Mimetics in Japanese and other Languages of the world.
National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics (NINJAL), Tokyo. December 17, 2016.
Classification of nominal compounds containing mimetics: a Construction Morphology perspective
Kiyoko Toratani
York University
1. Introduction
Data: Nominal Compounds containing Mimetics (NCMs)
(1) a.
hokahoka-gohan
MIM(warm)-rice
‘warm delicious-looking rice’
b.
bata-ashi
MIM(fluttering)-leg
‘flutter kick (of swimming)’
c.
mune-kyun
heart-MIM(wrung)
‘feeling emotional’
-Kageyama and Saito (2016):
 Identify combinatory patterns (e.g. Mimetic + Native Japanese: garagara-hebi ‘rattle snake’)
-Yang (2013): Semantic classification
Table 1: Semantic classification of NCMs by Yang (2013: 14-16)
Major category
Nature
(11/215=5.1%)
# of token Sub-category
3 Weather
7 Water/liquid
1 Earth/fire
Example (Mimetic in italics):
karakara-tenki ‘dry-weather’
shitoshito-ame ‘drizzling-rain’
toro-bi ‘simmering flame’
Human
(111/215=51.6%)
44
25
22
20
Manner
Emotion/sensation
Characteristics
Physique/figure
burabura-aruki strolling-walk
(1c)
baribari-kisha ‘bright and eager news reporter’
(1b)
Object
(93/215=43.3%)
27
56
7
3
Movement/change
Shape/condition
Sound/instrument/money
degree
bikkuri-bako ‘jack-in-he-box’
(1a)
chinchin-densha ‘surface car’
doka-yuki ‘heavy snow fall’
Total:
215
Goal:
-To examine how mimetics participate in word-formation of nominal compounds.
-To argue that NCMs are part of the inheritance hierarchy for nominal compounds, building on Booij (2010:
7); the top node of the hierarchy diverges according to the head position, and the next lower nodes diverge
into the categories ‘attributive-appositive’ and ‘subordinate’, adapted from Scalise and Bisetto’s (2009)
classification.
Organization:
Section 2: Preliminary information
2.1 Lexical categories in Japanese
2.2 Inheritance hierarchy of nominal compounds
Section 3: Classification
3.1 Attributive compounds: subtype of attributive-appositive type
3.2 Subordinate
3.2.1 Subordinate compounds: Ground type
3.2.2 Subordinate compounds: Verbal-nexus type
Section 4: Concluding remarks
1
2. Preliminary
2.1 Lexical categories in Japanese
(2)
a.
noun (N):
b.
verb (V):
c.
adjective
(A)
d.
adjectival
noun (AN)
e.
verbal noun
(VN)
f.
adverb
(Adv)
Non-mimetic
Ame(N) da.
rain
COP
‘It is rain.’
nomu ‘drink’,
suru ‘do’
Mimetic
ponpon ‘tummy in child language’
dókidoki suru (mimetic+suru ‘do’)
(Reduplicated: accented)
yukkuri suru ‘relax’
N/A
Ookii(ADJ).
big
‘It’s big.’
Yuuga(AN) da.
elegant
COP
‘It is elegant.’
Sookin(VN)
suru.
sending.money do
‘send money’
boozen to ‘blankly’,
gakuzen to ‘in terror’
Betobeto da. (Reduplicated: unaccented)
sticky
COP
‘It is sticky.’
hírahira (to) ‘flutteringly’
yukkuri (to) ‘slowly’, kon to ‘tap’
2.2 Inheritance hierarchy of nominal compounds
Construction Morphology a hierarchical lexicon (Booij 2010) = “inheritance tree”; “each node inherits the
properties of its dominating nodes” (Booij 2010: 25).
[X Y] Z
[X Y] Y (right-headed)
[X Y] X (left-headed)
[VN N] VN (verbal noun)
[[soo]VN [X] N] VN ‘sending N’
Figure 1: Noun compound schema for Japanese (Booij 2010: 70)
-A preliminary examination of NCMs : right-headed (with some exceptions).
