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Emergency Session of the
Chinese Imperial Court
Joint Crisis Committee:
The Opium Wars
UNC-MUNC 2016
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“There are those who smuggle opium to
seduce the Chinese people and so cause the
spread of the poison to all provinces.
Such persons who only care to profit
themselves, and disregard their harm to
others, are not tolerated by the laws of
heaven.”
-Lin Zexu
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Welcome to Opium Wars JCC!
A Message from the Chair
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Dear Delegates,
Welcome to Chapel Hill and UNCMUNC 2016. I am excited to serve as your chair in the
Chinese side of the Opium Wars JCC. I am looking forward to seeing how you will
change the course of history. My name is Brian Tanner; I am a sophomore at UNC from
Chapel Hill majoring in Economics and Public Policy. As a CIRA member, I worked on the
crisis staff of last year’s Google[x] committee and have traveled to many conferences
over the past two years. My other extra-curricular activities include racing on UNC's Club
Ski Team and working at a small business in Chapel Hill focused on using technology and
the internet to improve health education and outcomes. I've been involved in MUN for 4
years now.
My vision for the committee is one which creates an environment conducive to
interaction between your committee and your British opponents. In order for this to
occur you will need a solid understanding of the political and military affairs of the time
period. We have attempted to lay out the basics in the background guide but this is by
no means exhaustive. Once the committee has begun we will no longer be following
history- what happens is entirely up to you and the British delegates. Your preparation
should be geared towards the goal of destroying Britain’s
illegal opium trade, either through diplomacy, force of arms,
or both. I bid you best of luck in your struggle against the
imperialist and barbaric West, and welcome once again to
UNC-MUNC VII.
Best Regards,
Brian Tanner
University of North Carolina Class of 2018
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I. Opium
“Opium has a very violent effect. When an addict smokes it,
it rapidly makes him extremely excited and capable of doing
anything he pleases. But before long, it kills him. Opium is a
poison, undermining our good customs and morality.”
-Jiaqing Emperor, 1810
O
pium has been a traditional part of Chinese pharmaceuticals since the Tang
dynasty. Doctors frequently prescribed it, and laypeople who could afford the
drug would often self-medicate. Physicians also recognized very early on the signs
of opium addiction- in 1801, scholars coined the term yan- or “craving” to reflect the drug’s
overuse. A modest market for cures to opium overuse and addiction even developedaddiction was seen by most
people as a sickness that could
be cured like any other
disease. Historically,
recreational opium use was a
leisure activity limited to the
upper class, while commoners
used it sparingly for medicinal
use. In the 1800s, as British
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traders flooded the market and decreased prices, regular opium use would become more
accessible to the middle and lower classes.
Owing in part to its importance in Chinese medicine, many scholar-officials in China did not
want the drug banned in its entirety, and opium remained legal and taxable until the mid18th century during the Qing dynasty. Recognizing that the Qing government was becoming
more reliant on commercial trade tariffs, some suggested that the best way to handle the
British opium trade would be to allow imports and tax them, limiting accessibility while
generating revenue for the Imperial government. Others flirted with the idea of setting up a
domestic opium trade to undercut foreign imports, but due to resistance from successive
emperors, local cultivation never reached any meaningful level of production. However,
alarmed by increasing addiction levels, which had reached over 2 million by 1830, Qing
emperors decided to embrace a hard
position against sale and consumption of
opium.
The Daoguang Emperor, who began his rule
in 1820 and holds power as of 1835,
appointed scholar official Lin Zexu to the
southern provinces to help enforce trade
restrictions on opium. Lin, renowned for his
rigid conception of justice and past
Commissioner Lin Zexu
excellence in the Chinese government, will
soon arrive at trading houses in Guangdong province with the goal of putting a stop to the
illegal opium trade, by any means necessary.
