RUSSIAN TRANSLATION SERIES
OF THE
PEABODY MUSEUM OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
VOL. 11, NO. 1
ANTHROPOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF THE
POPULATION OF CENTRAL ASIA, AND THE
ETHNOGENESIS OF ITS PEOPLES: I
-*
L. V. OSHANIN
Translated by Vladirnir M. Maurin
Edited by Henry Field
PUBLISHED BY THE PEABODY MUSEUM
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.
1 9 6 4
,A;
PRINTED BY THE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRINTING OFFICE
CAMBRUX;E, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.
PREFACE
This study forms the first of three parts of the "Anthropological Composition of the Popula.tion of Central Asia, and the Ethnogenesis of Its Peoples," Transactions, New Series, No. XCVI,
Historical Sciences, Vol. 16, pp. 1-138, by Dr. L. V. Oshanin, published by Yerevan [formerly
Erivan] University, 1957, in collaboration with the Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR
ant1 the V. I. Lenin State University of Central Asia.
Dr. Oshanin, whom I met during the International Scientific Congress in Leningrad in 1945,
very kindly offered to send me these three sections of his basic anthropometric study on the peoples
of Central Asia for translation and publication.
This volume was translated by Mr. Vladimir M. Maurin, who has had special experience in
the translation of Russian documents for the past fifteen years. His care, particularly in the
transliteration of proper names of authors and titles in accordance with the style adopted by the
Library of Congress, is greatly appreciated.
Mr. Eugene V. ~ r o s t o v ,with whom I have published a number of summaries of Soviet
Archaeology,* has made many helplul suggestions dealing with the transliteration of Chinese,
Arabic and Persian place-names. His explanatory comments appear in the Notes. I am most
grateful for his expert assistance.
T h e spellings of tribal and geographical names follow standard usage in the United States.
In some cases the exact transliteration has been used. With regard to the transliteration of proper
nouns, geographical names and bibliographical references, Mr. Prostov wrote:
All place-names in contemporary USSR (and recent Russian Empire) have been transcribed in accordance with thc practice of the U.S. Board on Geographic Names.
Distinction was made whenever leasible between the generic name as well as the generic
terms. Region, Oblast and Krai (region of and area of or general area of, respectively) and
the same words used as part of "administrative-territorial subdivisions in the sense of,
roughly, county, province, and territory of the Soviet Union." T h e latter are always capitalized.
Ancient and pre-Russian Oriental names in Soviet Asia have been given accepted AngloAmerican forms in the case of classical Greek and Roman rcferences. Chinese toponymic and
other proper names, wherever identifiable, have been given in the standard Wade-Giles
transcriptions; otherwise as transliteration of Russian original in accordance with the Library
of Congress transliteration.
T h e transliteration of the Arabic, Persian and Turkish names follow that atlopted by
the Peabody Museum. In the absence of fully standard reference sources for the Turkic,
Mongolic, etc., proper names and coponynis including tribal designations have lor the most
part been transcribed from the Russian transliterations of nominative singular, in case of
tribes given by Oshanin. In a few cases, these have been replaced whenever there were English or An~ericanforms well established in standard reference works.
All bibliographical references, including the names o l the authors and the text, in the
case of Russian and other Soviet publications have been given in the Library of Congress
transliteration, omitting diacritical marks and ligatures. T h e names of foreign authors when
cited in connection with Russian-language publications have been retranscribetl to the
original Western Corm. Russian titles of articles, monographs, periodical publications, etc.,
'See my "Bibliography of Soviet Archaeology and Anthropology, 1936-52" in: Hmry Field. "Contributions to
the Anthropology of the Caucasus." Peabody Museum Papen. Vol. 48, no. 1 , pp. 117-19, Ca~nhridge,1953. Here are
listed 101 titles of which Nos. 2-5. 7-13, 15, ItL22, 2 4 4 2 . 73 and 08 were translated by Mr. Eugene V. Prostov.
See also my "Dibliography. 1926-1961" with Nos. 1 3 3 8 dated June 4, 1961. and distributed privately.
referring to local Central Asian publications unavailable in United States libraries, have
been transliteratecl word for word, with the volu~ne,par[, eto., given as in the original. T h e
capitalization of the original titles of serials was lollowed literally, except where capitalizing
the first word of the corporate entry would facilitate finding the giver1 publication in United
States library catalogs and union lists. Translations have been given of all Russian titles.
