Farm Planning & Mechanisation
Farm Planning
& Mechanisation
NQF Level 4
The TVET FIRST NC(V) series helps students, colleges and
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Farm Planning
& Mechanisation
NQF Level 4
NQF Level 4
Student’s Book
ISBN 978 177030 472 7
W Burger & P Jones
STUDENT’S BOOK
TVET First
Farm Planning
and Mechanisation
Student’s Book
TVET FIRST
Level 4
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TVET FIRST Farm Planning and Mechanisation NQF Level 4 Student’s Book
© W Burger and P Jones 2008
© Illustrations and design Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd 2008
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Contents
Topic 1: Planning an agricultural enterprise......................................................... 1
Module 1: Natural resources and socio-economic components
in sustainable farming................................................................................................2
Unit 1.1: Influence of abiotic resources on an agricultural enterprise.................................................................................... 3
Unit 1.2: Influence of biotic resources on an agricultural enterprise.....................................................................................11
Unit 1.3: Influence of socio-economics on an agricultural enterprise .................................................................................. 16
Module 2: Requirements for an agricultural enterprise ........................................................... 22
Unit 2.1: Setting up an agri-enterprise within the natural environment ............................................................................. 23
Unit 2.2: Setting up an agri-enterprise within the socio-economic environment .............................................................. 32
Module 3: Infrastructural requirements of an agri-enterprise ................................................. 40
Unit 3.1: Infrastructural requirements of a farming layout.................................................................................................... 42
Unit 3.2: Infrastructural requirements of farming facilities ................................................................................................... 48
Module 4: Choosing appropriate livestock and crops ................................................................ 62
Unit 4.1: Measuring what it is possible to produce................................................................................................................. 63
Unit 4.2: Placing crops and animals into the local context..................................................................................................... 69
Module 5: Agricultural production procedures.......................................................................... 76
Unit 5.1: Planning a crop production enterprise...................................................................................................................... 77
Unit 5.2: Planning a livestock production enterprise.............................................................................................................. 85
Unit 5.3: Harvest and post-harvest procedures ....................................................................................................................... 90
Module 6: Monitor and evaluate the progress of the agri-enterprise ....................................... 97
Unit 6.1: Monitoring production progress ............................................................................................................................... 98
Unit 6.2: Review and modify production plans..................................................................................................................... 102
Topic 2: Agricultural mechanisation .................................................................. 110
Module 7: Choosing between manual labour, draught animals
and machines as power sources.............................................................................. 111
Unit 7.1: Using manual labour, draught animals and machines..........................................................................................113
Module 8: Tractors, their components and maintenance......................................................... 125
Unit 8.1: Construction of tractor’s engine............................................................................................................................... 126
Unit 8.2: Components of the tractor ....................................................................................................................................... 137
Unit 8.3: Lubrication and simple maintenance of a tractor.................................................................................................. 146
Module 9: Farm implements in operation................................................................................ 154
Unit 9.1: Cultivation equipment ............................................................................................................................................... 155
Unit 9.2: Other farm machines and equipment...................................................................................................................... 167
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Module 10: Calibration of farm implements ............................................................................ 182
Unit 10.1: Calibration of crop sprayers.................................................................................................................................... 183
Unit 10.2: Calibration of seed and fertiliser distribution ..................................................................................................... 189
Module 11: Erect and maintain fences..................................................................................... 197
Unit 11.1: Different fences ......................................................................................................................................................... 198
Unit 11.2: Construction of corner posts, straining posts and gate posts ............................................................................ 205
Module 12: Safety precautions on the farm ............................................................................ 211
Unit 12.1: Safety when operating farm machinery ............................................................................................................... 212
Unit 12.2: Safety when handling farm chemicals ................................................................................................................. 219
Index ....................................................................................................................................... 226
Portfolio ................................................................................................................................ 227
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Topic 1
Planning an
agricultural
enterprise
1
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Module 1
Natural resources
and socio-economic
components in
sustainable farming
Overview
In this module you will …
• recognise the natural resources required for an agricultural
enterprise
• recognise other components of sustainable farming.
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Introduction
Words &
Terms
When you plan an agricultural enterprise, you must take into account
the natural resources that are available, as well as the socio-economic
components.
