XIV
St. Domingue: The Shaping of Hispaniola
2
Dear Delegates,
My name is Amy Legros. I am a third year Biochemistry major at the University of Florida and I
will be your director for this committee. I am a Haitian-Canadian from Montreal, Quebec and I’ve lived in Orlando, FL since I was ten years old. As someone of Haitian descent, I am elated to direct this committee because
it will address the many effects of the Haitian Revolution, which is seldom covered in depth in US or World History courses. American ideals about slavery and imperialism, France’s goal of creating an empire in the West, and
the revolutions of other Caribbean nations were all affected by the Haitian Revolution.
I first participated in Model United Nations my junior year of high school and continuing to do so in college has
been one of the best decisions I’ve made in my life. Although I am a biochemistry major, world affairs and history have always interested me, especially when those affairs would directly affect how people perceive me. After
participating in this committee, hopefully you will see how past events have shaped the world we live in today,
the important role that certain beliefs play in our everyday lives, and the impact that the beliefs that inspired
both the Haitian Revolution and the Dominican War of Independence have had on the world.
My goal in directing this committee will be to help all of you learn about the complexities of the post-Haitian
Revolution events by placing you in 1810-1820s Haiti (which from 1822 to 1844 included the Dominican Republic). Although strong and independent at the time, the destruction of farmlands and plantations during the
Haitian Revolution, the integration of the Spanish side of the island, and the huge debt that France imposed
upon the Haitian government heavily weakened the nation. Your job as a delegate will not only be to fulfill your
character’s personal desires, but more importantly, rebuild the incredibly profitable island by creating socioeconomic infrastructure and addressing the aforementioned issues. It will be in your best interest to cooperate with
other delegates in the committee despite your differences, because any loss the island suffers is a loss to every
person in the committee. Although this committee will be occurring about 15 years after the Haitian Revolution,
I highly recommend watching “Haitian Revolutions: Crash Course World History #30” and “Latin American
Revolutions: Crash Course World History #31” on YouTube; these videos will give you an overview of the Caribbean revolutions and time period, and are a great place to begin your research.
Disclaimer: Please be aware that as a delegate, you may have to hold controversial beliefs about race as a part of
your assigned character. This is a necessary part of this committee to highlight how important race relations were
in determining political and social rank within the country and the world. No name calling or personal attacks
will be tolerated in this committee. Only respectful debate, especially regarding debate that hinges primarily on
race, will be allowed.
This committee will require a position paper. With so many different events going on around this time period
and the many different diplomats of different countries that will be within this committee, writing out a position
paper will give all of you a clear plan of what you will want to execute. I hope all of you will have fun in this committee; the more fun and creative you guys are, the more that we, the crisis staff, can create an exciting cultural
experience. I am excited to meet all of you!
If you have any questions about the committee or research do not hesitate to contact me via email at [email protected].
Strap in and get ready for the freedom heading your way! L’union fait la force!
Amy Legros
Crisis Director
3
Quorum
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4
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The Committee Director must approve the Friendly Amendment and confirm each Sponsor’s agreement both
verbally and in writing.
