ISSN No. 0974 -035X
A Refereed Journal of Higher Education
Towards Excellence
UGC -ACADEMIC STAFF COLLEGE,
GUJARAT UNIVERSITY AHMEDABAD, INDIA
Creating Space through words: A Comparative Study of AfroAmerican Poetry and Dalit Poetry
Dr. Darshana Trivedi
Art says Bernard Shaw is, “Nothing but the social commitment.” Two prominent theories
which govern the art since the times of Greeks are Art for art’s sake and Art for life’s sake. The
Indian counterpart of this concept is literature created for pleasure (swant sukhay) or literature
created for the upliftment of the society. (janahitay). Main stream literacy artists can afford to
write for Art for Art’s sake. But Marginal discourses are not possible without social
commitment. Black and Dalit literature is intimately related to social reality and is not imaginary
or entertainment oriented. Talking about social responsibility of the writer Jean Paul Sartre says:
Writing is not simply writing, it is an act and in
man’s continual fight against evil, writing must be
deliberately used as a weapon. It is necessary that
S/he understands this. (Dangle.324)
Since Afro American and Dalit literature is originated from the lived realities of the
oppressed people, it is inevitable to relate both literatures to historical contexts.
Afro American literature: A Historical Perspective
Afro American literature is a literature by the Africans who were brought to America by
the White denizens as slaves to work on the plantations. These Africans were not given any legal
rights or protection. They were openly bought and sold, they were not allowed to maintain a
family, and their marriage was not considered legal. They were not allowed to follow any
religion nor could they pursue education. The blacks of America without any legal protection
were subjected to brutality; discrimination and ostracism. There were few who initially started to
vent their plight through words. Their first goal was to abolish slavery which they accomplished
by 1860. But soon after that the y faced a new evil of racial discrimination. When confronted with
this new evil in their life, their literature took a turn from being an expression of art to begin an
expression of reality.
Afro American literature has been divided in to six ages until now. They are
An age of Apprenticeship (1800-1830)
An age of Abolitionists (1830-1895)
An age of NIGRO Nadir (1895-1920)
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An age of Harlem Renaissance (1920-1930)
An age of Richard Wright (1930-1960)
An age of Black Militant (1960-onwards)
Black Americans started creating their literatures in America by the middle of eighteen
century. They were not talking about social discriminations in their literature. They were
Imitating their master’s language to express their experiences of slavery. They were learning new
skill of writing hence the age is termed as an age of apprenticeship or imitative phrase.
By 1830 the first age of Afro American literature was over and a new age was
Making its way which was to govern and inflame the black expressions. The writers
Of this age were either born as slaves who had escaped from the south or Negros born in the
north who ardently supported the abolition of slavery. During this period three amendments
which deal with Negros were the thirteenth amendment 1865 Lincoln’ s
Emancipation proclamation .The fourteen Amendments 1866 aimed at granting Negro civil
Rights and fifteenth amendment 1870 voting. it was an age of relative atrophy for the afroAmerican literature so was term as Negro Nadir.
The period of 1920-1930 is known as age of Harlem Renaissance or the period of new
awakening or Negro Renaissance. The age got formal recognition with the publication of Alain
Locke’s anthology the new Negro. The main themes of Harlem renaissance are celebration of
black Identity and rich Heritage of African culture. Two leading African American journals the
NAACPS (National Association for the advancement of Colored People’s crisis and National
urban league’s “opportunity” played a major role in the shaping the spirit of Harlem
Renaissance.
By 1938 Charles Houston managed to bring a new day for Negros civil right and
Personal freedom. Afro American authors continue to reveal the harsh realities of black
Life across America one of them was ground breaking novelist Richard Wright who achieved
International status with the publication of Native son in 1940. At the threshold of 21 century
Afro American literature exhibits an unprecedented variety, without any illusion of its distinctive
power and Identity. The theme song of 21 century is “Black is beautiful”. The literature now
entered in the phase of “celebration of difference”.
