June 2012
Book Review
CORE Social and Behavior Change Working Group
Book Name: Non-Western Perspectives on Learning and Knowing
Author(s): Sharan Meriam & Associates, on the faculty in Adult Education at the University of
Georgia in Athens
Year Published: 2007
Reviewer: Mary Helen Carruth
Author’s argument (or perspective) and summary of the content:
This book is a collaborative effort that grew out of a symposium held at the 2005 Adult Education
Research Conference. The volume describes eight perspectives on learning by authors representing
Islamic, Native American, Hindu, Maori, Buddhist, African, Confucian and Liberation Theory (from
Latin America) communities. In the introductory chapter, Meriam contrasts between Western and
non-Western ways of learning and knowing and emphasizes the importance of acknowledging our
perspective and understanding that of other cultures. In the concluding chapter, she syntheses the
perspectives of the co-authors and discusses common characteristics shared by non-Western
perspectives that contrast with the Western perspective.
Main lessons learned/ applications to work in the international maternal and child health
sector:
Definition of Indigenous knowledge: Local knowledge that is commonly generated and transmitted
over a period of time in geographic and historic space. It is knowledge generated to deal with
problems and issues related to health, farming, warfare, education, culture and environment.
Western and Non-Western Perspectives on Learning Contrasted
Non-Western Way
 Knowledge is gained through experience and
is embedded in everyday life.
 Sources of learning are non-formal, for
example, the experiences of others, stories,
myths, folklore, rituals, symbols, music, art,
theater, even dreams and visions.
 Places greater emphasis on interdependence
 Knowledge is not just cognitive – it has
spiritual, emotional, and physical dimensions.
 The goal of learning is to develop a good,
moral person who contributes to the
community.
Western Way
 We acknowledge that learning is informal
but consider valid knowledge that has been
uncovered through rigorous scientific
methods.
 Places greater emphasis on independence
 We separate secular and sacred knowledge
 Teach areas of specialized knowledge and
expertise
 Lifelong learning means vocationalism
 Learning is assessed through some type of
exam, certification or credit.
Two examples of non-Western perspectives:
1) “African Indigenous Knowledge”: Author Gabo Ntseane – Senior Lecturer, Department of
Adult Education, University of Botswana
Discusses colonialism and the need to reconstruct African indigenous knowledge. She
advocates that Africans should modernize their traditions but also at the same time traditionalize
modernity.
Before “modern” education was introduced the only formal education that existed was the
“initiation schools” for adolescent boys and girls. The common curriculum included
physiological changes into adulthood, history of their people, socially desirable attitudes, for
boys fighting, self-defense and hunting skills, and for girls child rearing, domestic and agriculture
activities and behavior towards men. Assessment included rehearsing core lessons and
performing group tasks as a cohort. The students would graduate as a cohort and receive gifts
such as cows from the community.
Ideas for the African Indigenization of Adult Education:
a) Contextualize knowledge so individuals, organizations and communities can use it
productively to solve their own problems. Information and communication technology can
make this easier.
b) There is no need to uproot aspects of the curriculum that are useful. For example,
traditional educational models will need to address HIV/AIDS.
c) Emphasize participatory methods: Practical training and mentoring that includes the transfer
of tribal mythology, accumulated knowledge and skills as well as attitudes. The current shift
of adult education from conventional teaching to distance education marginalizes the role of
mentoring.
d) Include student learning style in the teaching: This entails including indigenous knowledge
and a diversity of learning styles.
e) Acknowledge the diversity of African indigenous knowledge: Education needs to act as a
vehicle for cultural and social change by validating and enhancing the experiences of
disadvantaged groups.
2) “Islam’s Lifelong Learning Mandate”: Authors Mazalan Kamis, Assistant Director,
Educational Planning and Policy Research Division, Ministry of Education, Malaysia and
Mazanah Muhammad, Department of Professional Development and Continuing Education,
Universiti Putra, Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia.
Islam is a way of life. In Islam, the two main purposes of learning are to bring humankind closer to
God and to bring humankind closer to society at large. The Qur’an is the primary learning
source supplemented by the Hadith with sayings from the Prophet Muhammad. Islam,
however, recognizes sacred and worldly knowledge as equally important for one’s learning.