-The right-headed NCMs can be classed into: Scalise and Bisetto’s (2009) ‘attributive-appositive’ and
‘subordinate’ compounds.
[X Y] Z
(right-headed)
[X Y] Y
attributive-appositive
subordinate
(left-headed)
[X Y] X
……
attributive
appositive
ground
verbal-nexus
Figure 2: Partial network of nominal compounds in Japanese
2
……
……
3. Classification
3.1. Attributive compounds: subtype of attributive-appositive type
[Right-headed]
attributive-appositive
attributive
high school
blue-eyed
(3)
(adapted from Scalise and Bisetto (2009: 50)
[kinokoN- gumoN] N
mushroom-clouds
‘clouds that look like mushrooms’
b.
[teppooN- ameN] N
bullet-rain
‘rain that moves fast like bullets of the gun’
a.
Attributive-type compounds: [X[non-head: (non-MIM)]-Y[head: N]] N
[gankoANoyajiN] N
stubborn-man
‘stubborn man’
b.
[kansooVN-
hadaN] N
dry-skin
‘dry skin’
c.
[yawaAN-
hadaN] N
soft-skin
‘soft skin’
d.
[ooADJ-
otokoN] N
big-man
‘giant’
a.
[gankoAN (NON-MIM)stubborn
‘stubborn man’
[kansooVN (NON-MIM)drying
‘dry skin’
[yawaAN (NON-MIM)soft
‘soft skin’
[ooA (NON-MIM)big
‘giant’
b.
c.
d.
(6)
(7)
snailmail
swordfish
mushroom cloud
a.
(4)
(5)
appositive
oyaji N] N
man
ganko
stubborn
na
COP.ATTR
hada N] N
skin
kansoo shita
hada
drying do.PAST skin
hada N] N
skin
yawaraka
soft
na
ookii
big
otoko
man
otoko N] N
man
COP.ATTR
a.
Attributive-type compounds: [X[non-head: (MIM)]-Y[head: N]] N
[purunpurun(MIM)zerii N] N
jiggly-jelly
‘jiggly jelly’
b.
[tsurutsuru(MIM)-
hada N] N
smooth-skin
‘smooth skin’
c.
[botteri(MIM)-
bara N] N
plump-belly
‘plump belly’
a.
[gachigachi(MIM)-
oyaji N] N
hard-man
b.
c.
[chirichiri(MIM)[mojamoja(MIM)-
atama N] N
ude N] N
frizzy-head
shaggy-arm
3
oyaji
man
hada
skin
‘stubborn man (man whose way of
thinking is inflexible)’
‘frizzy-haired head’
‘shaggy-haired arm’
(8)
a.
cf.
b.
(9)
a.
cf.
hada N] N
skin
tsurutusuru
no
MIM
COP.ATTR
[yawaAN (NON-MIM)soft
‘soft skin’
hada N] N
skin
yawaraka
soft (non-MIM)
[botteriVN (MIM)plump
‘plump belly’
b.
(10)
[tsurutsuruAN (MIM)smooth
‘smooth skin’
bara N] N 
belly
COP.ATTR
hada
skin
MIM
shita
do.PAST
hara
belly
kansoo
dry (non-MIM)
shita
do.PAST
hada
skin
botteri
hada N] N
skin
[kansooVN (NON-MIM)dry
‘dry skin’
na
hada
skin
Summary on attributive-type NCMs
a. The mimetics that participate in NCMs: AN, and VN
b. The head nouns combined with mimetics: similar to those combined with non-mimetic words,
such as a body part and an object with a particular attribute.
Schema for attributive nominal compounds in Japanese:
< [Xi -Nj]Nk  [SEMj with attribute SEMi] SEMk>
(Note: SEMj can be metonymically construed.)
