NARRATION IN NAYAKA ART BASED ON SELECT TEMPLES
SYNOPSIS
The thesis deals with a topic, which is very dear to the Indian populace. While story
telling is a practice that is popular through the ages it finds a range of expression in the
Indian context. From the oral traditions which range from the katha kalakshepams or
telling of the stories of Hindu epics and mythologies to the bhopa story tellers who spoke
of the local legends of folk heroes at Rajasthan; from the tholu bommalatams or leather
puppetry of Andhra Pradesh where folk artists spoke of the same epics like Ramayana
and Mahabharata; or theru koothus in Tamilnadu which again staged the regional
narratives like Valli Thirumanam or episodes from the pan Indian epics like the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana; from the pat painters of West Bengal to the phad
painters of Rajasthan or the murals of Madhubani and Warli to the painters and sculptors
employed by the royal patrons and chieftains the instinct to tell stories is a strong one.
Each of these have their own traits and distinct modes of narrations
The proposed thesis deals with the last of the type of storytellers. They of course are not
mere storytellers in the true sense of the term. They are acknowledged as ‘artists’
whether they painted or sculpted and art history has traditionally put them on a pedestal
above the so-called ‘craftsmen’ mentioned in the other instances above. But present day
studies have revised that opinion and much work is going on in that direction. In the
same manner the Nayaka works have traditionally been treated as ‘children of a lesser
artist” as a result of colonial interpretations. This thesis is an objective attempt at looking
at the works with the idea of looking into the content of their works. It deals with
narrative sculptures and paintings of the Nayaka time period based on select temples in
Tamilnadu. The thesis includes 11 Saivite temples and 3 Vaishnavite temples. As
already mentioned the thesis intends to explore only narrative panels of the time period.
So the main iconic images in garbagrihas and other shrines have been kept outside the
purview of this study. Also the Nayakas have mainly contributed in terms of mandapas,
prakaras and gopuras in the temples selected for study. So the sculpted or painted
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narrative panels that are in the various pillars of mandapas, ceilings of mandapas and
elevations of gopuras have been ‘selected’ for study. The temples chosen for study are :
Lists of temples and their abbreviations:
1. Arunachalesvara temple, Thiruvannamalai,
A.T.T
2. Periyanayaki Amman temple, Devikapuram
P.A.T.D
3. Kanakagirisvara temple,Devikapuram
K.G.T.D
4. Margasahayesvara temple, Virinchipuram
M.S.T.V
5. Bhaktavatsala temple, Thirukkalukunram
B.V.T.T
6. Jalakantesvara temple, Velur.
J.K.T.V
7. Nataraja temple, Chidambaram
N.T.C
8. Minakshi Sundaresvara Temple, Madurai
M.S.T.M
9. Subramania Temple, Thiruparankundram
S.T.T
10. Brihadesvara Temple, Thanjavur
B.T.T
11. Swedha Vinayagar Temple, Thiruvalanchuli
S.V.T.T
12. Bhuvaraha temple, Srimushnam
13. Sounderaraja Perumal temple,Tadikompu
14. Ramaswamy temple at Kumbakonam
B.V.T.S
S.P.T.T
R.T.K.
Some of the above mentioned temples provide many specimens while that may not be the
case with others. In the above-mentioned temples only select areas, which have been
known as of the Nayaka times, have been included. Wherever possible inscriptions and
literary sources have been used to authenticate Nayaka authorship and otherwise features
like style have been taken as indicators. While personal visits for fieldwork has been
done in all the temples the last mentioned S.V.T.T today presents only fully white
washed walls. The condition of the Nayaka paintings of the vimana wall at B.T.T. is
rather frail and disintegrating and of course though they can be viewed, photography is
prohibited. So for these two instances the thesis has depended on secondary sources like
books, which have documented the paintings before they were white washed. Otherwise
barring very few instances most illustrations have been personally photographed by the
present writer.
(As for the illustrations, due to age and weathering the originals
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themselves are in a heavily plastered or coarse condition and hence the resultant
illustrations suffer in clarity). The actuality that the sculptures of the time period had first
been plastered and then painted over in many colours must be factored in, while taking
stock of the coarse surfaces. Even as there are many sculptural panels available for study
the same cannot be said of paintings. Due to their very nature the paintings have either
disappeared due to weathering and age or whitewashed in modern times as in the SVTT.
Even those that are available are in a bad state of preservation and it is quite a task to put
the missing pieces together.
So fewer paintings than sculptured panels have been
selected for study.