In open fields and on natural pastures, the farmer has to rely on and
work with the natural resources such as water, soil, plants, air and
sunlight. Under controlled production conditions like tunnel and
nursery production – the farmer has more control over production
factors. Any agricultural enterprise, however, is influenced by the
socio-economic components within a community, such as people,
markets, etc.
We will examine all of these factors in this module.
Abiotic: th
e non-livin
g factors
in the envi
ronment,
e.g. water,
temperatu
re
Biotic: the
living facto
rs in the
environm
ent, e.g. p
lants and
animals
Ecosystem
: a comm
unity
of living o
rganisms
(biotic
environm
ent) supp
orted
by the non
-living (ab
iotic)
environm
ent
Unit 1.1: Influence of abiotic
resources on an
agricultural enterprise
1.1.1 Introduction
The abiotic factors, which are the non-living factors in the
environment, influence the biotic (living) elements of a particular
ecosystem.
Life on Earth is controlled mainly by three abiotic factors:
• water, the medium of all life processes
• energy that is needed for these processes
• the availability of chemical nutrients.
Each living organism is adapted to a certain set of abiotic factors that
exist in its environment.
In this unit you will find out how abiotic factors affect living
organisms in an environment. You will study the influence of the
following abiotic factors:
• temperature
• water
• sunlight
• soil
• wind.
1.1.2 Temperature
The temperature of the environment has a great effect on the living
things that exist in it. Most life is possible between temperatures of
1°C and 50°C. On land, temperatures vary according to:
• height above sea level (altitude)
• seasonal differences
• distance from the sea
Unit 1.1: Influence of abiotic resources on an agricultural enterprise
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• gradient (slope) of the land
• distance from the equator.
Words &
Terms
organic –
living or d
ead part o
an anima
f
l or plant,
containing
carbon in
its molecu
les
carbohyd
rate – ene
rgyproducing
organic co
mpounds
of carbon
(C), hydro
gen (H) an
oxygen (O
d
), e.g. sug
ars and
starch
Hill
lipids – fa
E
Fig. 1.1: The direction of a slope affects the amount of sunlight it receives
Temperature determines where living organisms will thrive, or grow
best. For example, animals must be adapted to their surroundings
in order to survive. Temperature influences the survival of animals
directly, because different animals survive best in a specific
temperature range. Temperature also influences animals indirectly,
because it affects plant growth, and plants form the first link in the
food chain that animals are part of.
ts
proteins –
a group o
f organic
compound
s containin
g carbon,
hydrogen
, oxygen,
nitrogen (N
and some
)
tim
phosphoru es sulphur (S) and
s (P)
enzyme –
a compou
nd
facilitates
or speeds that
up
chemical
reactions
mineralis
ation – ch
ang
organic su
bstance in ing an
to a nonorganic su
bstance
The average temperature of a region is less important for the survival
of a living organism than how much the temperature changes from
season to season or within a single day. So it is the minimum and
maximum temperatures per day that are important for life, rather
than the average temperatures of an area.
South-facing slope
North-facing slope
Fig. 1.2: Plant growth is affected by the amount of sunlight that reaches the slope
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1.1.3 Water
Water is an important inorganic nutrient and is essential for plant and
animal life.
Water reaches the ground as rain, hail or snow. The rainfall of a
particular region is determined mainly by the geography of that
region. The type and quantity of flora (plants) and fauna (animals) in
a region are determined by the following:
• the intensity of wet and dry seasons, and how long the wet and dry
seasons last – this is more important than the total annual rainfall
• the distribution of rain over a year – in some years there may be an
exceptionally long dry season, and living organisms must be able
to survive these long periods of drought
• the relationship between rainfall and the amount of evaporation of
water from soil and plant surfaces (transpiration) – the intensity
of evaporation will determine whether a region will develop into
grassland, a desert or a forest.
The type of soil also plays a role in the availability of water for living
organisms. The degree to which the soil can hold water – that is, the
water capacity of the soil, is important. It will determine the quantity
of water available for a growing plant.
The amount of water vapour in the air (humidity) is also an abiotic
factor in the ecosystem. Information about the temperature of a region
is of little value if it is not linked to the humidity of the atmosphere.