(11)
…… …
(12)
(13)
(14)
< [Xi -hada (‘skin’)Nj]Nk  [skin (of someone) with attribute SEMi]SEMk>
[XVNi-hadaNj]Nk
[XANi-hadaNj] Nk … …
[kansooVNi-hadaNj] Nk [X
AN (NON-MIM)i- hadaNj]Nk
‘dry skin’
[XAN (MIM) i- hadaNj]Nk
[yawaANi-hadaNj]Nk [tsurutsuruAN(MIM)i-hadaNj]Nk
‘soft skin’
‘smooth skin’
……
[baribariAN(MIM)i-hadaNj]Nk
‘hard skin’
Figure 3: Partial sketch of the hierarchical network of nominal compounds (Attributive type)
(14ʹ)
a.
b.
MIM=
[gachigachi (MIM)[…… (MIM)baribari ‘dry and rough’
zarazara ‘unsmooth’
gorigori ‘hard’
jikujiku ‘wet’
betabeta ‘sticky’
mochimochi ‘soft’
tsurutsuru ‘smooth’
subesube ‘smooth’
gitoito ‘oily’
pukupuku ‘plump’ etc.
hada N] N
hada N] N
4
‘rough skin’
‘hard skin’
3.2 Subordinate
[Right-headed]
subordinate
ground
verbal-nexus
mushroom soup book seller
tree eater
windmill
street seller
(adapted from Scalise and Bisetto 2009:50)
3.2.1. Subordinate compounds: Ground type
Ground-type compounds: [X[non-head: (non-MIM)]-Y[head: N]] N
(15)
a.
[omochaN-
bakoN] N
toy-box
‘toy box’
b.
[benkyooVN-
beyaN] N
studying-room
‘room to study’
c.
[nagaA-
ameN] N
long-rain
‘rain that lasts for a long time’
d.
[sokusekiAN-
ryooriN] N
instant-dish
‘instant dish’
e.
[kaijuuN-
eigaN] N
monster-movie
‘monster movie’
(16)
(17)
Ground-type compounds: [X[non-head: (MIM)]-Y[head: N]] N
a.
[shitoshito (MIM)-
ame N] N
drizzling-rain
‘gentle rain’
b.
[hisohiso (MIM)-
goe N] N
whisper-voice
‘whispered voice’
c.
[ponpon (MIM)-
jooki N] N
chug-steamship
‘steamship that chugs’
d.
[dotabata (MIM)-
eiga N] N
‘slapstick motion picture’
e.
[gisugisu (MIM)-
shakai N] N
romping.aboutmovie
edgy-society
f.
[bikkuri (MIM)-
bako N] N
surprise-box
a.
b.
c.
d.
[shitoshitoADV (MIM)ame N] N
drizzling
rain
‘drizzling rain’
[hisohisoADV (MIM)goe N] N
whisper
voice
‘whispered voice’
[ponpon ADV (MIM)jooki N] N
chug
steamship
‘steam passenger launch that chugs’
[dotabata ADV (MIM)eiga N] N
romping.about
movie
‘slapstick motion picture’
shítoshito ADV
‘society characterized by
friction and discord’
‘jack-in-the-box’
huru
ame
fall
rain
‘rain that falls drizzlingly’
hísohiso ADV
hanasu
koe
MIM
talk
voice
‘voice of people talking in a whisper’
pónpon ADV
susumu
jooki
MIM
proceed
steamship
‘the steamship that proceeds chug-chug’
hito
ga
dótabata ADV ugoku
eiga
people NOM MIM
move
movie
‘the movie in which people move rompingabout’
MIM
5
(18)
(19)
[bikkuriVN (MIM)surprise
‘jack-in-the-box’
b.
[gisugisu (MIM)shakai N] N
edgy
society
‘society characterized by
friction and discord’
akeru to
hito ga
bikkuri suru
hako
MIM
open when
people NOM
do
box
‘the box that surprise people when it is opened’
 hito ga
gísugisu shi te iru
MIM
people NOM
do CONJ BE
‘society in which people are edgy’
shakai
society
Schema for Ground type compounds in Japanese:
< [Xi -Nj]Nk  [SEMj with some condition SEM i] SEMk>
…… …
(20)
< [Xi -ame (‘rain’)Nj]Nk  [rain with some condition SEMi]SEMk>
[Ni-ameNj]Nk
(21)
(22)
bako N] N 
box
a.