5
Unfriendly Amendments
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Plagiarism
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6
1685
• Louis XIV passes The Code Noir decree
1776
Timeline
• American Revolutionary War
1783
• American Revolutionary War ends
1788
• The Society of the Friends of the Blacks is created in Paris
1789
• The French Revolution begins (exact date is disputed)
• In France, the Assembly publishes the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
1791
• King Louis XVI accepts the French Constitution of 1791 and France establishes a constitutional monarchy
• Dutty Boukman leads the Bois Caïman gathering and a massive slave revolt
1794
• The US declares neutrality
• France abolishes slavery
• Britain occupies Haiti
1798
• British occupation of Haiti ends
• Toussaint Louverture and André Rigaud own the vast majority of the colony
1799
• The Napoleonic Wars begin
1801
• US finalizes a formal treaty of alliance with France spurred by the Convention of 1800
1803
• Napoleon’s loss in securing Haiti and the cost of the Napoleonic Wars leads to the Louisiana Purchase
1804
• Haiti declares independence
1806
• Thomas Jefferson signs the ‘Act to Suspend the Commercial Intercourse between the United States and Certain Parts of the Island of St. Domingo’ which officially cuts off trade between Haiti and the US
1808
• Latin American countries begin to revolt as a result of the kidnapping of the Spanish King Charles IV and his
son, Ferdinand
1809
• US Embargo Act is repealed
1811
• The 1811 German Coast Uprising occurs in the German Coast of Louisiana
• King Henri Christophe owns the northern region of Haiti and President Alexandre Pétion owns the southern
region
1812
• The War of 1812 begins
7
1815
The War of 1812 ends
The Napoleonic Wars end
1822
Haiti invades the Dominican Republic and unifies the island
All other Latin American countries (Mexico, Guatemala, Brazil, Honduras, etc) declare independence
1825
France officially recognizes Haiti on the condition that Haiti pays them 150 million francs
1831
The Baptist War begins a sequence of revolts in Jamaica
1833
Britain passes the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833
1844
Dominican Republic fights off Haiti and wins its independence
Introduction
Historical Background
Many people know the story of the colonization of Africa and the Atlantic Slave Trade. However, the importance
of St. Domingue is often overlooked. During the early 1700s, St. Domingue produced about 40% of the world’s
supply of sugar and 50% of the Indies’ coffee1. And by 1763, St. Domingue was also producing a large amount
of cotton and indigo. Although St. Domingue contributed a great amount of wealth to the world, black slaves
enjoyed very little freedoms. Slaves died off 5-6% per year because of disease, overwork, hunger, and punishment
and usually did not live for more than 10 years once they stepped onto the island2. Slaves on a plantation sometimes did not share a similar culture or language, therefore a large uniting force between many African slaves
was song and religion; mostly notably, voodoo. Although a large stigma against voodoo exists today, slaves used
voodoo as a way to communicate in secret and integrate African religious spirits into Christianity.
In addition to harsh working conditions, theories on freedom and equality were at the center of the Haitian Revolution. The first major event to touch on this idea was the passing of the Code Noir decree or the “Black Code”
established in 1685 by King Louis XIV. The code upheld the rights of slaveowners in the French colonies, but also
provided basic rights for slaves. In theory, slaveowners were required to provide slaves with adequate food and
clothing but the decree was largely ignored and unenforced3. The idea of equality in St. Domingue was further
influenced by the American Revolution in 1776. White planters from St. Domingue sent black slaves and mulattoes to Savannah, Georgia to help American revolutionaries in the war. Many influential Haitian generals on the
island learned their military skills from fighting in the American Revolution.
The French Revolution was, arguably, the most influential event that spurred the Haitian Revolution. The sociopolitical turmoil in France during the 1780s dealt with many philosophical issues such as the rights of man, the
rights of the monarchy, the influence of religion, and the legality of slavery. French politicians felt so strongly
about these issues that the Amis des Noirs was created in 1788, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
Citizen was written in 1789, and the French Revolution began. Whenever slavery was mentioned in the Cahiers
de Doléances, the book of grievances set up by the three Estates in France, it was always described as contradictory to the rights of man and Christian ideology4.
1
2
3
4
Brown, Gordon S. 2005. “Toussaint’s Clause: The Founding Fathers and the Haitian Revolution.” 26
Brown, Toussaint’s Clause, 34-35
Brown, Toussaint’s Clause, 33-34
Popkin, Jeremy D. 2012. A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution
8
Introduction Cont.
Furthermore, free people of color including Julien Raimond, made many allies with French politicians and
abolitionists. Therefore, slaveowners in St. Domingue saw France’s New Assembly as a threat to their property
interests and wanted to assert their right to control social and political affairs on the colony. When the New Assembly passed a decree on March 1970 that gave colonists in St. Domingue the right to set up assemblies on the
colony, they did not specifically say which men were allowed to do so. Therefore, many free people of color such
as Vincent Ogé assumed that the decree extended to them because they were free men who owned property. The
infighting on the colony thus first began between White colonists and free people of color.
