends upon perceptual differentiation and
requires what Eisner (1991) calls ‘an enlightened eye’, an eye with the ability to see, or
perceive, what is subtle but significant. Both a physiological and a mental process, visual
perception uses all of one’s past experience, values, attitudes, and needs to select relevant
information and to interpret it (Barry, 1994). Perceiving the expressive/aesthetic
qualities of artworks requires sensitivity (Kindler, 1994) and perceivers who are able to
single them out for a particular kind of attention (Greene, 2001). Further, sensitivity is
central to the creative process and a foundation for artistic growth (Dewey, 1934; Eisner,
1972).
In addition to fluent language generation processes (McCutchen, 2002),
‘artistry’ requires a complex synergy of imagination, intellect, craft and sensitivity that
can be known only by interacting with the materials of the art form (Arnheim, 1992).
Although artistic development is facilitated by the provision of structured interactions
with the environment, such as encounters with exemplary works of art, opportunities to
create artworks, etc. (Kindler, 2005), there is evidence that strictly hands-on practice is
not sufficient for developing aesthetic perception and response (Short, 1998). What it is
also required are the critical activities of talking and reflecting about works of art (ibid.).
These critical (cognitive/thinking) skills are vital to understanding and to making art
(Heid, 2005).
4. Research Approach
With this in mind, I devised and implemented the aforementioned ‘Narrative
Painting Programme’. The implementation consisted of two phases that took place
during the autumn and first-half of the spring term with a group of ten 7 year olds.
Phase 1 consisted of twelve weekly two-hour art lessons in which the children were
familiarized with the basic elements and principles of visual composition (i.e. point, line,
shape, colour, space, emphasis, opposition, etc.), and a one-hour narrative for thinking
sessions aim to help the children develop their critical thinking skills. Phase 2 consisted of
sessions of 2-2½ hours, two days per week, for six weeks. On the first day a chosen PreRaphaelite narrative painting was studied (visually) and analysed (cognitively) and on
the second day the children composed a painted narrative.
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Documentation in the form of the children’s painted narratives and transcripts
of the children’s oral accounts of their narratives was the major component of data
collection. Interviews with and participant observation of the children were
supplementary sources to assist in the interpretation of the painted narratives they
produced. A narratological model, which divides narrative into ‘discourse’ and ‘story’
and distinguishes between the ‘content’ and ‘form’ of each of these elements, was used for
the analysis of the narrative paintings as narratives (Altman, 2008; Bal, 2006;
Chatman, 1978). The visual language aspects of the narratives, on the other hand, were
analysed using art theories grounded on Gestalt psychology and semiotics (Arnheim,
1969, 1974; Goodman, 1976).
5. Findings
Results have revealed the worth of the narrative programme in helping the
children learn the language of visual communication and in sensitizing them to the
referential, symbolic and rhetorical dimensions of visual language. The children’s
narratives have, for the most part, an overall quality called ‘expression’ - which can be
seen as a signature with an evocative function - resulting from the children’s skilful
treatment of the visual elements and principles of composition. By skilfully
manipulating form(s) the children are able to manipulate the reader/viewer’s experience.
This was achieved in the narrative paintings by:
a) aspects of colour, line, composition
Colour: red/black/dark = danger, death, doom, evil, fierce
Line: jagged = anger, force, menace, violence
psychological = tension, concern
wavy = danger, strong, menacing
(implied) diagonal = tension, threat/danger, menace [not in these examples]
curved = violence, menace
Shape: (implied) triangle = tension, imbalance
I V Λ = tension, struggle [not in these examples]
(implied) rectangle = helplessness [not in these examples]
Space: distance between objects = trouble, tension, direness
entrapment = tension, menace
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b) denotational symbols
Speech bubbles = tension, horror/worry [not in these examples
Facial expression/gesture = tension, horror/worry
Arm position (side) = unhappiness [not in these examples]
Arrows = danger to person/object pointed at [not in these examples]
For the most part, the focus of the oral narratives tended to correspond with that of the
section depicted on the narrative paintings. The children’s oral accounts have succeeded
in trans-mediating the force and precision of individual details from the canvas to their
verbal accounts, and this was mainly done by means of:
a) action: that shows and creates conflict(s), whose consequences can lead to destruction
of some of the character(s), or which can be risky, difficult, etc.
b) description: which helps create mood or atmosphere by stopping narration at the
climatic moment; this creates a sense of suspense by delaying reader’s knowledge.
c) narration (in present tense): is used to convey the immediacy of an event in progress as
opposed to the use of the past simple which gives events a sense of definiteness. The
present simple is also used to highlight or 'foreground' important events.
d) order: of the events in the fictional flow (or story) is not necessarily identical with the
order in which they are narrated (or discourse).
e) selection: of the events that lead to the dramatic or climatic moment, create a gradual
build-up and a sense of tension.
Two examples from the data are presented and discussed below in Figures 1 and 2.