[asaNi-ameNj]Nk
‘morning rain’
[Advi-ameNj]Nk … … …
[Adv (NON-MIM) i- ameNj]Nk
[Adv (MIM) i- ameNj]Nk
[niwakaADV(NON-MIM)i-ameNj]Nk
[shitoshitoADV(MIM)i-ameNj]Nk [zaazaaADV(MIM)i-ameNj]Nk
‘sudden rain’
‘heavy rain’
‘drizzling rain’
Figure 4: Partial sketch of the hierarchical network of nominal compounds (Ground type)
3.2.2. Subordinate compounds: Verbal-nexus type
(23)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Verbal-nexus type compounds: [X[non-head: (non-MIM)]-Y[head: VN]] VN
[yamaNarukiVN] VN
mountain-walking
‘mountain walking’
[yokoADVburiVN] VN
diagonally-falling
‘(rain) coming slanting down’
[hayaADVneVN] VN
early-sleeping
‘going to bed early’
[uzuNmakiVN] VN
whirl-turning
‘whirlpool’
[oriNzumeVN] VN
box-packing
‘packing (food) into a box’
[mizuNnureVN] VN
water-getting.wet
‘get wet (splashing) water’
a.
b.
c.
Verbal-nexus type compounds: [X[non-head: (MIM=MANNER)]-Y[head: VN]] VN
[yochiyochi (MIM)aruki VN] VN
toddling-walking
‘walking toddle-toddle’
[zaazaa (MIM)buri VN] VN
pouring-falling
‘raining heavily’
[goro (MIM)ne VN] VN
flopping-sleeping
‘flopping down’
(24)
(25)
a.
b.
c.
[yochiyochi ADV (MIM)toddling
‘walking toddle-toddle’
[zaazaa ADV (MIM)pouring
‘raining heavily’
[goro ADV (MIM)flopping
‘flopping down’
aruki VN] VN
walking
buri VN] VN
falling
ne VN] VN
sleeping
6
yóchiyochi ADV
aruku
MIM
walk
‘walk toddle-toddle’
záazaa ADV
huru
MIM
fall
‘rain heavily’
gorot to ADV neru
MIM QUOT
sleep
‘flop down’
(26)
Verbal-nexus type compounds: [X[non-head: (MIM=RESULTATIVE STATE)]-Y[head: VN]] VN
[gyuugyuu- (MIM)zume VN] VN
being.squeezed‘being jam-packed’
being.packed
[guruguru (MIM)maki VN] VN
going.round-wrap ‘being coiled up’
[bisho (MIM)nure VN] VN
being.soaked‘being completely soaked’
getting.wet
a.
b.
c.
(27)
a.
b.
c.
(28)
[gyuugyuu AN (MIM)being.squeezed
‘being jam-packed’
zume VN] VN
being.packed
tsumeru
pack
‘jam-pack (something)’
[guruguru AN (MIM)going.round
‘being coiled up’
maki VN] VN
wrapping
guruguru ni
gyuugyuu ni
MIM
MIM
COP.ADV
COP.ADV
maku
wrap
‘coil up something’
[bisho AN (MIM)nure VN] VN
being.soakedgetting.wet
‘being completely soaked’
bishobisho ni
MIM
COP.ADV
‘get soaking wet’
nureru
get wet
Verbal-nexus type compounds: [X[non-head: N]-Y[head: MIM]]
a.
[muneN-
kyun VN(MIM)] VN
chest-squeeze
‘feeling emotional pain
(as if your chest is given a
squeeze)’
b.
[kabeN-
don VN(MIM)] VN
wall-banging
‘(a man) banging his hand
onto a wall while closing
in on a female’
c.
[nekoN-
banban VN(MIM)] VN
cat-banging
‘knock knock cats [(hood)
banging (to save) cats]’
( http://www2.nissan.co.jp/SOCIAL/CAMP/NEKOBANBAN/, cf. Naya and Ikarashi 2016)
(29)
a.
