THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
SCIENCE
What is science and what isn’t
science?
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Boiling an egg
Predicting the weather
Mapping a mountain
Drilling for oil
Choosing a new camera
Eating a salad
Watering a potted plant
Baking a cake by following a recipe
The Sciences
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Biology
Chemistry
Physics
Environmental Systems (?)
Design Technology(?)
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Geology (?)
Computer Science (?)
Psychology (?)
Geography (?)
Mathematics (?)
History (?)
A body of knowledge?
Or… a way
of thinking?
ACTIVITY- One Person’s Hypothesis
is Another Person’s Dogma…
• THE THREE MARTIANS
Three Martians, A, B and C, were crossing the
Great Victoria Desert when they came upon
an object…. ( A thermometer)
One Person’s Hypothesis is Another
Person’s Dogma…
• Having observed it for a few days, they
realize that there is something inside it
(the column of mercury) which at
different times can be seen in different
positions.
One Person’s Hypothesis is Another
Person’s Dogma…
• They discuss the possible reasons for such
strange behaviour…
Martian A- proposes the hypothesis that the
behaviour is related to the time of day. This
would explain why at night the column drops,
and why it rises during the day.
One Person’s Hypothesis is Another
Person’s Dogma…
• Martian B- suggests that the reason must be
heat and cold,which also would explain why
it drops at night and rises during the day.
One Person’s Hypothesis is Another
Person’s Dogma…
Martian C- says that both A and B are wrong. The real
reason for the movement lies in the nature of the
enclosed substance that is animated by invisible spirits
who adopt a capricious behaviour when imprisoned.
These spirits make the substance rise or fall whenever
they feel like it. This would explain what both the other
hypotheses have explained; moreover, it would
explain any variation, at any time and under any
circumstances.
One Person’s Hypothesis is Another
Person’s Dogma…
• Imagine all possible
reasons in defence of your
hypothesis..
One Person’s Hypothesis is Another
Person’s Dogma…
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How is each hypothesis formed?
How do they differ?
Why do they differ if all three are Martians?
What are the roles of intuition, prejudice,
inductive and deductive thinking in forming
the hypothesis?
• What assumptions of beliefs are behind
each hypothesis?
• How do these beliefs affect the questions
the Martians will ask?
One Person’s Hypothesis is Another
Person’s Dogma…
• What are the requirements of any
hypothesis in science?
• How would you test each hypothesis?
• What would count as evidence against
each hypothesis?
The basic scientific method
Observation
Inductive
logic
Information
Generalize
Theory
Deductive
logic
Explanation and
prediction
The Sciences
• What is the role of creativity in science?
Can we compare the creation of a research
method to a piece of art?
What counts as an experiment?
• Can experiments be undertaken in
other subjects?
• Are there some necessary conditions for
an ativity to be an experiment?
EG: Hypotheses, data,manipulation of
variables,observations, generalisations
and expectations of outcomes?
A good experiment should
have the following features:
• Controllability- varying one factor at a time
so you can see its effect
• Measurability-you can measure the relevant
variables (for precision and objectivity)
• Repeatability- your experiment can be
repeated by other people who will be able
to confirm your results
Problems with observation
Question
FACTORS….
• Imagine you are
interested in finding out
why some students
catch a cold in winter
and some don’t. Which
of the following factors
would you consider
relevant?
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A) Diet
B) Exercise
C)Domestic heating
D) Warmth of clothing
E) Colour of underwear
F) Middle name
G) Movies watched
Relevance
• We begin with some idea about what is
and isn’t relevant to the problem..
However, the selective nature of
perception can make it possible to
overlook some important factors..
EG: When you do an experiment in
chemistry, you do not count how many
people are in the room. However, this
will affect the temperature of the room,
which in a sensitive experiment can
affect the speed of the chemical
reaction!
Some resources
• ‘What Is This Thing Called Science?
Author: Alan Chalmers
• ‘An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis’
Author: John Hosper
• ‘The Logic of Scientific Discovery’
Author: Karl Popper