I t was not practicable to supply, in the Bibliographical Section, the inclusive pagination
which is not given in the original in keeping with the local bibliographical style used by
Oshanin.
I n the case of some of the more comrnon publications as Sovetskaia Etnographia, references are to year and n u ~ n b e rinstead of to volume in keeping with publishers' practice.
Certain arbitrary spellings of place-names have been followed with variants in parentheses
the first time the name is used. Wherever possible I have selected the prelerred spelling used in
my, "Contributions to the Anthrol~ologyof the Soviet Union," Smitllsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 110, no. 13, pp. 1-244, 1948.
As Editor, I inserted the anthropometric terminology and arranged the statistical data to
conform to the Harvard System of presentation. This simplifies the comparison oE the results
obtained by Oslianin in Soviet Central Asia with those from south of thc Soviet border ranging
from eastern Anatolia through Iran, Afghanistan to northern Pakistan, and northwestern India.*
I n order to elucidate the text 1 have added some references and dates in brackets. However, the
numbers in brackets referring to references in the Bibliography were inserted by Oshanin. Since
there are numerous references to major and minor racial groups, it was decided to capitalize Race
only when referring to Mediterranean, Europeoid, Mongoloid and Negroid. Oshanin usually
refers to these Races as the Great Mongoloid Race, etc.
Since Soviet anthropologists prefer to be referred to by their surnames, this procedure has
been followed. T h e initials oE each author are given in the Bibliography.
Attention must be called to the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(E)
I n ~llostcases we have followed Oshanin's paragraphs.
Anthropologists usually mean physical antl~ropologists.
In our terminology anthropological should generally be read as anthropometric.
Kirghiz has been used for singular and plural forms.
Turkized is preferred to Turkicired.
Bizygomatic breadth is used instead of bi~ygomaticdiameter.
(g) Figure 1 illustrating the "Mongoloicl fold" has been omitted.
(h) Anterior Asia has been used in preference to Near East or Asia Minor.
(i) Central Asiatic Interfluvial Kegion has been used in preference to Interfluminal.
(j) Dr. Oshanin sent some substitutions for the racial types in the Illustrations. These
photographs were taken by L. V. Oshanin during 1927 and 1929. T h e Reverend Franklin L.
Couch, Tyringham, Massachusetts, made enlargements of Nos. 9-10. 13 and 14.
(k) lulle near Budapest is not listed in U.S. Board on Geographic names - Hungary.
I n Widener Library a Hungarian Staff member suggested this nliglit be Fiile or Fulek since
the former means a region or area.
(1) According to W. Barthold in the Encyclopaedia of Islam the Kipchaks are described
as being "the same people were ot course called Polovtsi" by the Kussians and "Comani" by
See Henry Field. "Ancient and Modern Man in Southwestern Asia: I," University oE Miami Press, 1956, with
156 tal)les ancl Vol. 11 pul,lished in 1961 with 68 tables and R i graphs. See also under Physical .4nthropology in
the Subject Index to my "Bibliographies on South\vcslern Asia: I-V" by Dr. Edith W. Ware. University of Miami
Press, 1961; also same heading in Subject Index to Bibliographies: VI-VII by Mrs. Edith &I. Laird, 1964.
+
western Europeans. Sir Charles Eliot in his article on "Turks" in the Encyclopaedia Britannica writes that Coman or Kuman is a name given by Europeans to the tribes who occupied
Moldavia and the adjacent regions in the Middle Ages. Rubruquis speaks of the Coman
Kipchaks and i t is probable that the Comans were a hybrid Turkish tribe. Der Grosse
Brockhaus spells the word Kumanen or Komanen, the second form being in smaller type
than the first. Webster gives Coman as "the language of the Medieval Kipchak Khanate"
and Kuman as "one of an early people assimilated with modem Hungarians."
Gratitude must be expressed to Mrs. Edith M. Laird, who contributed (k) and (1) above
and checked the IBM copy and letterpress.
The typing of the first draft was prepared by Mrs. Charlotte Weed, who also assisted with
the checking against Mr. Maurin's handwritten copy.
At my Research Center in Coconut Grove, Florida, Mrs. Birdie P. Levine retyped the text for
final editing by Mrs. Naomi Stratton, Editor of Peabody Museum publications, and myself.