Then, on the night of August 21, 1791, Dutty Boukman, an influential voodoo priest, led a voodoo ceremony to
prepare a group of slaves for a large slave uprising in a forested site called Bois Caïman. The slave revolt the next
day on August 22, 1791, was successful5. Slave revolts led by other leaders such as Jean Francois, Jeannot Bullet,
and Georges Biassou followed and were also successful. Unlike the disputes between the White colonists and the
free men of color, many slaves involved in the revolts did not have precise political demands. The main purpose
of the revolts was to liberate slaves from oppression and awful working conditions set by both white colonists
and free men of color.
After much infighting between the French, the free people of color, and slaves, Toussaint Louverture, an experienced Black general, successfully impeded the French from overtaking St. Domingue in 1793. Soon, he became
the ruler of the northern region of St. Domingue while his rival, André Rigaud, ruled the southern region of St.
Domingue6. At first, Toussaint Louverture tried to secure commissions from Spanish officials on the east side
of the island. Toussaint felt more comfortable under the Spanish crown and knew that the Spanish were much
more liberal than the French on slavery. Then around 1793, after French armies suffered many losses, Toussaint
secured the help of the British. Not only did the British help oust the remaining French troops, the White colonists who remained on the island around this time preferred British policies over the anti-slavery policies from
their mother country. However, Toussaint felt that St. Domingue’s relationship with the Spanish and British was
reaching a dead end while an alliance with the new French government could work. This is because the French
government officially abolished slavery on February 4, 1794. Although he wrestled with the idea of rejoining
France, Louverture eventually realized that total independence was the only way to prevent European colonists
from opressing Black and mulatto citizens. In 1803, he and Napoleon Bonaparte made a peace agreement to give
St. Domingue its independence. However, once Louverture traveled to France for further peace talks, Napoleon
had Toussaint arrested7. Louverture’s capture did not go over well with the people of St. Domingue and in 1804,
Jean-Jacques Dessalines ordered the killing of all white people on the island. Officially named the 1804 Haiti
Massacre, thousands of white men, women, and children were killed8. Once the generals secured St. Domingue
from the French, they named the island after the Tainos, the Native Americans who lived on the island before
Christopher Columbus came to the West Indies, and named it Haiti.
The 1800s
By 1804, the Haitian Revolution could definitely be labeled as a success. The revolution inspired countless slaves
and the oppressed all along the North and South American continents to contemplate their own situation and
rebel. José Antonio Aponte from Cuba, Samuel Sharpe from Jamaica, and Simon Bolivar from Venezuela, to
name a few, were all inspired by the Haitian Revolution to rebel the oppressors in their own countries. Furthermore, Haitians successfully ousted the Europeans, constructed their own constitution, and were free to do as
they please. However, rebuilding political, social, and economic infrastructure proved to be difficult because “the
revolutionary war had destroyed nearly all of the country’s colonial infrastructure and production capabilities”9.
5
6
7
8
9
“Haitian Revolution Begins.”
Brown, 2005, 131-132.
“Toussaint Louverture.”
Girard, Philippe R. 2005. “Caribbean Genocide: Racial War in Haiti, 1802–4.”
“The Haitian Revolution 1804-1805.”
9
The 1800s Cont.
The most controversial issue surrounding economic infrastructure in the newly liberated island is Toussaint
L’Ouverture’s forced labor decree, because it raised the question about keeping or dismantling the plantation
system. Even after Toussaint L’Ouverture’s death, the decree remains a popular option that many people in the
ruling class want to keep but the Black and Hispanic community detest. The decree is composed of 13 articles
that detail policies and regulations on citizens’ day-to-day life and employment. Many people believe these policies are overbearing. An exceptionally controversial line in the decree is Article 3 which states, “All field-laborers,
men and women, now in a state of idleness… with an intention to evade work, even those of both sexes who
have not been employed in field labor since the revolution, are required to return immediately to their respective
plantations” (“Forced Labor Decree” 2012)10. Furthermore, the decree required citizens to practice Christianity
but many Africans on the island practice an African religion such as Vodun (mainly practiced by the Gbe speaking people). The Black community and ex-slaves see the decree as an intrusion to their newly acquired freedoms,
therefore, many of them are staunchly against L’Ouverture and his allies’ policies. As a delegate, you must make
intelligent decisions about which economic route is best for the country but also ensure that your policies do not
anger the populace or the people you represent.