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II. Qing Government and the Canton
System
“Trade with European nations has always been conducted at
Macao [Canton], where the foreign hongs are established to store
and sell merchandise. I decree that your request is refused and that
the trade shall be limited to Macao.”
-Qianlong Emperor to British Traders, 1793
The Qing Dynasty
B
y the end of the 17th century, the Chinese economy had recovered from the
devastation caused by the wars in which the Ming dynasty were overthrown by the
Manchus, who would establish the Qing dynasty in 1644. In the following century,
markets continued to expand as in the late Ming period, but with more trade between regions, a
greater dependence on overseas markets and a greatly increased population. After the
reopening of the southeast coast, which had been closed in the late 17th century, foreign trade
was quickly re-established, and was expanding at 4% per annum throughout the latter part of
the 18th century. China continued to export tea, silk and manufactures, creating a large,
favorable trade balance with the West. The resulting inflow of silver expanded the money supply,
facilitating the growth of competitive and stable markets.
The government broadened land ownership by returning land that had been sold to large
landowners in the late Ming period by families unable to pay the land tax. The administration of
the Grand Canal was made more efficient, and transport opened to private merchants. A system
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of monitoring grain prices eliminated severe shortages, and enabled the price of rice to rise
slowly and smoothly through the 18th century. Wary of the power of wealthy merchants, Qing
rulers limited their trading licenses and usually refused them permission to open new mines,
except in poor areas.
By the end of the 18th century the population had risen to 300 million from approximately 160
million during the late Ming dynasty. The dramatic rise in population was influenced by several
factors, including the long period of peace and stability in the 18th century and the import of
new crops China received from the Americas, including peanuts, sweet potatoes and maize. New
species of rice from Southeast Asia led to a huge increase in production. Merchant guilds
proliferated in all of the growing Chinese cities and often acquired great social and even political
influence. Rich merchants with official connections built up huge fortunes and patronized
literature, theater and the arts. Although the Chinese government had built up a large economic
base, it had not adopted many of the new military technologies that the West had developed,
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including the use of steam power. In the 1830s, China’s army was weak and antiquated
compared to that of the British.
Governmental Structure
The large size of the Chinese empire, both in terms of land area and population, compelled
successive governments to create a highly organized administrative system. During the Qing
Dynasty, the Six Ministries were the most powerful and far-reaching of China’s ruling bodies, a
collection of state agencies that involved itself in all key aspects of the state:

Ministry of Personnel- In charge of civil appointments and promotion or demotion of
officials

Ministry of Justice- In charge of judicial system and punishment for crime

Ministry of Rites- In charge of state rituals and ceremonies, and diplomacy

Ministry of Defense- Maintained and controlled the Imperial army

Ministry of Revenue- Managed state finances, collected taxes

Ministry of Works- In charge of large public works and resource collection
In addition to the Six Ministries, the Imperial Censorate played a particularly powerful role in
governmental administration. The Censorate answers directly to the Emperor and serves as a
central oversight body, with the responsibility of investigating government officials and rooting
out corruption in the provincial and national offices. The censorate is generally feared by local
magistrates for its tremendous power, and during the Qing, the censorate itself was accused of
taking bribes to protect officials complicit in the opium trade.
In order to serve as a magistrate at the local or provincial level, applicants were required to sit
for a three-day examination managed by the Imperial government. The examination was open to
anyone, but it was incredibly competitive- only 1% test-takers passed the first round of
examinations. In order to become a local magistrate, applicants must pass the first level of
examinations; several higher tiers of tests were required to advance to the provincial or imperial
levels. Applicants were required to memorize Confucian texts and traditional Chinese classics
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and recite them perfectly during exams; one error would often result in failure. On one hand, the
Chinese examination system ensured that the local magistrates would be naturally intelligent
and knowledgeable of traditional government values and societal norms and beliefs. However,
critics accuse the examination system of creating administrators who were uncreative and
rooted in outdated beliefs, leading to a lack of societal progress. Corruption and cheating were
also rampant, and when the opium trade began to pick up in the early 19th century, many local
magistrates became addicted to the drug, straining governmental effectiveness.