T h e composition of the copy for photo-offset was prepared on my IBM electric typewriter by
Mr. Mark Grant, whose editorial and technical skills, especially with the statistical tables, are
greatly appreciated.
Mrs. Stratton made editorial changes to conform to Vol. I, Nos. 1-3 in this Russian Translation Series. We are grateful for her assistance and valuable suggestions for clarity of presentation.
Dr. J. 0. Brew, Director, Peabody Museum, encouraged the publication of this summary of
Dr. L. V. Oshanin's lifework on the anthropometry of the peoples of Central Asia.
We are deeply grateful to Dr. Oshanin for granting permission for this translation and
publication. With sadness we must report the death of Dr. Oshanin on January 12, 1962, in
Tashkent.
HENRY FIELD
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE by Henry Field
i
INTRODUCTION. E.thnogenesis as a Complex Problem and the role of Anthropology in
Its Solution
ix
.
.
1. Anthropology as an Hlstor~calScience
ix
2. Significance of the Geographic Distribution of Races in Past and Present for the
Solution of Some Important Problems of Ethnogenesis
xi
3. Problem of the First Appearance of the Three Basic Great Races of Contemporary Man.
xii
Comparison of Anthropological and Geological Data
4. Problem of the Time of the Appearance of Mongoloid and Europeoid Races of the
Second Order in Central Asia. Comparison of Anthropological Data with those oE
History and Archaeology
xvi
5. On the Tribal Composition of the Population. Comparison of Anthropological and
Ethnographic Data
xx
6. The Problem of Correlation between Families. Comparison of Anthropological Data
. .
with Lingulst~cEvidence
xxiv
.
CHAPTERS
I. Ethnic and Linguistic Composition of the Population of Central Asia, and Data on the
Anthropology of Its Modem Population
11. Geographical Distribution of Basic Anthropological Characters of the Population of
Central Asia and the Isolation of Racial Types
. . n
111. South S ~ b e r ~ aMongoloid
Race
1V. Europeoid Races of Central Asia and of Adjacent Countries of Iran and the Near East
1. Brachycephalic Race of Central Asiatic Interfluvial Region
2. Europeoid Dolichocephalic Transcaspian Race
3. Brachycephalic Anterior Asia (Armenoid) Race
4. Dolichocephalic Europeoid Khurasan Race
REFERENCES
NOTES
68
TABLES
1. Anthropological Expeditions by Associates of the Department of Anthropology of
SAGU and of the Institute of History and Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences
of the Uzbek SSR
2. Groups and Immigrants Studied in Central Asia
. .
3. Groups Studied by Dlstrlct
.
.
Klrghlz
Kazakhs
KaraKal p a s
Kipchaks
Uzbeks of Definite Clans and Tribes
..
Uzbeks of Unknown Clan and Tribal Subdivls~ons
Tadzhiks of the Uzbekistan Plains and Piedmont
..
Tadzhiks of the Tadzhlkistan Piedmont
. .
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
1 1.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
I
19.
.
20 .
21 .
22 .
23 .
24 .
25 .
26.
27 .
28 .
28A .
I'ACE
12
Tadzhiks of the Tadzhlk~stanHighlands ............................................................................
Aricient Highland Tribes of Southern Tadzhikistan (now Tadzhik-speaking) ........ 13
Mountain I'ribes of Tadzhikistan which Preserve Traces of Ancient lranian
Languages
.. 13
Turkomans ...
13
. .
Uigurs from S ~ n k ~ a n g
14
Dunga~lsfrom Dzhungaria ....................................................................................................
14
Koreans from Far East ............................................................................................................
14
Groups frorn Iran ....................................................................................................................
14
Ancient Groups from Anterior Asia ......................................................................................
14
. Fold (Percentages) ............................................................................................
"Mongololcl
17
Beard Development (Males Aged 25-x) ..
18
Horizontal Facial Profile ............................................................................................................
19
Nasal Bridge Height
19
..
P o s ~ t ~ oofn Nasal Lateral Walls .............................................................
20
..
Eyeball P o s ~ t ~ o..n........................................................................................................................
21
Bizygoma tic Breadth ..
22
Morphological Face Height
22
Morphological Face Index .
23
Head Breadth .
..... 23
Head Length ...