Dalit literature: Historical Perspective
Coming to Dalit literature it has also started as protest literature the age old caste system of
Hindu society.
The roots of caste system can be traced to the Purusukta Rigveda which says:
Brahmansaaya mukhomasit
Bahu rajanaya Kurta
Uru tadasy yadvaishya
Padmabhayan sudro Ajayat
(X-90 12)
According to Rig Veda the Brahmins are born from the mouth of Brahma, Kshatriyas
from the shoulders, and the Vaishyas from thighs and Shudras from feet. Hence, the Brahmins
are placed on the highest rung of the social ladder and the Shudras on the lowest r ung, It was the
Brahmins who established that the caste hierarchy was God made and not man-made.
Subsequently Manu, an ardent supporter of class structure made it a core in his Manu smruti.
Class distinction is a worldwide phenomenon but the characteristic of the Hindu caste divide is
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that it is based on birth and not on aptitude. As a natural corollary of this rigidity, the Sudras
came to be considered outcasts, down-trodden, polluted and marginals by the exploitative higher
classes.
Dr, Babasaheb Ambedkar, the father of the Dalit Movement rejected the notion of the
caste system as God- made and not man-made. He along with Mahatma phule initiated a political
movement for the freedom and equality of Dalits. As he says:
We must uproot the four-caste system and
Untouchability and set the society on the foundation
of the two principles of one caste only and of
equality... our work has been began to bring about a
real social revolution … No one can now arrest it. I
pray to God that the social revolution which begins
here today may fulfill itself by peaceful means.
(Dangle. 127)
The purpose of this movement was to create a new space for Dalits in an otherwise closed
society thriving on unholy distinctions of caste. They rejected all role-models and critical
theories and were determined to create a literature and identity of their own. The customs,
traditions, way of life of Dalits are different from very root. Dalit literature is different from main
stream literature because it gives full expression to the Dalits’ heart burn and agitation as well as
their distinctly vigorous and revolutionary world view.
The word Dalit in the Marathi language means (i)ground (ii) broken or reduced to pieces
generally. The clearest definition of the word Dalit in contemporary usage has been given by
Gangadhar Pantwane a professor of Marathi and founder editor of Asmita Darsh:
To me Dalit is not a caste. He is a man exploited by
The social and economic traditions of this country. He
does not believe in God, Rebirth, soul, Holy-books
teaching separatism. Fate and Heaven because they
have made him a slave. He does believe in
humanism. Dalit is a symbol of change and
revolution.
(Pantwane. 78)
Arjun Dangle observes:
Dalit literature is not simply Literature. It is
associated with a movement to bring about change. It
represents the hopes and ambitions of anew society
and new people.
(Dangle. 53)
Considering the historical perspectives of Afro American and Dalit literature we can
mentioned the following similarities between Black and Dalit literature.
Blacks in America and Dalits in India are remained invisible and voiceless in the history and in
nation building.
Both Afro American And Dalit writers are in search of their respective identity.
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Experience in both literatures has surfaced from social life based on inequality.
The language of both is life oriented. Black and Dalit writer write from the awareness of social
commitment.
The Language of both is the language of culture revolt.
In both literatures the aim is to find new cultural values.
Both literature aspire for humane society based on freedom equality and justice.
This section of the paper makes comparative analysis of afro American poetry and Dalit poetry
respectively.
The major themes of Black and Dalit poetry are inscriptions of pain and sufferings, protest
against hegemony of established social structure, quest for identity celebration of Homeland and
the hope for better tomorrows.
(1) Inscription of Pain and sufferings
Black and Dalit poetry initially began as an expression of pains and sufferings meted upon
them because of color or caste. Sterling Brown’s poem “ Master and Man” Talk about the plight
of the poor slaves, who were not allowed to claim even a Fist of harvest of their labour. The
labour and sweat of the slave belong to his master. And the master hence becomes his centre of
life as well as no less than God.
The Yellow ears are crammed in Mr. Cromarties’s bin.
The Wheat is tight sacked in Mr. Cromarties’s Bran.