There is no real dichotomy between the two as both forms of knowledge belong and lead to
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Allah. Branches of knowledge vary in status, the highest of which is knowledge of sharee’ah,
then knowledge of medicine, then the other fields of knowledge.
Muslims follow the five pillars of Islam but their practices are colored by the social, cultural and
geographical context. For example, relationships between men and women are more egalitarian
in Southeast Asia than the Middle East.
Teachers are revered as following in the steps of Muhammad.
The obligation to acquire knowledge extends to the community. With acquisition of knowledge,
a person is duty bound to do something about it. If there is no doctor to serve a community,
then it is the obligation of the community to send one or more of its members to medical
training.
Learning methodologies prevalent within Islamic tradition:
 Memorization of the verses of the Qur’an and Hadith.
 Knowledge circle (Halaqa) Practiced during Muhammad’s time and during colonialism when
Muslims were not allowed to congregate. Are now organized at Mosques, schools and
for women.
 Modeling especially after Muhammad
Learning as a lifelong endeavor:
 Cradle to grave ethos – Parents are reminded about the need to institute learning early in
the life of their children. Only death can stop one from learning.
 Borderless learning - Learning should not be neglected during war. Travelling is a good
way to expand the horizons of knowledge and experience.
 Democratization of learning - A major challenge is democratization of learning,
especially reaching women.
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Characteristics of three Non-Western perspectives that contrast with the Western perspective of Adult Education
Africa
 One is duty bound to share
what has been learned for the
benefit of the community.
This is how the community
will flourish.
Learning is lifelong
and interdependent  African collectivist cultures
believe that the individual
should take responsibility for
others; individual interests are
always less important than
communal interests.
Latin America
Buddhist
 Learning can raise people’s
consciousness about their material
conditions and encourage them to
exercise their rights to a better social and
political life
 The goal of learning is
enlightenment which is
intergenerational and can pass into
“innumerous” lives
 Education is the art of developing
human beings who can make a better
society for everyone.
 African knowledge comes
from age and experience.
What counts as
knowledge is
broadly defined
Learning and
instruction are
holistic and
informal.
Knowledge is often constructed within and
 Indigenous knowledge includes
by the community through informal
the use of proverbs, drama,
exchange, experience and example. It is the
music, and passing on wisdom
product of struggle.
such as the reproductive and
child care tenets.
 Learning is informal and
promotes better performance,
change and solving real
problems
 Education is influenced by liberation
theology which sees the community as
the source of knowledge.
 Life is a circle and everything
and everyone has its place
within it. Much of what is
learned is to maintain a
harmony and balance in the
world.
 Relationships between facilitators and
learners are collaborative and nonhierarchical. For example church leaders
encourage community members to look
at root causes of problems, reflect and
then react to the problem.
 Learning is lifelong and leads to
being liberated from this world’s
concerns.
 The Hindu view of life combines
both cognition and spirituality to
create individuals who view
learning and the development of
knowledge as a way to be a unified
individual.
 Knowledge connects a person with
the divine. It is a continual
journey towards enlightenment
that requires studying Buddhist
philosophy, reflecting and
practicing what you learned.
 One must maintain a “middle way”
or balance between mind and body
in order to pursue enlightenment.
 There is a sense of maintaining
balance among the three stages of
the learning process – reading and
studying, thinking and reflection
and practicing Buddhist teachings.
 A philosophical role-modeling –
the learner emulates the sages.
Reader’s professional opinion on the author’s argument (perspective)
The authors hope the book provides opportunities to expand our concepts of learning, facilitating
learning, and the relationship between teachers and learners within the cultural context. Each
chapter is written by an adult education specialist from the culture featured and has a unique
structure which makes for an engaging read. Most chapters provide a historical context for the
perspective as well as what makes it unique. Only a few chapters, however, such as the one on
“African Indigenous Knowledge,” include a specific section on practical application.” Some
observations and recommendations presented by the authors are backed by research but most
citations are from theoretical articles from education journals and texts.
On a scale of 1(not recommend to others in SBC) to 10 (highly recommended for others in
SBC) – how would you rate this book?
I would give the rate the book an 8 out of 10 points. The book helped me understand to a greater
extent how others learn based on their religious and cultural values and customs and discusses a
wide range of teaching and learning contexts. It would be especially useful for someone not
exposed to traditional ways of learning or someone entering work within a new culture. The
language and examples are probably more comfortable for a person with a background in education
rather than health or development.