Temperature affects living organisms when there is either very high
humidity (dampness) or very low humidity (dry conditions). Under
dry conditions the water loss from plants is very high and they wilt
(droop). Animals are in danger of dehydrating. In contrast, high
humidity will disrupt the cooling systems of some animals, e.g.
people cool down when their perspiration evaporates, which is not
possible if the air is very humid. Animals such as poultry can become
over-heated in hot, humid conditions and they can even die in such
circumstances.
??
?
Did you know?
Both plants and animals adapt
in various ways to conserve
water or to limit water losses.
Words &
Terms
Flora: all
types of p
lants
types of a
nimals
Water cap
acity: the
degree to
which the
soil can h
old water
Dehydrati
on:
water in th lack of sufficient
e body for
normal
functionin
g
Fauna: all
1.1.4 Sunlight
Sunlight – that is, the rays of the sun, is the primary source of energy
on Earth. However, sunlight can be a problem when there is either
too much or too little. Both scorching sunlight and too little light (for
example, short days or overshadowing by other plants) can harm
growth. Ecologically, the intensity or strength of sunlight and the
duration of light (that is, the length of a day) are important to both
plants and animals, and influence their behaviour.
Unit 1.1: Influence of abiotic resources on an agricultural enterprise
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Early morning sun
Midday sun
Late afternoon sun
Fig. 1.3: The effect of the sun’s intensity at different times of day
The daily rhythm of light and dark controls the movements of animals
as well as plants. Light intensity and the length of the day influence
such things as reproduction cycles, animals’ migration and changes
in the fur or feather cover of animals. Length of day has an important
influence on plant growth. The rays of the sun are directly responsible
for photosynthesis, the process through which glucose is formed in the
green leaves of plants. Photosynthesis takes place when carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere combines with water from the soil.
1.1.5 Soil
Soil is the growth medium for plants. Plants are the first link in most
food chains. Soil is made up of soil particles, air, water, and organic
and inorganic material.
The characteristics of a particular soil are important for healthy plant
growth:
• Soils with a medium to fine texture (feel and structure) are more
productive than coarse soils.
• Soils with a more crumbly structure are more productive than soil
with a less crumbly structure.
• Soils with a pH close to neutral (7) are more productive than soil
with an acidic or alkaline pH.
• The deeper the soil, the more productive it is.
• The higher the water capacity of a soil type, the more productive
it is.
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1.1.6 Wind
Wind is moving air. The strength of the wind is greatly influenced by
the shape or topography of the land and the presence or absence of
mountains, valleys and bodies of water such as seas and lakes.
For example, in valleys, rapid heating and cooling of the land cause
winds. Cooler air is heavier and flows downhill in the valleys. Light,
local winds may blow up the valley during the day. Ridges and
mountains cause wind speeds to increase. Look at Fig. 1.4 – you
will notice that the wind speed increases on the windward side but
decreases on the leeward side.
Words &
Terms
Topograp
hy: the la
nd forms
surface fe
and
atures of
an area
Leeward:
the
opposite to sheltered side,
the windw
ard side
Slow
Slow
Fast
Fast
rd
dwa
Le
ew
a
e
sid
rd
s
ide
Win
Fast
Slow
Fast
Slow
Fig. 1.4: Ridges and mountains cause wind speed and direction to change
??
?
Did you know?
The more productive the soil
is, the better it will be as a
growth medium for plants. The
better the vegetation, the more
pastures will be available for
wild and domestic animals in
a region.
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Bodies of water also influence the wind. The temperatures of large
bodies of water and the land surface are different. During the day,
warm air rises over the land and heavier, cooler air blows in from the
sea. At night, as the land cools, the process is reversed and the wind
blows from the land out to the sea. This is explained in Fig. 1.5.
SEA BREEZE
LAND BREEZE
DAY
NIGHT
Fig. 1.5: The wind direction at the coast changes from day to night
Wind can have a negative effect on the efficiency of a region’s rainfall.
Winds, especially hot winds, increase the speed at which water is lost
from the soil and plants. Wind also has a direct influence on day and
night temperature. On a cold day, wind will lower the temperature
even further. On a hot day, berg winds can result in temperature
increases.
??