[muneN kyun VN(MIM)] VN 
chest
MIM (squeezing)
‘feeling overwhelmed with emotion’
b.
[kabeN wall
don VN(MIM)] VN
MIM (banging)
mune ga
kyun to
suru
chest NOM
MIM QUOTE
do
‘one’s heart feels painful as if someone gives it a
squeeze’
kabe o
don to
suru
wall ACC
MIM QUOTE
do

‘(a man) banging (his hand) onto a wall
(while closing in on a female)’
c.

‘bang on a wall’
[nekoN banban VN(MIM)] VN 
cat
MIM (banging)
‘knock knock cats [(hood) banging (to save) cats]’
neko o
(sukuu tameni
shatai o)
cat ACC
save for
car.body ACC
‘bang on (the car body to save) cats’
7
bánban
MIM QUOTE
suru
do
Schema for Verbal-nexus type compounds in Japanese:
< [X i - VN j]VN k  [an event of SEMj with some relation to SEM i] SEMk>
…
< [X i – VN (MIM) j]VN k  [an event of
SEMj with some relation to SEM i] SEMk>
< [X i – VN (native Japa.) j]VN k  [an event
of SEMj with some relation to SEM i] SEMk>
< [ADV i – VN (native Japa.) j]VN k 
[an event of SEMj with a manner SEM i] SEMk> < [N i – VN (MIM) j]VN k  [an event of SEMj
with some relation to SEM i] SEMk>
< [ADVi -buri (‘falling’) j]VN k 
[an event of rain falling with a manner SEMi]SEMk
… ….
….
….
[ADV(MIM)i-buri j]VN k
[zaazaai-buri j]VN k
‘(rain) pouring’
[munei-kyun j]VN k … [nekoi-banban j]VN k …
‘feeling overwhelmed ‘banging of (car body to
save) cats’
with emotion’
[zanzani-buri j]VN k
‘(rain) pouring’
Figure 6: Partial sketch of the hierarchical network of nominal compounds
(Verbal-nexus type compounds)
4. Concluding remarks
-Proposal of an inheritance hierarchy for nominal compounds, incorporating categories discussed in
Scalise and Bisetto (2009)
-Construction Morphology representational system proves useful to indicate where NCMs appear in the
word network.
-Mimetics can enrich lexical varieties of nominal compounds, and are integral part of nominal compound
word formation.
-Need for a typological study
(30)
a
Japhug (Rgyalrong, Sino-Tibetan) (Jaque 2013: 282)
jaʁmɤ-zdoʁzdoʁ
thumb-IDEO (small and active) ‘bird sp.’
b.
Gbaya (Niger-Congo) (Noss 1985: 247)
kpu-kpút-yi
‘bubbling water’
References:
Booij, Geert. 2010. Construction Morphology. Oxford: OUP.
Jacques, Guillaume. 2013. Ideophones in Japhug (Rgyalrong). Anthropological Linguistics 55 (3): 256-287.
Kageyama, Taro and Michiaki Saito 2016. Vocabulary strata and word formation processes. In Taro
Kageyama and Hideki Kishimoto, Handbook of Japanese lexicon and word formation, 11-50.
Boston/Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Naya, Ryohei and Keita Ikarashi. 2016. Semi-lexical nouns in Japanese: A case study of mimetic compounds.
Poster presented at Formal Approaches to Japanese Linguistics 8, Mie University. February 19, 2016.
Noss, Philip. A. 1985. The ideophone in Gbaya syntax. In G. J. Dimmendaal (ed.), Current Approaches in
African Linguistics 3:241-255.
Scalise, Sergio and Antonietta Bisetto. 2009. The classification of compounds. In Rochelle Lieber and Pavol
Štekauer, The Oxford Handbook of Compounding, 34-53. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Yang, Shu-Yun. 2013. Semantics of the compound nouns from onomatopoeia. Chūka-nihon-kenkyū 4.1-20.
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