In terms of choosing a political system, Haiti is split— literally. King Henri Christophe is the absolute ruler of
the north and rules his territory like an empire. He had his people build the Citadelle Laferrière, a 16 acre and
140 feet high fortress11 between Cap-Haitïen and Milot. He is a fair ruler who is actively working on improving
the literacy rate and overall productivity of the northern region. To maintain productivity, Christophe strongly
encourages the maintenance of sugar plantations but as explained above, Blacks and ex-slaves saw obligatory labor as a form of slavery and did not want to sacrifice their freedom for an export-based economy12. In the south,
President Alex Pétion reigns. He is loved by the people in his region because he gives out land to deserving
soldiers and families. However, this practice eliminates surpluses made on plantations that can be used for trade.
As a result, the southern region has a lower economic output13. Because of the two rulers’ constant wars, American and British merchants take advantage of the feud by selling supplies to both regions. Ensure that you and/
or the council establish a stable political system in the country which benefits both the people and your personal
interests.
Although political and economic issues plague the island, social infrastructure is extremely important in keeping
a population happy and productive. Improving literacy, maintaining safe communities, and building religious
centers are a few of many aspects that the island should have in order to improve the lives of all citizens.. King
Henri Christophe made use of Christian Europeans to set up small schools in the north to significantly improve
the literacy rate in the region. However, Alexandre Pétion’s ideology about education is that truly fulfilling education is obtained in Europe, especially France, so the literacy rate in his region is still fairly low. But, Pétion has
completely dismantled the plantation system and has let the populace perform subsistence farming instead.
As a delegate, you will be expected to continuously build up economic, political, and social infrastructure to
make sure the island does not fall deeper and deeper into poverty. More importantly, you all must do so while
reestablishing Haiti as a major player in the international community. As a predominantly Black nation and a nation led by Blacks, a deep stigma about Haiti perverse the international community. Although certain merchants
illegally trade with Haiti, several countries do not formally recognize the island because of bad blood or they do
want to be shunned by powerful European countries for doing so. These countries include France, the United
States, all Latin American countries, colonies such as Jamaica, Martinique, etc. Therefore, the more allies you all
create together or individually, the more prosperous and respected the country will be, and the more Haiti will
be an example of how successful a Black nation can be.
10
11
12
13
“Forced Labor Decree.”
“Henri Christophe, Black Revolutionary and King in the Western Hemisphere.”
Popkin, Jeremy D. 2012. “A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution.”
“Alexandre Sabes Petion.”
10
France
Foreign Entities
By 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte had overthrown the French Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire. He was named
“first consul” of the three-membered Consulate in 1799, then “first consul for life” in 1802, and eventually “emperor of France” in 1804. Although he is currently leading France in the Napoleonic Wars, he has successfully
reformed France’s banking system, decreased the national debt, “centralized the government… and [established]
the Napoleonic Code”14.
Socially, the French Revolution and the Enlightenment caused a shift in the French’s perception of life, law, and
religion. Many people are now convinced that humans can find the “natural laws of the universe” on their own,
that every person has “natural rights”, and knowledge is infinite15. These new ideas are creating a more secular
society and a much less powerful church than the Catholic Church before the French Revolution. Furthermore,
in French society pre-French Revolution, many people believed that the unfortunate were simply unfortunate because God was punishing them for their sins; thus, many people did not intervene in the affairs of those poorer
than them. However, the Enlightenment brought about the idea of humanitarianism16. So many forward-thinking French politicians will be debating how they would like their relation with Haiti to develop.
Great Britain
From the mid-1700s to the early 1800s, the invention of the cotton gin, the use of steam for power, and the use of
the factory system sharply increased productivity and trade in England. The Industrial Revolution made England
the most powerful and industrialized nation in the world. However, the working class in the country still experienced harsh labor practices and extreme poverty17.