The Canton System
In 1684, the Qing Dynasty under leadership of the Kangxi Emperor declared China open for
trade. Nonetheless, a general atmosphere of xenophobia and isolationism existed in the Imperial
court and among Chinese citizens; the government decided to take measures separating foreign
trade from the rest of Chinese society, minimizing contact with foreigners as much as possible.
To this end, Kangxi’s successors limited foreign trade access only to the port of Canton [Macao]
in southern China. A guild of merchants, known as the Cohong, were responsible for all
interactions with foreign traders, and were given a virtual monopoly on setting export-import
prices on trade goods and
levying taxes. All other
ports were closed to foreign
merchants, and foreigners
were required to stay in a
series of trading houses,
known as the Thirteen
Factories, on the outskirts
of Canton.
The restrictive nature of the
The Thirteen Factories of Canton, circa 1820
Canton system was not
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popular with British traders, and several trade missions tried and failed to loosen the Canton
system’s rigidity and monopoly on foreign trade. When the opium trade developed in the 18th
and 19th centuries, vast quantities of the drug were shipped through the port of Canton.
Officially, successive Qing governments had banned trade of the drug, but local corruption was
rampant; Chinese merchants and government officials grew tremendously wealthy off of bribes
by British opium smugglers, so they allowed the opium trade to persist without consequence. A
hotbed of vice, bribery, and disloyalty to the Emperor's authority, the port of Canton was
undoubtedly the epicenter of the inevitable clash between the governments of China and Great
Britain in the mid-1800s.
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III. Britain-China Trade Relations
“Our dynasty’s majestic virtue has penetrated unto every country
under Heaven, and Kings of all nations have offered their costly
tribute by land and sea. We possess all things. I have no use for
your country’s manufactures.”
-Qianlong Emperor to British Trade Ministers, 1793
F
or many centuries, opium had been used medicinally in China as an additive to drinks;
Chinese locals believed that opium helped preserve one’s qi, or vital force. In the early
1700s, Portuguese traders brought smokable opium to China by mixing it with tobacco.
The drug became more popular and more addictive, and in 1729, Emperor Yung Ching
banned the trade of opium in China, placing harsh penalties on merchants caught smuggling the
drug. Nonetheless, the trade continued to grow, and by 1800, opium imports had reached
almost 5,000 chests per year. Sale of opium into China was originally controlled by the
Netherlands, but weakening of the Dutch East India Company and Britain’s capture of opium
growing regions in India allowed the United Kingdom to establish a dominant position in the
Chinese market.
Despite China’s historically isolationist position on international trade, the British had been
trading goods with China through the tributary system, at the ports of Zhoushan, Xiamen, and
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Canton, since 1635. In the late
1600s - about four decades
after the beginning of the Qing
dynasty - China relaxed
maritime trade restrictions by
legalizing foreign trade.
Thereafter, British demand for
Chinese goods like silk,
porcelain, and tea increased
dramatically; from 1700 to
1750, tea exports increased from 90,000 pounds to 2.7 million pounds. The trade was profitable
for both Chinese and British traders, and satiated consumer demand for Chinese luxury goods,
but the growth of the trade became seriously problematic for the British treasury.
In the 1700s and the first half of the 1800s, Great Britain and most other European powers
followed mercantilist economic policy, which emphasized favorable balance of trade and the
accumulation of gold and silver wealth. Chinese commodities were in high demand in Great
Britain, but China was not interested in obtaining any of Britain’s trade goods because they had
already established an internal market.
China therefore only accepted silver in
exchange for its luxury goods, forcing
Great Britain into a chronic trade deficit
and draining the country of silver coin.
Desperate to rebalance trade, Britain
turned to opium smuggling, first
monopolized by the British East India
Company, and after 1834, by private
growers and traders.