The primary sources have been the sculptural and painted works themselves. Some
major literary works like the Devi Mahtamiya, Siva Purana, Mahabharata, Ramayana,
Periyapuranam, Thiruvilaiyadalpuranam have been used for sourcing/supporting the
stories. The iconographical details have been culled from Saraswathiya – Chitrakarma
Sastram by K.S. Subrahmanya Sastry, Development of Iconography by Jitendra Nath
Banerjea, Elements of Hindu Iconography by T.A.Gopinatha Rao who have themselves
sourced the details from the various agamas. The details of hastas, mudras, jewellery,
coiffeur and weapons have been based on visuals presented by D.R.Thapar in Icons in
Bronze and R.S.Gupte in Iconography of the Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.
The themes that predominate have been divided into the panels that relate the narratives
that concern Devi or Sakti, narratives that deal with Siva, some sthalapuranas that are
distinct to the temples (some though associated with certain temples are found as more
popular and generic to Tamilnadu and hence are found in other temples too), narratives of
a few Nayanmars and the narratives of Vishnu.
The introduction is a curtain raiser to the idea of narration and the general types of
sculptural narratives available. The major motivation for an exploration of narrative
modes was spurred by an article titled India’s Visual Narratives by Vidya Dehejia in
Paradigms of Indian Architecture by G.H.R.Tillotson. The following is her
classification: 1. Sequential narration 2. Continuous narration, 3.Monoscenic narration,
4.Synoptic narration, 5.Conflated narrative and 6.Narrative network.. The thesis attempts
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to identify which of the narrative patterns the narrative panels fit into. The sequential and
monoscenic narrative modes seem to be the most popular among the Nayaka sculptors
and painters.
The introduction of the thesis will then proceed to define the narrator and explain the
narrators in this case the Nayakas and the nobility of the time period. The Nayakas were
the viceroys of the Vijayanagar Empire to begin with and became progressively
independent after 1565 C .E. It is generally believed that under Vijayanagar, South Indian
art attained a certain zenith of opulent expression that kept pace with the outlook of the
empire, namely the safeguarding and advancing of all that remained of Hinduism against
the pressures of Islam. In this period, temples became very elaborate both in structure and
organization; even old temples were amplified by the addition of pillared halls, pavilions
and other subordinate structures. The Nayakas who were their viceroys also continued
this work often in their overlords’ names and later in their own names. They often added
many additional structures to existing core structures. The introduction consists of a short
history of the Nayakas of Thanjavur, Madurai, Senji, Vellore under whose realms these
temples fall. A social and cultural profile of the people who form the audience for the
narratives is provided.
Chapter I deals with the narrative panels that concern the Devi or Sakti forms namely
those of Mahishasuramardini, Bhadrakali, and Uma Parvati. The literary source that has
been used for support is the Devi Mahatmiya. The Nayaka sculptor it appears has a soft
corner for Mahishasuramardini and so there are more renditions in terms of numbers and
modes.
Chapter II examines the narrative panels that deal with Siva. Siva being the popular god
head that he is as well as the numerous manifestations that he has, there are quite a
number of forms that this thesis had to deal with. As already mentioned those that are
visibly demonstrative of a story or a climax of a story only have been selected though one
has to acknowledge the fact that behind every Murti there is a story. It has been a difficult
task given the enormity of scope that Siva as a godhead has provided the sculptors and
painters. So a certain selection has been made. The list of forms is as follows:
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Lingodbhavamurti, Ekapada, Dakshinamurti,Chandrasekharamurti, Vrishabharudha,
Kankala, Bhikshatana Nataraja, Urdhva, Kalyanasundara, Kamadhahana, Andhakasura,
Kalantaka, Tripurantaka, Gajasamhara, Virabhadra, Sankara-Narayana, Ardhanarisvara,
Sarabesvara, Gangadhara, Kiratarjuna, Chakradana, Ravananugraha and
Chandesanugraha.
Umasahita Jalandharavadha, Brahmasirascchedana, Siva Subjugating Matsyavatara,
Bhairava, Vishapaharana, Vigneshvanugraha, Somaskanda, Sukhasana have not been
included. The reasons are: Jalandharavadha, Brahmasirascchedana, Siva Subjugating
Matsyavatara, Vishapaharana and Vigneshvanugraha though directly relate to narratives
have not been traced by the study. The other three do not visibly relate any narrative.