Trade and economic prosperity could have kept increasing, if it were not for Emperor Napoleon’s trade restrictions with England. Trade restrictions, fighting in the War of 1812, and the Napoleonic Wars has damaged the
economy badly. Furthermore, social unrest about the high price of food, unfair working conditions, and class
differences set off many protests, specifically by the Luddites who vandalized factories. Although internal social unrest is slowing the economy down slightly, trade with Spain and its colonies in Latin America is helping
England (now Great Britain because of the acquisition of Ireland) become the biggest world power in the world.
Therefore, acquisition of more territories and ports will be in its agenda.
United States
Under Thomas Jefferson’s presidency, the economy was doing well but Congress was still divided between the
Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists. Thomas Jefferson, as the leader of the Democratic-Republicans,
believed in a small central government, “reducing the size of the army and navy, and paying off the government’s
debt,” and strict construction18. Therefore, he spent most his second term deciding what the United States’ relationship would be with Great Britain, France, and Haiti. One of Jefferson’s main missions was to keep the United
States out of war and keep American trade safe. Jefferson sent envoys to Britain to ask their privateers to stop
attacking American merchant ships and for fair trade between the two countries. However, this failed. Furthermore, Jefferson tried to convince France to let Americans trade with Haiti.
14
“Napoleon Bonaparte - Facts & Summary.”
15
“The Enlightenment or Age of Reason: 1700s.”
16Ibid.
17
“Industrial Revolution.”
18
“Jeffersonian Ideology.”
11
United States Cont.
However, many pro-slavery Americans were not content with the United States’ trade relations with Haiti; and
they must have been relieved when France refused any negotiations that allowed American merchants to trade
with Haiti19. With these two unsuccessful negotiations, Jefferson eventually passed the Embargo Act of 1807 to
keep the US neutral and away from the Napoleonic Wars.
By James Madison’s Presidency, the unpopular Embargo Act was repealed. And in order to restore trade with
France or Britain, Madison asked if “either [country] would accept America’s view of neutral rights, to forbid
trade with the other nation”. However, Napoleon only pretended to comply and British ships kept attacking
American seamen so Madison declared war on Great Britain on June 1, 181220.Thus, the US is now fighting Great
Britain, Canada, and Britain’s North American colonies.
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic lies on the east side of Hispaniola. Unlike the Haitians in the west, Dominicans have
an agrarian economy based on small farming, cattle, tobacco, and cacao production without internal national market21. Both countries differ in agriculture and economic output because of how their respective colonial
powers treated them. Slaves in Haiti were treated like animals, and had to work on large coffee and sugar plantations. Therefore, the Haitians are more familiar with plantation work and robust trade with the West Indies, the
Americas, and to a lesser extent, Europe. In contrast, when the Dominicans worked under the Spanish crown,
they most likely worked for autonomous farmers who did not treat them cruelly and trade was not as rigorous as
it was in Haiti. Although Dominicans aspire to be more European like the Spanish, the Spanish crown has a very
relaxed, loose relationship with the Dominican Republic because it finds its other colonies wealthier and more
resourceful22. Independent campesino farmers and cattle ranchers contribute the most to the economy but most
people are subsistence farmers.
The racial hierarchy in the Dominican Republic is slightly less strict than Haiti’s racial hierarchy, but still very
prominent. The ruling class believes that the country is not prepared to be completely independent. They want
peace with Haiti and the whitening of Dominicans through marriage with European immigrants. However, the
local elites, foreigners, and criollos want no economic or political relations with Haiti. Those who are completely
Black or dark, are looked down upon and those who are lighter can boast about their whiteness and European
roots23. At this point, because of strained relations with Haiti and the stigma against Blacks, Dominican identity
has evolved to mean “not Haitian.” As a result, Haitian political and economic dominance has become a controversial topic among Dominicans.
The Social Structure of Haiti
Whites/Europeans
Also known as the “grands blancs”, this group included officials, merchants, big planters, professionals, artisans,
and shopkeepers. The “petits blancs” included urban laborers, soldiers, seamen, small traders, criminals, etc.