Macartney visits the Chinese Imperial Court, 1793
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In 1793, British statesman Lord George Macartney traveled to the Chinese capital of Peking to
expand trade and lower the isolationist trade barriers that the Chinese established. Macartney
brought many gifts, including Europe’s latest astronomy technology, along with a letter from
King George III. The letter asked the Emperor to add a position called British Resident Minister in
Beijing. This would initiate trade and a political alliance between Britain and China. After a few
days, the Emperor declined the addition of such a British position as this would incite
extraterritorial disputes. Macartney then attempted to negotiate with the court to open more
ports, but to no avail. He also failed to abide by Chinese cultural customs and show reverence
toward the Chinese Emperor in the traditional manner. Macartney’s cultural violations proved to
be unfavorable for his negotiations, and the Qianlong Emperor dismissed the British delegation
after little progress had been made. In 1816, Lord Amherst tried to accomplish the same goals as
Macartney, again without success.
In 1834, the Napier Affair struck another blow to already-strained trade relations between the
two countries. Lord William John Napier attempted to decrease the restrictions of the Canton
System through negotiations at Macao. However, Napier failed to alleviate any of the harsh
regulations due to his lack of diplomacy and proper communication. Napier attempted negotiate
with the governor-general of Liangguang, Lu Kun, but he was not even given the opportunity to
meet the governor-general in person. With no progress and increasing tension, Napier resorted
to military tactics that resulted in fatalities on both sides. The skirmish ended in a stalemate, and
Napier was forced to retreat due to his deteriorating health. The failure of the Napier affair to
make any progress in improving trade relations, coupled with its bloody conclusion, leaves
China-Britain relations both dangerous and uncertain as the mid-century mark approaches.
Further Reading
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/opium_wars_01/ow1_essay01.html
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_opium.htm
http://www.historytoday.com/julia-lovell/opium-wars-both-sides-now
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Opium_War
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_opium_in_China
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Timeline of Events
1500s
The Portuguese, while trading along the East
China Sea, discover that opium’s effects take
effect instantaneously if smoked
1600s
Portuguese merchants carrying cargoes of
Indian opium through Macao direct its trade
flow into China.
1710
The Dutch export shipments of Indian opium
to China and the islands of Southeast Asia; the
Dutch introduce the practice of smoking
opium in a tobacco pipe to the Chinese.
1729
Chinese Emperor Yung Ching bans the
consumption and sale of opium except for
medicinal use
1745
The Qianlong Emperor isolates foreign trade
to the southern port of Canton
1757
The British East India Company assumes
control of Bengal and Bihar, opium-growing
districts of India, after the Battle of Plessey
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1793
The British East India Company establishes a
monopoly on the opium trade. The
Macartney mission fails to ease Chinese trade
restrictions with the West
1799
China places a complete ban on opium
consumption and cultivation of poppy
1800
Annual trade of British opium to China
reaches 4,500 chests
1832
British trading firm Jardine, Matheson, and Co.
is founded, with specialization in Far East trade
April
1834
The Charter Act of 1834 deprives the British
East India Company of its monopoly on opium
trade, allowing private trading firms access to
opium sales to China
July
1834
William Napier arrives in China with the goal of
loosening Chinese trade restrictions; the
mission fails and Chinese and British military
forces briefly clash
Jan 1,
British sale of opium to China reaches 25,000
chests per annum; an estimated 5 million
Chinese are addicted to the drug
1835
April 1,
1835
Daoguang Emperor convenes an emergency
session of the Chinese Imperial Court- Start of
Committee
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About this Committee
T
he Daoguang Emperor has called top government and military leaders to an emergency session of
the Imperial Court, to address the exploding opium trade and its destructive effects on the people
and culture of China. The committee will run according to standard parliamentary procedure; the
Daoguang Emperor will serve as chair. Debate will largely be left to committee members, but the chair
reserves the right to provide input and render decisions if necessary.