Among the others, the narrations most popular with the Nayaka period are Bhikshatana
and Virabhadra and hence are found in large numbers. It must be noted that Virabhadra is
the cult deity of the Nayakas. Nataraja, Urdhva, Kalyanasundara, Kalantaka,
Gajasamhara , Kirata, Dakshinamurti , Lingodbhavamurti and Sarabesamurti are the next
set in terms of quantitative representation by the Nayaka sculptors. To come out with
exact numbers depicted in all the temples taken for study has been impossible. An
empirical method based on observation has made it possible to substantiate the abovementioned statement. Chandrasekharamurti, Vrishabharudha, Chandesanugraha,
Kamadhahana, Tripurantaka, Sankara-Narayana, Ardhanarisvara, Kankala, Chakradana
and Ekapada are all dealt with only in single or very few specimens and that too as the
Kambattadi Mandapa enables a good study of the iconographic programme and the
narratives then in vogue. The literary source that has been used is the Sivapurana. Some
Tamil verses like those from Tiruvachakam by Manickavachaka and Unmai Villakam
Manavacakam Katantar have also been cited from other secondary sources.
As for the sthalapuranas dealt with in Chapter III there are specific narratives that involve
only particular sthalas like the NTC, MSTV, BVTT and the MSTM. The sthalapurana of
NTC also deals with the episodes of the Bhikshatana and Mohini known as the Pine Tree
forest episodes that are supposed to originate from the regional context of the NTC
(which have been painted on the ceiling of the Sivakami Amman shrine). However these
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episodes are also represented in other temples and they will be dealt along with the other
narratives that concern Siva. The painted representations in NTC alone will be dealt with
as part of the flow of its sthalapurana. The sthalapurana also includes the Vyagrapada,
Patanjali and Hiranyavarman episodes. As their worship episodes are specific only to
Chidambaram they are included in this chapter. Of the three the first two are
unambiguous in their expression but the last is not so comprehensible. The Koil puranam
has been used as the major source of corroboration.
The story of Sivasarman of MSTV and the sthalapurana which yields the name
`Tirukazhu(gu)kundram' (the hill of the sacred eagles) and also Pakshi Thirtham (in
Sanskrit), meaning "water made Holy by the visit of the birds” depicted in BVTT have
also been included in the study. But these narratives being specific to one centre have
fewer expressions. However the Madurai temple is rich in scope and presentation and is
not limited to the MSTM but also S.T.T and N.T.C. The major narratives explored by the
Nayaka sculptor are the various exploits of Siva in the city of Madurai. The Oonjal
Mandapa of MSTM has a ceiling painting, which deals with the sthalapurana of the
place. Tiurvilaiyadal Puranam has been the major literary source that has been used for
validation.
This chapter also includes the narratives that relate to Manickavachaka and Siruthondar
Nayanar. The Koil Puranam and Periya Puranam have been the major literary source
that have been used for support. The famous narrative of Manu Nidhi Chola from the
PNTD and BTT is also part of this chapter. The story that relates to the glory of Sivaratri
has been included in this chapter too. An ammanai song or ballad has been used as a
literary support to examine the Nayaka sculptor’s art for this narrative, which is not
illustrative of any mainstream literary work.
Chapter IV deals with the narratives of Vishnu as found in these temples. As always
while the Saivite temples have portrayals of Vaishnavite themes the same cannot be said
of the Vasinavite temples.
The narrative themes include the popular narratives of Narasimha, Krishna lila, Rama
and the other avataras of Vishnu. It is pertinent to point out the Narasimha narrative
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panels seem to be very popular. The panels that depict the samhara of Hiranya are
powerful statements. Krishna’s antics are also dear to the Nayaka sculptor. Through
childhood to youth the exploits of Krishna have been sculpted. Episode relating to Rama
is represented in many panels in the Ramaswami temple. There are lesser instances of
the other avataras. However Trivikrama and then the episodes relating to Kurmavatara
are slightly more popular than the others. The Bhagavata and Ramayana are the major
sources of information. The study yields interesting observations in the sense the two
most popular representations are at the two opposite ends of a pole. While the popularity
of Narasimha is a direct marker of the politically troubled times, Krishna with all his
antics endeared himself to the softer instincts of the people then which again is an
expression of a bhakti trait to a people torn asunder in war.
The conclusion deals with a summary of the findings at the end of the analysis of the
narrative art works. It is obvious that most of the narratives have already been in vogue
from the Chola times, which the western scholars have identified as the classical era with
their yardstick of linear development and stress on classical form that shunned details.
However the Nayaka time period has generated a range of forms that could be modest,
coarse and elementary or fine, corpulent and colossal forms that exuded details. These
were expressions equal and up to its culture and its demands.
The aspects of time, space and resultant structure of narratives are summed up. The issue
of sectarian rivalry or reconciliation is looked into.
An attempt at revisiting these works with structuralist binaries, concepts of power and
patronage, the issues of feminism and gaze, has been made and the subtext of the works
is hypothesized. The idea that the works were made to perpetuate and communicate
certain popular ideas, norms and ideals laced through narratives distinct to their cultures
is then suggested.
A glossary of italicized terms, which are basically of Sanskrit or Tamil origin, will be
given.
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