The timothy is stuffed in Mr. Cromarties’s loft.
The ploughs are lined up in Mr. Cromartie’s Shed.
The cotton has gone to Mr. Cromaartie’s Factor.
The Money is in Mr. Cromaarties’s bank.
“Master and Man” discuss the cruel and inhuman behavior of the master.
Raman Vaghela’s Dalit poem “ Harsh Destiny “ talk about the pain of untouchability
Harsh is our destiny o friend
Harsh is our destiny
Bron with a spot o friend
Harsh is our destiny
Time heals all wounds we know
A life full of pains we live
They kick us putting aside shame
Our bleeding wounds they not see. (Burke. 19)
Even more painful poem which talk about the pathetic plight of Dalit is Jaynti Makwana’s”
Keshav Ganda Bhangi”.
I keshav Ganda Bhangi.
My lords are in A.M.C. brand blue dress.
Our family firm is on Ashram Road.
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Like an anchored boat by the footpath.
Is my wheel- barrow bearing my name.
It is my father’s imported ambassador.
Its key – Chain hanging around my neck.
This broom is my life –companion.
(Burke. 42)
Jivan Thkor’s “The curse of untouchability” is a poignant poem about the pains of being
untouchable. The poet says:
If the green leaf of tender touch
Grows on my barren fingers
Announcement in the village
Shall I make and sacrifice my life.
My fingers yearn to touch
Not only flowers but also stone.
Bitter dreams I have when I think of tender touch.
(Burke .54)
The Dalit’s search for identity is expressed in Balkrishna Anand’s poem “ Who are we?”
The innocent child asks the question to his father:
Have made him a slave. He does believe in
Humanism. Dalit is a symbol of change and revolution.
(Pantwane. 78)
Arjun Dangle observes:
Dalit literature is not simply Literature. It is associated with a movement to bring about change.
It represents the hopes and ambitions of anew society and new people.
(Dangle. 53)
Considering the historical perspectives of Afro American and Dalit literature we can
mentioned the following similarities between Black and Dalit literature.
Blacks in America and Dalits in India are in search of their respective identity.
Experience in both literatures has surfaced from social life based on inequality.
The language of both is life oriented. Black and Dalit writer write from the awareness of social
commitment.
The Language of both is the language of culture revolt.
In both literatures the aim is to find new cultural values.
Both literature aspire for humane society based on freedom equality and justice.
This section of the paper makes comparative analysis of afro American poetry and Dalit poetry
respectively.
The major themes of Black and Dalit poetry are inscriptions of pain and sufferings, protest
against hegemony of established social structure, quest for identity celebration of Homeland and
the hope for better tomorrows.
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(1) Inscription of Pain and sufferings
Black and Dalit poetry initially began as an expression of pains and sufferings meted
upon them because of color or caste. Sterling Brown’s poem “ Master and Man”
Talk about the plight of the poor slaves, who were not allowed to claim even a Fist of
harvest of their labour. The labour and sweat of the slave belong to his master. And the
master hence becomes his centre of life as well as no less than God.
The Yellow ears are crammed in Mr. Cromarties’s bin.
The Wheat is tight sacked in Mr. Cromarties’s Bran.
The timothy is stuffed in Mr. Cromarties’s loft.
The ploughs are lined up in Mr. Cromartie’s Shed.
The cotton has gone to Mr. Cromaartie’s Factor.
The Money is in Mr. Cromaarties’s bank.
“Master and Man” discuss the cruel and inhuman behavior of the master.
Raman Vaghela’s Dalit poem “ Harsh Destiny “ talk about the pain of untouchability
Harsh is our destiny o friend
Harsh is our destiny
Bron with a spot o friend
Harsh is our destiny
Time heals all wounds we know
A life full of pains we live
They kick us putting aside shame
Our bleeding wounds they not see.
(Burke. 19)
Even more painful poem which talk about the pathetic plight of Dalit is Jaynti Makwana’s”
Keshav Ganda Bhangi”.
I keshav Ganda Bhangi.