General Rules
All delegates must vote during a procedural matter and procedural motions will require a simple majority
to pass.
Proper parliamentary procedure should be followed during debate. Under certain circumstances,
delegates or the chair may motion to suspend the rules of debate for a short period of time.
Directives will require a simple majority (of members present) to pass.
There are four types of documents that will be used in committee. Any documents to be introduced to
the committee will require a certain minimum number of signatories, to be determined by the chair at his
discretion.
1. Directives order committee-approved official action.
2. Press releases make statements to the public.
3. Communiqués are official communication to another entity, including the British cabinet. They
can be private or public.
Portfolio Powers
Most governmental power will be exercised through committee-wide actions. However, individual
committee members wield special powers that relate directly to their position in the Chinese Imperial
cabinet, and these powers may be used privately and without knowledge or approval of the committee.
Individual portfolio powers are broadly described in the “Key Actor” biographies (below), and more
detailed dossiers will be provided at the beginning of the first committee session. Portfolio powers should
be exercised by sending private notes to the dais.
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Key Actors
The Daoguang Emperor has assembled an emergency council of crucial figures in the Chinese
government, tasked with destroying the foreign barbarians’ cancerous influences. Some of the best
statesmen and most powerful interests are represented.
The biographies below provide brief overview of the position and its portfolio powers; a more detailed
dossier will be provided at the start of committee.
Special Government Interests
Lin Zexu- Special Commissioner
Lin Zexu was born in Fujian province in 1785, the son of a Chinese public servant. A loyal and brilliant
scholar-official, Lin passed several tiers of imperial examinations for provincial offices. Always known as
an incorruptible bureaucrat, Lin has served in several administrative positions, including salt trade
regulation, water control, tax collection, and as a local judge. Lin was a member of the “Statecraft”
reformist school, which sought to revitalize China’s power by strengthening traditional Chinese beliefs
and institutions. At the same time, Lin recognized that China was lagging behind the West’s
modernization efforts, and conducted extensive study on Western trade and practices. In 1835, Lin was
appointed by the Daoguang Emperor to stop the growth of the illegal opium trade; his steadfast loyalty,
high moral standard, intelligence, and firm stance against opium made him an obvious choice to lead the
campaign against British drug smuggling.
Chan Shan- Head of the Imperial Censorate
The Imperial Censorate is one of the most powerful institutions in the Imperial government, reporting
directly to the Daoguang Emperor himself. The Censorate serves as the Emperor’s core intelligence
gathering head- the eyes and ears of the Imperial Court. The key aim of the Censorate is to ensure that
government officials are obeying the edicts of the land; the Censorate is authorized to conduct
investigations of government officials and collect complaints and information from the Chinese people.
The Censorate has always been a feared institution in the Qing government. Some praise its ability to root
out corruption, while rumors abound that the Censorate itself has taken bribes to allow the opium trade
to proliferate.
Howqua- Leader of the Canton Cohong
Howqua, born in 1769 in Fujian, was the leader of the Canton Cohong, the primary trading group
authorized to trade with foreigners. Howqua came from an established line of southern merchants, who
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made their fortune selling porcelain, tea, and silk to Europe. Soon after inheriting his father’s trade
business, Howqua became the wealthiest man in China, and one of the wealthiest in the world; by 1830,
his net worth was estimated at 21 million taels (silver dollars). Howqua enjoys close working relationships
with nearly all British trading firms, especially Jardine Matheson and Dent and Co. Officially, of course,
Howqua states his compliance with Chinese opium laws, but his close connection with foreign traders
does suggest complicity or at least knowledge of the smuggling practice. As head of the Cohong, Howqua
has the ability to make adjustments to trade policy at Canton, set surcharges on commodities, and
schedule private meetings with British and other foreign trading firms. One must also not forget
Howqua’s massive fortune available for discretionary spending- 23 million taels can certainly go a long
way.