The grands blancs had a large role in keeping the status quo and “fiercely resisted assimilation of the free men
of color”24. The petit blancs hated that mulattos were allowed to be educated and own land, and many of them
hated that some mulattos went on to become richer than them. Both the grand blancs and petit blancs died from
infighting on the island, escaped to America, or were pressured to leave the island as Toussaint gained control.
The few whites who remained on the island were brutally massacred in the 1804 Haiti Massacre.
19
20
21
22
23
24
Brown, Toussaint’s Clause, 79-88
“James Madison.”
Miguel, Pedro Luis San. The Imagined Island: History, Identity, & Utopia in Hispaniola.
“Dominican Republic - THE FIRST COLONY.”
Miguel, The Imagined Island, 36
Brown, Gordon S. 2005. “Toussaint’s Clause: The Founding Fathers and the Haitian Revolution.” 26
12
Mulattos
were respected, educated, and given many (but not all) opportunities. Even with the passing of the Black Code of
1685, the grands blancs did not allow freemen of color to be in the same social class as them, no matter how rich
or educated. Mulattos were not allowed to wear the more prestigious European garments, sit with whites, or get
the same professional opportunities as Europeans. But many found success as planters, traders, and service in the
militia. A quarter of them owned slaves that they used for their small coffee farms mainly because they did not
see themselves as equal to free blacks25.
Slaves/Freedmen
had no clear political demands during the revolution, they simply wanted a better quality of life. Many freedmen
were and still are torn on whether to continue working on plantations. Those who had kind masters or had light
jobs are most likely to be loyal to their masters and go back to a plantation, but those who suffered back-breaking plantation work cannot be convinced to go back. Many of them now live as subsistence farmers which has
increased the deforestation and soil erosion on the island26.
Women
are not talked about much but were integral to the revolution. They participated in guerilla warfare against the
French along with men. They would sneakily bring food to French soldiers in order to spy on them. And in the
villages, they did much of the agricultural work over the males, putting heavy loads on their heads like women in
African society.
Voodoo Priests
helped organize revolts against plantation owners. The mix of different African tribespeople on the same plantation made it difficult for slaves to communicate but voodoo (also known as Vodun) provided a unifying religion
for all slaves. As a result, voodoo priests became powerful community leaders who believed that the spirits they
worshiped gave them mystical powers.
Conclusion
Overall, as with any Model United Nations committee, know who your allies are and know your character’s best
attributes. The late 1700s and early 1800s were a chaotic time in terms of war, religion, and social issues. But
don’t forget the end goal of the committee. Bring Haiti back to its glory!
I want to leave you with an excerpt from the book “De l’égalité des races humaines” (In English: On the Equality of Human Races) written by Haitian anthropologist Anténor Firmin. He was the first black anthropologist
and one of the first to specifically define the science of anthropology and the way we define it today. Although
his book was published in 1885, I found many contemporary topics in Firmin’s words including arguments for
affirmative action, causes of minority stereotypes, and unsuccessful attempts to decrease poverty in third world
countries. Perhaps his words will remind you of other relevant topics in today’s world.
“Is not the dogma of the inequality of races, which fosters the most stupid prejudices and nurtures the most malevolent antagonism among the different elements of the Haitian people, the most obvious cause of the dissension
and internal conflicts that have repressed and indeed annihilated the best natural aptitudes of the young and proud
nation? Is not the inconsiderate belief in her inferiority responsible for the lack of any real support for her social
development? Are not all the calamities that have afflicted her due to the ever ridiculous pretensions of some and the
often indelicate claims of others? The Haitian race will achieve all that it is capable of achieving only when all these
prejudices, which constitute stumbling blocks on the path to progress, are eliminated through education, to which the
masses will have been given unlimited access.” Anterior Firmin (1885)
25
Brown, Toussaint’s Clause, 33-34
26
Brown, Toussaint’s Clause, 34-35
13
André Rigaud
Positions
A mixed-race man born to a wealthy French planter and grew up to be a skilled general with many lands in Saint
Domingue. He tried to fight Toussaint for control of the island but eventually lost. He hated Toussaint for many
reasons but mainly because Toussaint allowed fully black men to acquire lofty government positions. He has lost
most of his territory to Alexandre Piéton so he is staunchly for the plantation system and wants a government
reflective of Saint Domingue’s social class.