6. Zigey’s stories
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Fig. 1. “Titanic”
1. “There’s a shipwreck ‘cos the lighting that’s striking and making lots of
cracks in the boat so it’s started leaking”
jagged lines for lightning (big, numerous & coming down with force) – some storm
dots: (along the see outline) lightning strikes – numerous & everywhere – ship
trapped
black lines: lightning hitting water everywhere
ominous black sky & yellowy clouds = trouble
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space (position): near middle of page, close to bottom of page (surrounded & crushed
by storm)
2/3 of page – it is ‘some’ storm = gigantic
shipwreck: = destruction/damage
lightning = indicative of storm – danger/threat
striking: hitting hard = destruction - ing: ‘repetitious action’
–ing: (making & leaking) happening at the time of speaking – action # finished
lots of: suggests ‘storm’ large & powerful
ship vs boat: contrast – boat more vulnerable
2. and all the people fall off the boat
(no hope & final ‘all’)
and some of them may be able to swim quite far (hope – for those ‘some’ ones, none
for the ‘others’)
but they get tired and then they sink
(no hope)
zigzagged movement (expectations)
3. “that wave is made a big hole in the boat, this is a very strong, like a tiger wave,
it’s come out there (on the other side)”
curved with pointy bit lines: menacing looking, moving and force-full/strong =
great threat
position (space): waves – one going through, one that has just left and one coming =
dire/seriousness of situation
big hole: hole = trouble and use of adjective ‘big’ makes the problem big-ger
very strong/tiger = wave’s strength denoted & connoted = great threat
4. “the person’s getting ready to jump off before the boat tips”
expression & stance: complete despair
colour: light shade used for man makes him look very vulnerable
position: L corner of sinking ship = ready to make the jump = dire/doom
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showing only a small part of the ship above water = final & tragic
jump off: suggests direness of situation, # hope
tip: overbalance/fall = trouble
5. at the end the boat sinks
(sense of doom ‘sinks’)
and some of the people managed to get to dry land
(sense of hope as some of them
saved themselves)
but the others died.
(sense of doom – finishing sentence
‘negative’ and last word ‘die’ not
only negative but also
‘final’)
Gradual de-gradation of the situation: boat initially leaking, then tipping and finally
sinking = prolonged anguish/suffering for the people.
Figure 1 illustrates Zigey’s (pseudonym) depiction of the Titanic and one of
the passengers battling on in the raging storm, lightning striking everywhere and battering
the ship directly and through the waves it causes as it hits the water. The direness of the
situation and the unevenness of the forces are conveyed by the use and combination of the
following elements and principles of visual language:
the sharp zigzag lines that represent the lightning bolts convey a sense of intense action
and energy. The differences in line thickness and length add to the sense of anger and
restlessness suggested by these lines. The pointy curved lines used for the waves,
somewhat resembling the claws of a fierce animal, suggest violence. Their directionality,
right to left, implies motion towards the ship. The colour black, at the top of the page
representing the stormy sky, is used both descriptively to denote the storm and
symbolically to create a sense of doom. The centre of interest is established by a
combination of placement (right side of the page) and contrast of colour (light pink vs the
dark colours used in most of the composition). The asymmetrical composition further
contributes to the sense of unevenness and direness expressed in the painting. The
comparative size of the storm and the man standing on the ship also contributes to this
contrast. The glance and stance of the man ‘getting ready to jump’ the viewer connects
with the viewer and engages him physically and emotionally.
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Fig. 2. “Super Nanny”
1. “One day there’s a man walking to the circus but this is the way he has to go and he
falls down”
man’s arm: shows part of the ‘fall’ as it is happening
motion lines above hand: suggest movement and the man asking for help
but: (same as before)
falls down: suggests ‘slight’ trouble for man
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2. “and there’s quick sand under the hole”
quick sand: indicates seriousness of situation
contrast of expectations - ‘fall down’ – harmless
3. “the sign says danger and there’s a rainstorm coming”
colour: red w/black border - symbolizes danger/death
space (position): top L – moving towards R = storm coming
raindrops on top/L-side = storm coming, not there yet
danger: self-explanatory
rainstorm = suggests additional trouble
–ing: moving – at the time of speaking - towards man
4. “and there’s a clown coming and he doesn’t see the banana skin on the floor”
space (position): peel by clown’s foot, spread open
clown facing & waving at viewer (unaware of surroundings)
suggest trouble in the form of a fall
clown ‘between’ peel & bin
banana skin & floor = suggest trouble as somebody might step on it and fall
As expected the clown slips over the skin and lands with his head stuck in the bin…but
super nanny comes to rescue both men.
The narrative in figure 2 differs from the monoscenic one in Figure 1 in that it
presents simultaneously three events which happen at different times in the story: the
man in the hole ‘asking for help’, the clown about to slip and supper nanny coming to the
rescue. Although the situations presented in this narrative are less dire than the one in
Titanic, they do re-present serious consequences for the characters. The sense of peril and
looming danger are conveyed:
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the cinetic lines used to represent the movement of the man’s arm and indirectly
suggesting his asking for help. The dark sky and the blue dots ‘moving’ from the top left to
the right of the page to represent the ‘coming’ storm and to express the seriousness of the
situation. The sign’s red and black colours, used in reversed order, alerting of the
surrounding danger. Similarly the use of the colours red and black primarily adds to the
sense of danger and disaster. The tactical positioning of the oblivious clown between the
bin and the banana peel, facing and waving at the viewer, suggests not only the inevitable
but also the problem awaiting him. The implied out of kilter triangle formed by the three
people in the picture reinforces the instability of the situation. It is the synergy of all
these elements reinforcing this sense of doom or trouble which contributes to its being so
effectively expressive.
7. Conclusion
As evidenced in these examples, learning the language of vision makes a
significant contribution to the development of the child’s visual literacy skills and ability
to compose effective visual literature. Similarly, the visual medium proves to be both an
invaluable pedagogical ‘tool’ to help the children learn and ‘strategy’ to add to teachers’
‘teaching’ repertoire. Picasso one said, and he was talking about colour symbolism, "There
are painters who transform the sun into a yellow spot, but there are others who, thanks to
their art and intelligence, transform a yellow spot into the sun." The children who partook
in this study, I would dare say, belong to the latter group. They do not only manipulate
form in the service of their expression, they are able to transmediate artistic narratives in
such a way that they themselves can be ‘pictured’ as both pictor doctus and pictor
poeticus/literatus.
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