Wind that blows over hot land surfaces – for example, a desert – will
be a hot wind when it reaches the region next to the desert.
In the following activity, you will observe how abiotic factors influence
local ecosystems. It is obviously not possible to observe these factors
all over the world. However, observing their effect on a habitat in your
region will give you a good idea of how they influence the ecosystems
of the world.
?
Did you know?
A berg wind is a hot, dry wind
blowing over the mountains in
the interior plateau of South
Africa towards the coast. The
wind blows over a mountain
and increases in temperature
as it falls over the mountain on
the lee side.
Words &
Terms
Habitat: th
e place or
growth
conditions
that are m
ost
suitable fo
r a specif
ic plant or
animal
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Assessment activity 1
Study the effects of abiotic factors in the ecosystem
Work in a group to obtain information about the abiotic factors in your environment. Then work on
your own to interpret the data you have obtained.
1. Find seven suitable sites for a veld survey. Choosing a different site for each of the seven factors
below will ensure that you observe the separate effects of each of these factors on animal and
plant life at the site. Look at Figures 1.6 and 1.7 to help you.
Fig. 1.6: Possible sites for a veld survey
Note: This type of survey should be done in an undisturbed natural habitat where the effect of
the physical factors on the vegetation and animal life has not been influenced by the activities of
humans.
Find seven suitable sites that have the following physical factors:
A – On top of a hill or ridge
B – In a valley
C – On the northern slope of a hill or mountain
D – On the southern slope of a hill or mountain
E – On the eastern slope of a hill or mountain
F – On the western slope of a hill or mountain
G – On flat land
Fig. 1.7: A survey site in a valley
Unit 1.1: Influence of abiotic resources on an agricultural enterprise
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2. Use a piece of rope 4 m long to mark out an area 1 m × 1 m (1 m2) on each survey site. Peg the
rope at each corner of your site. This sample area is called a quadrant.
Fig. 1.8: Survey quadrant
3. Obtain the following information on each one of the 1m2 plots:
Observation
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Number of plants
Average height of plants
Plant adaptations
Presence of layer of dead plant matter on soil
surface
Presence of (soil) organisms:
• ants
• grasshoppers
• earthworms
• crickets
• dung beetles, etc.
4. Use the results of your survey to write a report about the differences between the various
habitats in your environment. (Note: Consider the influence of the following abiotic factors on
life in the different habitats: temperature, water in the soil and air, sunlight, soil and wind.)
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Assess yourself
Assess your performance in the following activities:
1
2
3
4
5
Study the effects of abiotic factors in the ecosystem
1 = not achieved, 2 = not yet competent, 3 = competent, 4 = highly competent, 5 = outstanding
Summary
In this unit the influence of the non-living factors (the abiotic factors) on the environment is
discussed. The discussion is followed by a survey of different habitats by the students, who have to
observe and report on their observations.
Unit 1.2: Influence of biotic
resources on an
agricultural enterprise
1.2.1 Introduction
The abiotic resources inside an ecosystem determine the types
of organisms living there. A living community is a combination
of different species that form an ecological unit (for example, the
savannah or grassland region). The different species inside this
ecological unit are connected in some way with one another. These
units can be very big – for example, a forest that stretches over
thousands of kilometres – or they can be very small, like a community
of fungi living in and on a rotten tree trunk.
When plants and animals share the same habitat, they interact with
one another and form a biotic community.
Unit 1.2: Influence of biotic resources on an agricultural enterprise
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Energy from
the sun
SUN
Green plants use carbon dioxide
and energy
Energy stored
in plant
Carbon dioxide in the air
Animals breathe
out carbon dioxide
Rat eats plant
Cat eats rat
Oxygen produced by green plants
Animals breathe in oxygen
Goat’s droppings
fertilise grass
Goat eats grass (acacia sapling)
Fig. 1.9: A biotic community
An environment with a great variety of abiotic factors will attract a
greater number of different species. This is because it will have more
micro-habitats suitable for a greater variety of species.
The farmer has to recognise all the natural resources – abiotic and
biotic – to ensure that the farming system is sustainable.