The Six Departments
Zeng Ming- Minister of Revenue
The Board of Revenue is in charge of setting tax rate, collecting taxes, administrating the national census,
and, in general, managing China’s finances. The Minister is faced with a difficult task- keeping track of 400
million to tax people is no easy feat, and the opium trade is draining China of its silver reserves rapidly.
Social policy must be funded and the country modernized, all while ensuring that the empire doesn’t go
broke. The Minister of Revenue has the power to make adjustments to fiscal and monetary policy
(although broad changes must be approved by the committee), and can collect census data and tax
revenue from a variety of sources.
Zhang Guoquan- Minister of Defense
The Board of War is the highest military administration institution in China. To date, China’s military is
underfunded and lags far behind the West in terms of military technology and training. The Minister of
Defense will have the power to promote generals and other military leaders, maintain military
installations, recruit and train soldiers, and control micro-oriented strategic and tactical decision-making.
Zha Xing- Minister of Rites
The Board of Rites has a broad base of duties to the state- it administers official Chinese ceremonies and
rituals, registers Buddhist and Taoist priests, helps administer imperial examinations, and, perhaps most
importantly, serves as China’s head diplomatic body. The Minister of Rites has the ability to adjust policy
related to official state functions, and may meet privately with foreign dignitaries and tributary states.
Rong Xiu- Minister of Works
The Ministry of Works controls some of the most important infrastructural projects in the Chinese
Empire. These include the Great Wall, China’s principal defensive fortification to the north, and the Grand
Canal, the shipping backbone that inland markets depend on to transport commodities and silver. The
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Minister of Works is also in charge of managing China’s roads, secondary canals, and other infrastructure
and public works, and is responsible for extracting agricultural and mineral resources for state use.
Deng Chao- Minister of Justice
The Board of Punishment, headed by the Minister of Justice, plays a role of functional and symbolic
importance in the Qing government as the agency that upholds the edicts and Confucian moral principles
of Chinese society. The Board has a particularly key role as the body in charge of punishing merchants
caught dealing opium or Chinese citizens caught smoking it. They also preside over trial and punishment
for other instances of lawbreaking (excluding impeachment of Chinese government officials, a duty that
belongs to the Censorate).
Chung Jian- Minister of Personnel
The Ministry of Personnel controls appointment to government office, promotions and demotions, and
granting of honorific titles upon citizens and public servants. With the Minister of Rites, the Minister of
Personnel may also make decisions regarding the function and administration of the imperial
examinations. The Ministry of Personnel typically makes the most frequent and public interactions with
the Chinese citizenry, so it also plays an effective role as a public relations organ and liaison between the
government and the Chinese people.
The Imperial Military
Guan Tianpei- Commander in Chief of Naval Forces
Born in 1781, Guan Tianpei is a skilled and experienced admiral, having served on several trade
expeditions and fought pirates in the South China Seas. At present, his navy is weak and underfunded,
with only a handful of junks stationed at the port of Hangzhou. Admiral Guan will have to rely on his wit
and tactical brilliance if the far superior British navy launches an attack, unless China can secure more
funding for its own seaborne defenses. Guan has control of the entirety of China’s naval force, and is in
charge of outfitting weaponry, training sailors, and repositioning the fleet however fit. Major naval action
may require the approval of the Ministry of Defense.
Yijing- Commander of Northern Forces
Yijing, born in 1793, is a Manchu price and experienced military officer. He participated in multiple raids
on barbarian camps in Western China, allowing the Qing government to expand the empire into the
Tarim Basin. A favorite nephew of the Emperor himself, Yijing was appointed to Commander of China’s
northern ground force in 1831. The Imperial Court is confident that this young general, a master of open
land tactics, will defend China’s interior steadfastly and faithfully. Yijing has command of several divisions
of troops, most stationed in and around Beijing. He has the power to train and recruit troops to his cause,
collect information from his troops, manage defensive installations and weaponry, and move troops as
necessary. Major actions may require the approval of the Ministry of Defense.