21
Cephalic Index ............................................................................................................................
24
Stature
. 25
Iris Color ..
25
a
Index .
26
Comparison of hfongoloids of Cen~ral,Inner ancl Northeastern Asia and
...........................................................................
between 46-47
Europeoids of Central Asia
Coml>arison of Uigurs with Uzbeks, ant1 of Tadzhiks of Southern T a clzhikistan and Northern Afghanistan ..................................................................
between 46-47
Comparison of Uigurs with Uzbeks, a n d of Taclzhiks of Southern T a dzhikistan with Tadzhiks of Northern Afghanistan ........................................ between 46-47
Comparison of Uigurs with Kirghiz and Uzbeks, and Tadzhiks of Southern
'l'adzhikistan with Tadzhiks of Northern Afghanistan .................................... beiween 46-47
Comparison of Uigurs with Kirghiz and Uzbeks, and of Tadzhiks of
Southern Tadzhikistan with Tadzhiks of Northern Afghanistan .................... between 46-47
Comparison of Mongolized Europeoids of the Central Asiatic Interfluvial
Kegion (Uzbeks) with Those of the Transcaspian Region (Turkomans) Males ........................................................................................................................
between 46-47
Comparison of Mongolized Europeoids o l the Central Asiatic Interfluvial
Region (Uzbeks) with Those of the Transcaspian Region (Turkomans) Females ...................................................................................................................
between 46-47
Turkomans of Various Tribes and Raions (Males and Females) ................ between 46-47
.
. between 46-47
Comparison of 'l'ranscaspian and Indo-Afghan Kaces
Comparison of Brachycephalic Europeoids of Central Asia with Those of
Anterior Asia
between 46-47
Comparison of Dolichocephalic Europeoitls of Central Asia and Iran .......... between 46-47
I,
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
1-2. South Siberian Mongoloid Type. Kazakh from Talass Valley .............................47-48
.....
3-4. Europeoid Brachycephalic Type from Central Asiatic Interfluvial Region. No.
3 Tadzhik from Bukhara. No. 4 Uzbek from Shakhrasiab -..-----.-.---..-.--------..-----------.
49-50
5-6. Dolichocephalic Europeoid Transcaspian Race. Turkomans of Gokleni Tribe -- 51-52
7-10. Europeoid Brachycephalic Anterior Asia Race. Jews from Samarkand ..-.-.....-.--.-.53-55
..11-14. Dolichocephalic Europeoid Khurasan Race. Nos. 11-12, Persians from Meshed
Area. Nos. 13-14, Azerbaijani from Tabriz Area -..---....------.-.--.--..........--.-..-..-..-.-----..56-59
INTRODUCTION
ETHNOGENESIS AS A COMPLEX PROBLEM AND THE
ROLE O F ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITS SOLUTION
1.
Anthropologv a s a n H i s t o r i c a l Science
Owing t o the v e r y c h a r a c t e r of t h e object of i t s study, Anthropology occupies a
borderland between Natural H i s t o r y and the Humanities. It i s a p a r t of Natural
History t o the extent that Man is studied a s the final link i n the evolution of the animal kingdom and, simultaneously, Anthropology a p p e a r s a s a p a r t of the h i s t o r y
of present-day mankind t o the extent that i t studies Man in his p r e s e n t f o r m .
Anthropology s h e d s light on t h r e e important s t a g e s of one and the s a m e h i s t o r ical process: t h e origin of the p r e s e n t -day human species; the p r o c e s s of differentiation of this s p e c i e s into so-called human r a c e s ; and the p r o c e s s of the formation
of various t r i b e s , nationalities and nations f r o m t h e existing human r a c e s .
Three independent b r a n c h e s of Anthropology c o r r e s p o n d to the t h r e e problems
indicated: Anthropogenesis, which d e a l s with t h e p r o b l e m of t h e origin of man;
Race Genetics and Ethnology, which t r a c e the origin of human r a c e s and t h e i r
morphological c h a r a c t e r s ; and Ethnogene s i s , which c o m p r i s e s the h i s t o r i c a l
process of the formation of p r e s e n t - d a y t r i b e s , nationalities and nations f r o m
those r a c e s .
These t h r e e p r o b l e m s do not exhaust by any m e a n s the content of Anthropology.