Words &
Terms
Micro-hab
ita
inside a la t: a tiny habitat
rger habit
at
capable o
f supportin that is
g flora an
fauna
d
1.2.2 The role of plants (or vegetation)
in the ecosystem
Plants provide food for macro-organisms (e.g. animals) and for
micro-organisms (e.g. soil bacteria) that break down dead plant
material to feed themselves. This dependence of living organisms on
one another forms a food chain in nature. The feeding relationship
between plants and animals gives rise to the carbon cycle. Fig. 1.10
illustrates how the carbon in carbon dioxide in the air is cycled
through a food chain.
??
?
Did you know?
In a forest you will find
different species of trees
growing at different heights
in order to catch the sunlight
(for photosynthesis). Below the
trees, near to the ground, the
conditions are totally different
from those that tall trees have
to cope with. The low-growing
plant species are adapted for
growing in shade. This abiotic
variety results in different
plant species.
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carbon dioxide is taken up by
leaves for photosynthesis
photosynthesis in green leaves and
stems forms organic matter
carbon dioxide is
released into the
atmosphere
animals feed on plants
decomposition in the soil
releases carbon dioxide
old leaves and stems die and
fall to the ground. They are
decomposed by micro-organisms
minerals from the humus are
taken up by the roots of plants
organic matter decomposes
further to form humus
decomposed plants and animal
matter form part of the soil
Fig. 1.10: The carbon cycle
The role of plants in the ecosystem can be summarised as follows:
• Plants (trees, shrubs, grasses, etc.) grow, using nutrients from the
soil. When plants die, their remains decompose and the nutrients
return to the soil.
• These decomposed plant remains form organic material (also called
humus) that improves the soil’s capacity to hold water.
• Plants and plant remains cover and stabilise soil and prevent wind
and water erosion.
• Higher-growing plants prevent the rays of the sun from reaching
the lower-growing plants and animals that live on and in the soil.
• Foliage (all the leaves of a plant) captures the water that escapes
from the soil in the form of vapour. This creates a micro-climate
with a higher humidity than the surrounding atmosphere.
• In a plant community, there is usually a single species that
dominates in number and size. When this dominant (strongest)
species is removed, a non-dominant species like grass will then
become dominant.
• Plants always compete with one another, either among members of
the same species or among different species.
• The different plant species compete for underground water and
sunlight. This results in natural selection, also referred to as the
‘survival of the fittest’ (or strongest). When the natural vegetation
is allowed to develop under specific physical conditions (rain,
Unit 1.2: Influence of biotic resources on an agricultural enterprise
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sunlight, humidity, etc.), some of the species in the community
will adapt and others will die out and disappear. An example of
this adaptation to changing natural conditions is found where
xerophytic plants (succulents) become the dominant species in a
community of short bushveld plants during continuous drought.
Words &
Terms
1.2.3 The role of animals in the ecosystem
In their natural environment, animals have a close relationship
with one another and with the vegetation. They live in equilibrium
(balance) with the ecosystem. Animals obtain their food from plants
in the veld. When there is a shortage of plants, wild animals will
either migrate to better veld or their numbers will drop, because some
animals will die as a result of the lack of food.
Xerophyti
c: describ
es plants
that have
adapted to
living in d
conditions
ry
, e.g. by s
toring wa
in their le
ter
aves, as in
the cactus
As soon as humans interfere, the natural balance changes. The natural
interaction between plants and animals becomes an artificial situation. For
example, humans bring domesticated animals, such as sheep and cattle,
into an area. These animals are foreign to the ecosystem. The humans then
arrange for forced grazing through camp systems.
1.2.4 Ecological succession
In nature there is an orderly succession of communities that follow one
another over time. This means that communities of plant and animal
species follow after each other in an orderly way. A community can
establish itself for the first time on a newly formed piece of land, like
a new island formed through the volcanic flow of lava. This is called
primary succession.
The first community of plants and animals on this newly developed
piece of land is called a pioneer community. As the community
establishes itself, the abiotic factors start to change. The changed
circumstances create different habitats. These become more suitable for
another combination of organisms. A new community then establishes
itself. This is called secondary succession.
As the physical environment becomes more habitable, follow-up
species such as new plants will take root and animals will migrate
into the habitat. The physical environment of a region is, however,
restricted (as a result of the abiotic factors) to a certain community of
species. These species form the ceiling of succession for that region,
which means that no more species can join that community. This
ceiling (or limit) of succession in community development in a certain
ecological region is called the climax community.