Jean-Jacques Dessalines
Nicknamed “the butcher of blacks” by Charles Leclerc after he successfully killed a large number of Haitian
rebels after he betrayed Toussaint. When a fellow general, Charles Belair, and his wife inspired black soldiers to
turn against the French, he had them captured and shot. However, he rejoined the Saint Domingue side and was
elected the governor-general by several officers and ordered the 1804 Haiti Massacre. He is revered by many and
has been incorporated into voodoo loa. He also completely supports Toussaint’s forced labor decree.
Jacques Maurepas
A skilled general who fought to defend the north Port-de-Paix (1802) but abandoned it as his own subordinates
had already given up to the French. Like many other generals, he switched sides and fought alongside the French
but the French eventually turned on him. He and his family were captured and tortured but he has escaped and
joined this council to seek revenge against the French. Alongside the other generals, he is for a plantation system.
Julien Raimond
A Haitian mulatto born to a French colonist and a mixed-race mother. He is a notable anti-slavery activist in
France who worked with the Society of Friends of the Blacks and published many pamphlets to push the French
to ban slavery in Saint Domingue. He came back to Haiti to help write the Haitian constitution and support the
re-establishment of the plantation system.
Cecile Fatiman
A Mambo, or voodoo High priestess, who, along with Dutty Boukman, led a voodoo ceremony that was one of
the major sparks of the Haitian Revolution. She is married to a wealthy man who was the President for a short
period of time but her power mainly lies in her magic and the respect that laypeople have for her. Therefore, she
will be representing their main interest in this committee and does not support a plantation system nor a strict
dictatorship-like government.
Marie-Madeleine Lachenais aka Joute
The mistress of Alexandre Piéton and his main political advisor. Although she does not have any prior experience in politics, she is very intelligent and learns quickly. Although she has little direct power, she holds influence
over those making laws and policies. As a woman of the elite class, she supports a plantation system but does not
support strict racial hierarchies within the government.
Dédée Bazile
Born a slave, Dédée Bazile became a traveling nurse and peddler for the Haitian army during the Haitian Revolution. She is a living symbol of the revolution because of her work in the army. Bezile has gained the trust of the
common people following the Revolution, and many people bring her secrets and information from around St.
Domingue. She is a staunch supporter of Dessalines.
14
Charles Deslondes
A mulatto and former slave from St. Domingue, now living in Louisiana. Deslondes was not part of the Haitian
Revolution because he, along with his former master, fled to Louisiana at the Revolution’s start. Still, Deslondes
tried to emulate a similar revolution in the German Coast of Louisiana in 1811, which was ultimately unsuccessful. Narrowly escaping death following the failed result, Deslondes escaped and returned to Haiti to assist in
securing the future of his home country, with the hope of one day returning to Louisiana. He is staunchly against
a plantation system.
Samuel Sharpe aka “Daddy Sharpe”
A Jamaican preacher and educated black man. Although Britain is wary of giving Jamaica its independence,
Sharpe is inciting many slaves to come together and protest for Jamaica’s freedom as peacefully as possible.
The tension between Jamaican slaves and white planters is reaching a breaking point so Sharpe has come to St.
Domingue to learn from the first successful black insurgents, the Haitians. One day he plans to return to Jamaica and begin a peaceful protest against the British occupation. Sharpe is undecided about whether a plantation
system should be allowed in the newly independent Haiti.
Dr. Edward Stevens
The American consul to Santo Domingo. Stevens has the tricky job of advancing American interests on the
colony without inciting conflict with French and British naval interests. Although many American politicians are
debating whether or not to officially recognize Haiti, Stevens gives his full support to an independent Haiti and is
for a plantation system on the island.
Benjamin Lundy
A Quaker abolitionist and founder of the Union Humane Society, an anti-slavery association. As a proponent of
gradual emancipation, he wants slavery to be abolished in America but feels that Blacks should live outside of the
United States. Therefore, he has joined this council to make sure that the new Haitian government and economy
is up and running; so once slaves are freed, he can go back to the United States and plan a mass exodus of freed
slaves to Haiti.