However, t h e study of the t h r e e s t a g e s of the s a m e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s , i . e . ,
Anthropogenesis, Ethnology and Ethnogenesis, r e p r e s e n t s one of the m o s t i m p o r
tant tasks of Anthropology.
From this point of view, Anthropology a p p e a r s f o r e m o s t a s a n h i s t o r i c a l science
in the v e r y broad s e n s e in which the founders of M a r x i s m understood history,
namely a s pointed out i n the epigraph1 of the Introduction.
Some phenomena in Anthropology a r e controlled completely by the laws of Natural History, o t h e r s p a r t l y by t h e s e and p a r t l y by s o c i a l laws. A third category
is subject a l m o s t entirely to s o c i a l laws. T o the f i r s t category of phenomena
belong the m o s t ancient stages of the o r i g i n of man, the study of the links i n the
chain which binds human origins to the evolution of the v e r t e b r a t e s , beginning with
the most primitive skull-less f o r m s up t o the anthropoid apes. The second s t a g e
relates Anthropogenesis i n i t s n a r r o w s e n s e , i. e . , the study of the evolutionary
process f r o m the appearance of the f i r s t f o s s i l m e n (Hominidae) t o the e m e r g e n c e
of the p r e s e n t human types of s p e c i e s , and the e a r l y s t a g e s of the differentiation of
this species into p r e s e n t - d a y human r a c e s .
During this stage, with the production of tools, a p p e a r s a completely new h i s t o r ical factor which plays a n e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g role, i. e., conscious human l a b o r . The
third and l a s t stage c o m p r i s e s t h e migration and mixing of various human r a c e s
and their grouping into t r i b e s , nationalities and nations.
Each of the t h r e e above-mentioned p r o b l e m s of Anthropology belongs t o the c a t egory of complex p r o b l e m s necessitating f o r t h e i r solution the application of factual
-
INTRODUCTION
m a t e r i a l and the use of basic conclusions, not of one but of a number of sciences.
The e a r l y stages of Anthropogenesis c a n be elucidated with sufficient fullness only
by means of the comparative anatomy of man and the v e r t e b r a t e s , of t h e i r c o m p a r ative embryology, and the data contributed by Palaeontology and Geology f r o m the
Cambrian to the Quaternary P e r i o d s .
L a t e r stages of Anthropogenesis must take into consideration the palaeontology
of f o s s i l hominids, the zoology of p r i m a t e s , Quaternary Geology and Palaeontology,
and, f r o m the Humanities, especially the history of primitive society. The l a s t
stage, the p r o c e s s of migration and mestization of the already formed various hum a n r a c e s , and the history of the formation of t r i b e s , nationalities and.nations,
r e q u i r e s on the one hand the use of data f r o m Anthropology, a biological science,
and on the other, data f r o m the Humanities- -History, Archaeology, Linguistics
and Ethnography.
During the period of Soviet rule, the combined efforts of anthropologists -ethnologists and of s c h o l a r s of the enumerated Humanities c r e a t e d a completely new branc
of the science of history which in our country received the designation Ethnogenesis
As we have already noted i n this Introduction, Anthropology and e v e r y one of the
adjacent disciplines i n the field of Humanities have distinct assignments in the t a s k
of elucidating various aspects of the p r o c e s s of Ethnogenesis; they bring t o b e a r
t h e i r own concrete factual material, and utilize their specific methods of r e s e a r c h .
However, none can dispense with utilizing the data of all other disciplines which
participate i n the investigation of the complex problem of Ethnogenesis. Neverthel e s s , no m a t t e r f r o m which point of view one approaches this p r o b l e m - - f r o m the
point of view of Anthropology, History, Archaeology, Linguistics or Ethnography
--the various aspects of the ethnogenetic p r o c e s s can be properly dealt with only
by the application of the method of Marxism-Leninism.
Of g r e a t significance f o r the Marxist elucidation of ethnogenetic problems a r e
the writings of Stalin concerning the problem of nationalities [71] and the problems
of philology [74].
Since prehistoric times, Central Asia has been inhabited by various human collectives. In the e a r l y stages, during the period of the clan organization, these
collectives consisted of family groups, then of t r i b e s composed of such groups,
then of nationalities uniting various tribes; a t p r e s e n t a l l these ethnic components
of Central Asia have formed nations. In the various stages of t h e i r formation,
which a t times took place i n regions quite distant f r o m each other, the indicated
ethnic components included quite different human r a c e s . In other words, along with
the changes i n ethnic composition, t h e r e a l s o o c c u r r e d changes in the racial.composition of the population.