A good example of ecological succession is found in plant
communities, such as grasses, shrubs and trees. The climax plant
community in a habitat is stable and in balance with that particular
physical environment. However, when humans bring domestic
animals into the environment for livestock farming, this balance (or
equilibrium) may be disturbed. This happens, for example, when
too many animals are kept on natural veld and exceed the carrying
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capacity of that veld. The animals eat the veld faster than it can
replace itself. The climax plant community will then quickly weaken
and be replaced by a new pioneer community. The new pioneer
community of plants is usually made up of tougher, more hardy
plants that are less nutritional for livestock and less pleasant to the
taste (i.e. less palatable). In other words, when people disturb the
plant community by exploiting the natural resources, it leads to the
formation of a denuded or bare environment such as a desert.
1.2.5 Influence of humans
As soon as humans interfere, the following situations occur:
• Domestic herbivores like sheep, cattle and goats feed on plants
(leaves, seed and fruit). When too many of them live in a campedoff area, they can disturb the balance in nature by overgrazing.
• These herbivores may select only certain plant species to eat. This
will have a negative influence on the interaction between plant
species. For example, the less palatable, less edible plant species are
left undisturbed by the livestock and become the dominant species.
• Carnivores directly control the numbers of the herbivores – until
humans interfere.
• As soon as humans interfere, the herbivores are protected against
the carnivores. This situation artificially increases the number of
herbivores.
Example: Farmers protect their sheep against jackals by killing the
jackals on their farms. Rodent populations then increase, because
jackals eat mostly rodents.
Assessment activity 1
Influence of humans on the natural balance in nature
Work in a group or with a partner and study the influence of humans on the natural balance
(equilibrium) in nature.
1. In your study group, discuss the influence of human interference on an ecosystem. Give more
examples of interference to add to those already mentioned in the paragraphs above.
2. Write an essay of about 30 lines (about 250 words) on the impact that livestock farming in your
area has on the equilibrium between the abiotic and biotic factors. The title of your essay may
be: Sound agricultural production practices ensure enough food AND survival of the planet.
You should refer to the following key words and concepts:
• controlled grazing through a system of camps
• introduction of new animal breeds
• control of game through hunting or fenced game parks
• fertilising soil
• use of pesticides
• growing artificial pastures
• air pollution through fuel burning
• using land for urbanisation
• turning natural pastures into crop production fields.
Unit 1.2: Influence of biotic resources on an agricultural enterprise
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Assess yourself
Assess your performance in the following activities:
1
2
3
4
5
Influence of humans on the natural balance in nature
1 = not achieved, 2 = not yet competent, 3 = competent, 4 = highly competent, 5 = outstanding
Summary
This unit deals with the influence of biotic resources on an agricultural enterprise. The emphasis
is on the harmony among the different biotic resources – referred to as ‘the equilibrium in nature’
– and the influence of this equilibrium on a sustainable farming system.
Unit 1.3: Influence of socioeconomics on an
agricultural enterprise
Words &
Terms
1.3.1 Introduction
Working on the land to produce a crop is an economic act because
it brings in food, money, or both. The way that farmers operate
(individually or in a group) and whether men or women work in the
lands are social issues.
The economic activities in a farming community therefore involve
more than just working on a piece of land to produce a crop. Other
economic aspects of farming include:
• the quantity and quality of crops and livestock that are produced
• the availability of natural resources and other factors of production,
as discussed in Units 1 and 2
• the demand for agricultural produce – that is, what products
consumers want and are prepared to buy.
Economic and social forces at work in a specific community will
determine demand. Some examples of demand include:
• In poorer communities the demand will be mostly for basic food
products. As people earn more, they demand luxury goods in
addition to basic food stuffs.
• In certain communities people prefer red meat products, while
other communities may prefer chicken.
We will now look more closely at socio-economic components that
have a direct or indirect influence on a sustainable farming system.
16
Economic
: to do wit
h the
productio
n, consum
ption and
marketing
of goods –
in this
case, agri
cultural g
oods
Social: de
scribes th
e structure
of commu
nities and
how the
members
of commu
nities
relate to o
ne anothe
r.