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Yishan- Commander of Southern Forces
Yishan is a nephew of the Daoguang Emperor and a Manchu aristocrat. He has served in military office
before, but has seen little action other than quelling minor rebel uprisings in the south. He is largely
unproven and unexperienced, and there are whisperings that Yishan may be in the pocket of corrupt
provincial officials and opium merchants in the south. Nonetheless, he controls a middling force stationed
in Guangzhou, and has the power to make structural and tactical decisions relating to his army.
Provincial Viceroys
Lu Kun- Viceroy of Liangguang
Lu Kun is the governor-general of Liangguang, which consists of the southern provinces of Guangdong
and Guangxi. These provinces contain the southern port of Canton, the epicenter of opium trafficking into
China. Nearly all of the opium sent to the port at Canton passes through overland routes in Liangguang
while making its way to buyers in the north. Lu Kun will therefore have his hands full dealing with the
opium trade- he is generally seen as an upstanding official, but a large number of lower provincial officials
are corrupt. The Viceroy has administrative power over the provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi, and
may make adjustments to taxes, oversee government functioning, develop public works, and manage
provincial finances. Lu Kun in particular will also play a role in regulation of shipping flowing in from
Canton.
Tao Zhu- Viceroy of Liangjiang
Liangjiang is made up of the provinces of Anhui, Jiangsu, and Jiangxi in eastern China. The three provinces
lie on parts of the Grand Canal and key port cities and trade routes; much of the trade passing from the
south makes its way through this region. In addition, Liangjiang is a major producer of tea and silk, two of
the most important commodities traded to Great Britain and other countries in Europe. Its position as a
vital trading hub has made Liangjiang the wealthiest region in all of China, even surpassing the riches of
the capital and the southern ports.
Yi Zhu- Viceroy of Min-Zhe
The Governor-General of Min-Zhe controls the provinces of Fujian, Taiwan, and Zhejian, three provinces
on the southeastern coast of China. This region plays a diverse set of roles, economically and militarily. Its
position on the southern coast makes it commercially important, and many overland routes connect
these provinces to the opium trade at the port of Canton. It is also a producer of tea, rice, and fish,
important for both food supply and income. Finally, its location on the Southeastern coast makes it
strategically important; navies sailing to and from Canton will have to pass through the Taiwan strait, and
pirates based on the island of Taiwan have been known to harass Chinese and foreign shipping alike.
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Leng Shi- Viceroy of Zhili
Leng Shi, acting as the Governor-General of Zhili, controls the provinces of Zhili, Shandong, and Henan.
Leng maintains a very powerful position as the governor of the area that incorporates the capital of
Beijing. In addition to his traditional duties as viceroy, Leng has special access to information of the
Imperial Courts and manages a sizeable capital defense force. The neighboring provinces of Shandong
and Henan are of great significance as agricultural centers and major northern trading hubs.
Bo Qi- Viceroy of Shaan-gan
Shaan-gan is composed of two northwestern provinces, Shaanxi and Gansu. These provinces are more
isolated from the commodity trade on the eastern seaboard, but this isolation means that these
provinces are less heavily affected by the opium epidemic gripping the eastern seaboard. Highlands also
make it more secure from foreign aggression that may occur on the coast. Shaan-gan is primarily involved
in agricultural production, including grain, vegetables, and cotton, but there are reports that the land is
also sitting on large, untapped reserves of coal.
Chi Hong- Viceroy of Huguang
The viceroy of Huguang administers the provinces of Hubei and Hunan. These inland provinces are not as
principally located on major trade routes, but nonetheless play key roles in the Chinese economy. Hunan
is a major producer of tea, a commodity crop always in demand by the British, and Hubei is extensively
involved in cereal crops and textile manufacturing.
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