Timothy Pickering
The former US Secretary of State and is now a member of the House of Representatives. He is a Federalist and
sees the conditions of the Haitians as similar to the French insurgents in the French Revolution. He understands
that officially recognizing the new Haitian Republic will create conflict between the US and France but he wants
trade relations between the US and Haiti to continue. He is undecided about whether Haiti should keep the plantation system.
Sir John Duckworth
A British naval officer who fought in several battles. Most notably, he led the British navy in the Battle of Santo
Domingo, which kept the French from reconquering Haiti. Many of the politicians and generals in this council
respect him because of his leadership in the aforementioned battle, except the French of course. His insight in
naval operations will be useful in case of any attacks on the island but he is foremost loyal to the King; he attends
this council in order to pursue British interests and ensure that revolts do not occur in any of the neighboring
British colonies.
15
Peregrine Maitland
A British officer, first-class cricketer, and the lieutenant of Upper Canada. He fought in the Haitian Revolution
and is now visiting Haiti to establish trade relations between Haiti and his new territory in Nova Scotia. He does
not care for whether Haiti keeps a plantation system or not, but wants to make sure that his part of Canada receives resources from Haiti.
Leger-Felicite Sonthonax
A French Jacobin activist. His alliance with black insurgents during the revolution destroyed his alliance with
mulatto leaders, who were extremely racist. Like Toussaint, Sonthonax wants to restore the plantation system
and thinks that too many blacks are in the army and not working in the plantations. Although he loved standing
up for abolitionism and Toussaint, he is now stuck on the island because of the French Revolution. He and other
Frenchmen will have to contemplate on whether their ideals about freedom coincide with the policies of the new
Haitian republic.
Abbé Henri Gregoire
A French Roman Catholic priest, constitutional bishop of Blois and a revolutionary leader. He is an abolitionist
who is part of the Society of Friends of the Blacks. He was requested by the ramshackle Christophe government
in the north to come down and help build some social and religious infrastructure on the island. He is undecided
about whether Haiti should maintain a plantation system.
Antonio Sanchez-Valderde
A dark skinned criollo, Jesuit-educated priest, lawyer, and writer who is part of the Dominican elite. He was one
of the first Dominican writers to analyze anti-Haitian sentiments in the Spanish side of the colony, the Dominican peoples’ strong association with Spain, and arguments for slavery. He wants Dominicans to match the success that the French had with the Haitians and thus is for the plantation system, but only on the Haitian side of
the island.
Buenaventura Báez Méndez
A Dominican politician who is serving under the Haitian government. He admires the Haitians’ successful rebellion against the French and thus wants to work alongside them to make the land prosperous again. Although
he is loyal to the Haitian government, he is also representing the interest of the Spanish descent on the island. He
is conflicted at times about whether to stay within the Haitian government or share the same anti-Haitian sentiments that many of his people have. He is against keeping a plantation system.
Pedro Francisco Bonó
A Dominican lawyer and writer from the middle sector of Dominican society and is considered the founder
of Dominican sociology. He is less interested in how to define “being Dominican” as he is interested in how
entrenched anti-Haitianism is within the Dominican population. He has joined this council because he understands that prosperity for his own people means seeing firsthand how this new Haitian government succeeds or
fails. He is against the plantation system.
Jeannot Bullet
A black revolutionary leader who rose into power directly after the Bois Caïman ceremony. He is a powerful
commander who leads with fear but is widely respected among former slaves because of his anti-European and
anti-mulatto beliefs. He is strongly against the plantation system.
16
José Núñez de Cáceres
A Dominican politician and writer who tried to get Gran Colombia to annex the Spanish side of the island. He
has many supporters who would have loved to join forces with another former Spanish colony, but many people in the elite Dominican class were supportive of the Haitian annexation. Although disappointed by the Dominicans who are choosing to settle with a Haitian dominion, Cáceres is willing to work with the committee to
make sure that any new policies and decisions made will benefit the criollos, haciendos, and cattle ranchers on
the Spanish side of the island. And like many of his Dominican peers, he is mostly against keeping a plantation
system.
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