Examples
of social m
atters
are the ro
les
women, re of men and
lationship
sb
old and yo
ung people etween
, family
relationsh
ips and fr
iendships
Topic 1: Module 1
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Think about it
The demand for a product
is affected by the social
behaviour and attitudes of
people as well as by economic
factors such as the income of
households.
1.3.2 Land ownership and industrialisation
The increasing human population has caused land to become
something of value that can be sold. As land becomes scarce (in short
supply) it gains value as a source of wealth in itself.
Because land now has value, the tendency during the last century
has been for land ownership to change from communal to individual
ownership. The system of individual land ownership has had certain
negative results:
• In many cases, land that belonged to a single household has to
provide for the livelihood of more than one child when the owner
dies. As a result, the land is divided into smaller and sometimes
unproductive units so that each child gets a portion.
• A private owner of land can misuse his or her land.
• Land can be used for speculation purposes. This means that
someone can buy land to simply sell it again later at a higher price.
• Poor people can be excluded from land ownership because they
cannot afford to buy it.
Words &
Terms
Primary a
gri
of agricult culture: production
ural produ
cts from
the land
Secondary
agricultu
re:
processin
g of agric
ultural
products
Individual land ownership leads to industrialisation
Industrialisation means that modern technology is used in farming
activities (primary agriculture). Modern technology is also used to
process agricultural products into canned, frozen and other forms of
final products (secondary agriculture).
Study Table 1, which shows the relationship between primary
agriculture and secondary agriculture. The development of secondary
agriculture has helped to industrialise agriculture in both the primary
and secondary sectors.
Table 1: Primary and secondary agriculture
Primary agriculture
Secondary agriculture
Inputs
(resources)
Processes
(technology
used for
ploughing,
harvesting, etc.)
Outputs
(products)
Inputs
(resources)
Processing
(technology
used for
processing and
manufacture)
Outputs
(products)
Soil, water,
maize seeds
Tractors,
ploughs
Maize crops
Maize
Milling
machines
Maize meal
Soil, water,
cotton seeds
Tractors,
harvesting
machines
Cotton
Cotton
Spinning
and weaving
machines
Cotton fabric
and garments
Soil, water,
seedlings
Tractors,
harvesting
machines,
irrigation pipes
Fruit
Fruit
Processing
machines
Fruit juice,
canned fruit
Unit 1.3: Influence of socio-economics on an agricultural enterprise
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Beef cattle
Kraal
Beef
Meat
Processing
machines
Canned meat,
frozen products,
sausages
Dairy cattle
Milking
machines
Milk
Milk
Processing
machines
Ice-cream,
yoghurt
Outputs of primary agriculture serve as inputs to secondary
agriculture.
In the next activity you will obtain a better understanding of the
agricultural industrialisation that has been taking place in South Africa.
Assessment activity 1
Link primary and secondary agriculture
Work on your own to describe the link between primary agriculture (production) and secondary
agriculture (processing) by studying Table 1 and answering these questions:
1. Is it possible for a secondary industry to develop in a country without a productive primary
sector? Give reasons for your answer.
2. How can secondary agriculture encourage the use of modern technology in the primary sector?
3. Name ten products of the primary agricultural industry that can be used as raw material in the
secondary industry. Do not use the examples given above.
4. Compare the skills needed by employees in the primary and secondary sectors.
5. What manufactured goods (outputs) are used as inputs by the primary sector?
1.3.3 Storage facilities
The economy of the region determines whether there are storage
facilities, and how much food and fibre the facilities can store. In
communities where commercial farming takes place, there are usually
adequate storage facilities, such as silos for grain and cold storage
for perishable products. In communities where subsistence farming
and cash crop farming take place, storage facilities may be smaller
or not available at all. In such cases, products may perish or become
contaminated (spoilt) if they are not used soon enough.
In the workplace
The farmer is not able to control or change the local social and economic environment. Instead the
farmer has to adapt his or her farming venture to the socio-economic forces that exist in that area.
Farmers’ associations
The structure of organised agriculture depends on the farmer. Without
the farmer’s efforts, there can be no farmers’ organisation. The
individual farmer joins his or her local association, where farming
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Topic 1: Module 1
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problems can be discussed and dealt with. In other words, the
local association consists of farmers working to protect their
own interests.