My lords are in A.M.C. brand blue dress.
Our family firm is on Ashram Road.
Like an anchored boat by the footpath.
Is my wheel- barrow bearing my name.
It is my father’s imported ambassador.
Its key – Chain hanging around my neck.
This broom is my life –companion.
(Burke. 42)
Jivan Thkor’s “The curse of untouchability” is a poignant poem about the pains of being
untouchable. The poet says:
If the green leaf of tender touch
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Grows on my barren fingers
Announcement in the village
Shall I make and sacrifice my life.
My fingers yearn to touch
Not only flowers but also stone.
Bitter dreams I have when I think of tender touch.
(Burke .54)
The Dalit’s search for identity is expressed in Balkris hna Anand’s poem “ Who are we?”
The innocent child asks the question to his father:
Daddy
After the prayer in school
We read pledge together
“India is my country,
All Indians are my brothers and sisters”
But Master Joshi looked at me
And grumbled “Not Harijans”
“Daddy, who are Harijans?
Who are Indians?
(Burke.29)
(2) Protest or Resistance:
Protest against the hegemony of established social structure is at the core of Black and
Dalit literature. Countee Cullen’s poem “From the Dark Tower” expresses the protest against the
exploitation and ends with the firm resolution.
“We were not made eternally or weep”.
We shall not always plant while others reap.
The golden increment of bursting fruit
Not always countenance, abject and mute.
That lesser men should hold their brothers cheap;
Not everlastingly by others sleep
So in the dark we hide the heart that bleeds,
And wait, and tend our agonizing sees.
(Blyden.59)
Langston Hughes’s poem “Democracy” also expresses the protest against the established
political system. He says:
Democracy will not come
Today, this year
Not ever
Through compromise and fear
I have as much right
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As the other fellow has
To stand on my two feet
And own my land.
(Blyden.57)
The same note of protest we find in Baburo Jagtap’s “This Country is Broken” and
Sharan kumar Nimbale’s “White Paper”
This country is broken in to a thousand pieces;
Its cities, its religion, its castes,
Its people and even the minds of the people
All are broken fragmented.
In this country each day burns
Scorching each moment of our lives.
We bear it all, and stand solid as hills in our life
That we do not accept.
(Dangle.037)
Similar tone is reflected in Sharan Kumar Nimbale’s “White Paper”:
I do not ask
For the sun and moon from your sky
Your Farm your land,
Your high houses, or your mansions.
I do not ask for gods or rituals
Castes or sects
Or even for your mother, sister, and daughters.
I ask for my rights as a man.
(Dangle.64)
(3) Asserting Self
Langston Hughes, a Harlem Renaissance Poet in his famous manifesto “The Negro Artist and the
Racial mountain” writes”:
We younger Negro artists….
Intend to express our individual dark-skinned selves
Without fear or shame. If white people are pleased,
We are glad . If they are not, it doesn’t matter. We
Know we are beautiful. And ugly too.
The most important characteristic of Harlem Renaissance poetry is self assertion. The young
Negro poets believe in “Black is beautiful”. Hughes poems “Negrp” and “My People “is a tribute
to black consciousness.
I am a Negro
Black as the night is black.
Black like the depths of my Africa”.
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(Dickinson.321)
A black poem can also be about the beauty of blackness. Langston’s “My people”
celebrates the beauty of blackness.
The night is beautiful
So the faces of my people
Beautiful, also is the sun
Beautiful also, are the souls of my people.
(Dickinson .322)
Alice walker’s poem “Be Nobody’s Darling “also accepts the outcast status. She says:
Be nobody’s darling;
Be an out cast
Take the contradictions
Of your life
And wrap around
You like a shawl
To parry stones
To keep you warm.
(Walker. 31)
Compare to Black literature Dalit ilteratures is an infant stage, hence we do not have many
poems about the self assertion in Dalit literature. Yet Shamat Parmar’s poem “Self Pride”
celebrates the Dalit identity:
I am proud of my self
I am extremely grateful
To God for making me a Dalit .