These associations provide a meeting place where farmers can
identify problems. They can arrange for farmers to get legal
and political representation. The association keeps every farmer
informed about what the organisation is doing on behalf of the
members.
A farmers’ association can only operate as an organised
industry if every farmer makes a contribution to the activities
of that organisation.
1.3.4 Agricultural co-operatives
Farming in South Africa has developed – as it has all over the
world – into a big industry. Like any big industry, agriculture
needs to be run according to sound management principles.
Because the farmer is occupied in the production phase of
the agricultural process, he or she may not have the time or
skill to market and sell the agricultural products. To solve this
problem, farmers have established a body or organisation that
functions as a co-operative structure – generally known as the
farmers’ co-op. Farmers hold ownership in this co-op in the
form of shares. Profits from the co-op are distributed according
to this shareholding, i.e. if the farmer owns 5% of the shares, he
or she will get 5% of the profits.
??
?
Did you know?
Recently farmers’ cooperatives have been
transferred into companies.
In brief, a co-op is owned by the farmers of a region and it
manages the marketing and selling of their produce. In many
cases the co-op will also become involved in the buying of
equipment for farmers, or the financing of new projects.
1.3.5 Other socio-economic factors
Other socio-economic factors that influence the success of an
agricultural enterprise include:
• marketing and distribution of agricultural products.
There must be marketplaces where farmers can sell their
products. In order to distribute produce to consumers,
marketing can be done by farmers themselves or by traders,
agents or co-operatives.
• the supply of production factors such as fertilisers,
pesticides, seeds and appropriate technology.
These products make farming activities more productive.
Therefore this economic factor will determine the success of
farming ventures in an area. Their supply is influenced by
the buying power of the farmer in that area.
Unit 1.3: Influence of socio-economics on an agricultural enterprise
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• transport facilities to and from an agricultural region.
Farmers need transport to get the produce to the market. Therefore
transport is necessary to manage the agricultural venture properly.
Assessment activity 2
The social and economic environment in your area
1. Working individually, describe the socio-economic environment in your area, using the table
below to guide you. The left-hand column contains social or economic factors that may be part
of the local environment. The right-hand column contains key words to serve as clues for your
description.
Social and economic factors
Influence on the socio-economic environment in your area
Quantity of agricultural produce
Quality of production of agricultural produce
Subsistence/cash/commercial farming
The abiotic environment as influenced by
physical factors
Good/bad/average farming area
Demand for agricultural produce
Strong/weak/average economical forces
Storage facilities
Adequate/inadequate (give reasons)
Supply of production factors
Adequate/inadequate (give reasons)
Transport facilities
Adequate/inadequate (give reasons)
Traditions of the community
Adequate/inadequate (give reasons)
Preference for certain products
2. Work in groups to discuss possible solutions to problems that may result from the socioeconomic environment in your area. A list of such problems (unfavourable environments) is
given in the table below with a clue to solving the problem(s):
20
Unfavourable socio-economic environment
Clue to solving the problem caused by the
unfavourable condition
The quality of agricultural produce is not satisfactory
Technical advice
The quantity of agricultural produce is low
Economic support
Physical factors are unfavourable
Technical and economic support
Demand is inadequate for cash or commercial
production
Advertising/information campaigns
Storage facilities are inadequate
Solar drying and cooking equipment
Transport infrastructure is inadequate
Drying facilities
Marketing and distribution channels to get products
to the consumer are inadequate
Air-sealed packing
Supply of production factors such as fertilisers and
pesticides is inadequate
Road stalls and/or marketing through farmers’ cooperation
Provision through farmers’ co-operative
Topic 1: Module 1
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Assess yourself
Assess your performance in the following activities:
1
2
3
4
5
Link primary and secondary agriculture
The social and economic environment in your area
1 = not achieved, 2 = not yet competent, 3 = competent, 4 = highly competent, 5 = outstanding
Summary
The unit gives a description of the South African socio-economic environment for an agricultural
enterprise. It refers to land ownership and industrialisation resulting from private enterprise. It
touches on provision of services in a modern farming industry.
Unit 1.3: Influence of socio-economics on an agricultural enterprise
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