Thank…..God
That He made me a Shudra
And liberated me from all these sins.
This is why I am proud of myself.
(Burke.74)
(4) Celebration of Homeland
Blacks are fortunate enough to have their “home land” while living in America. They can
think about their roots, their culture and their heritage. On the other hand the plight of Dalits in
India is pathetic. As Dr. Ambedkar says: “Gandhiji, I have no
Homeland”. Blacks retain their African culture through their folk literature and myths, but Dalits
have yet to create their myths, folk forms and music which is different from the main stream
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Hindu literature. ( Indian tribal literature has rich heritage of folk tradition which is clearly
different from main stream Hindu Literature).
We have Mckay’s “I shall Return” and Hughes’s “The Negro Speaks of River” celebrate the
African culture.
Mckay contrasts the soft, gentle images of Africa with long years of pain in the United States.
I shall return again. I shall return
To laugh and love and watch with wonder-eyes.
I shall return. I shall return again
To ease my mind of long long years of pain.
(Blyden.63)
Hughes’s poem “The Negros Speaks of River” is also a tribute to his roots.
I have known rivers ancient
As the world and older than the
Flow of human blood in human veins.
My soul has grown deep like rivers.
I’ve known rivers
Ancient, dusky rivers
My soul has grown deep like the rivers.
(Dickinson.70)
(5) Tomorrow is ours:
Black and Dalit literature has passed through the phases of imitative and reactive and
entered in to the third phase i.e. “Assimilation” or “Celebration of Difference” and created their
space through words. Black writers like Maya Ange lou, Toni Morrison, Alice Walker to name a
few have turned their adversities and pain in to celebrations. We have Kumud Pawade,
Bama,Shivankami, who have created the tradition of feminist Dalit writing in India. Earlier
Laxman Manne and Laxman Gaikwad received the prestigious Delhi Sahitya Academy Awards
for their autobiographies Upara and Ucchaliya respectively. In the year 2012 Gujarati Dalit
writer Dr. Mohan Parmar has received Delhi Sahitya Academy Award for his short story
collection Anchalo. The young Gujarati Dalit writers like Anil Chavda, Chandresh Makwana
(Yuva Gaurav Purshakar awardee)
Mina Kamble, Daxa Damodara, Priyanka Kalpit have also change the face of Gujarati Dalit
writing. Instead revolt or resistance the tone of their poetry is calm and repose. We find a note of
hope in their writing.
Langston Hughes’s poem “Note on a Commercial Theatre” and Pravin Gadhvi’s “Farewell to
Arms” are affirmative poems about better tomorrows.
But someday somebody’ll
Standup and talk about me,
And write about me
Black and beautiful,
And sing about me,
And put on plays about me!
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I reckon it will be
Me Myself!
Yes it will be me.
Pravin Gadhvi’s “Farewell to Arms” originally titled Shastra Sanyassa also talks about
assimilation.
Let us put aside the arms
And hold a round table conference
We have no nations to be proud of.
We have no farm to till, no house for shelter
You did not leave even a blade of grass for us since times of
Aryavart
We are ready to forget all
Are you ready to remove the walls from the village?
We are ready to dissolve like sugar in milk.
Let us put aside arms
And till the fertile land of our nation together.
(Manglam.54)
Works Cited
Burke, Rupalee & Darshana Trivedi(ed) The silver Lining Ahmedabad: Dalit Sahitya
Academy,2000.Print
Blyden,Jackson. A History of Afro American Literature Vol. I Louisiana: Louisiana state
university Press, 1989.Print
Dangle,Arjun.(ed) Poisoned Bread Bombay:Orient Longman, 1992. Print
Dickinson,Donald. A Bio-Biblography of Langston Hughes Hamden Conn: Archon, 1972. Print
Zelliot Eleonor, & Mulk Raj Anand (ed) An Anthology Of Dalit Literature New Delhi:Gyan,
1972. Print
Dr. Darshana Trivedi
Associate Professor - Dept. of English, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad.
E-mail:[email protected]
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