The history of the emergence of national unions in Central Asia f r o m ancient
clan groups, t r i b e s and peoples, that is, f r o m various ethnic components, i s the
t a s k of ethnographers and historians. The history of the formation of one national
language on a given, definite t e r r i t o r y i s the t a s k of linguists. However, the f o r e m o s t t a s k facing Soviet anthropologists i s the study of the p r e s e n t r a c i a l composition of the population of the Soviet Republics of Central Asia, and a l s o the study of
palaeoanthropological data, i. e . , bones obtained f r o m chronologically dated and,
where possible, ethnically determined, ancient interments. By comparing the
present r a c i a l composition of the population with palaeoanthropological data, one
establishes the h i s t o r y of the colonization of the t e r r i t o r i e s by various r a c e s and,
finally, the history of the formation of the Soviet Socialist nations of Central Asia
f r o m s e v e r a l different r a c e s .
INTRODUCTION
2 . Sienificance of t h e G e o e r a ~ h i cD i s t r i b u t i o n of R a c e s i n
t h e P a s t and P r e s e n t f o r t h e Solution of S o m e
Im~ortanP
t r o b l e m s of E t h n o e e n e s i s
Of c a r d i n a l significance f o r t h e solution of ethnogenetic p r o b l e m s i s the f a c t t h a t
some r a c e s of C e n t r a l A s i a a r e autochthonous - - f o r m e d on the t e r r i t o r y of C e n t r a l
Asia--while o t h e r s i m m i g r a t e d l a t e r f r o m o t h e r a r e a s . According t o a n evident
prevalence of the indigenous a n c i e n t r a c i a l type i n s o m e c a s e s , o r of r a c e s which
immigrated l a t e r i n o t h e r s , we a r e able t o d e t e r m i n e which b a s i c m a s s of t h e population c o m p o s e s a given nation, nationality o r t r i b e , i. e . , the indigenous o r the i m migrants and, if the l a t t e r , f r o m what c o u n t r i e s . Hence t h e i m p o r t a n c e of the study
of the geographic d i s t r i b u t i o n of r a c e s i n a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n t i m e s .
The population of C e n t r a l A s i a i s by no m e a n s i s o l a t e d . H i s t o r i c a l l y , i t was
formed a s a p a r t of t h e population of t h e e n t i r e v a s t l a n d m a s s of E u r a s i a . F r o m
the anthropogeographical point of view (taking Anthropogeography i n t h i s c a s e i n a
narrow, specifically anthropological s e n s e , meaning o r i g i n a l a r e a s o r c e n t e r s of
distribution of t h e r a c e s of mankind), t h e t e r r i t o r y occupied by the Soviet Republics
of Central A s i a is a b r o a d b o r d e r zone l o c a t e d between t h e o r i g i n a l a r e a s of two
basic G r e a t R a c e s of the E u r a s i a n continent: t h e Europeoid and the Mongoloid. T h e
original a r e a s of t h e Mongoloid Race w e r e m a i n l y the c o u n t r i e s which l i e t o t h e
north and e a s t of C e n t r a l Asia; t h o s e of t h e Europeoid Race, t o t h e south and west
of Central Asia.
These two g r e a t r a c e s , f r o m t h e e a r l i e s t t i m e s , s e n t t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o
Central A s i a e i t h e r i n the f o r m of e n t i r e t r i b e s and peoples o r f r a g m e n t s of v a r i o u s
tribes and peoples whose i n i t i a l c o r e s had b e e n f o r m e d h i s t o r i c a l l y i n the c e n t e r s
of distribution of t h e s e r a c e s , and who w e r e , t h e r e f o r e , included i n the l a t t e r ' s
racial composition. Meanwhile, the b o u n d a r i e s of t h e a r e a s inhabited by v a r i o u s
human r a c e s w e r e changing i n the c o u r s e of t i m e . At p r e s e n t , C e n t r a l A s i a i n p a r ticular a p p e a r s as a b r o a d b o r d e r zone between the a r e a s of t h e h$ongoloid and E u ropeoid r a c e s , and a s t h e r e g i o n of t h e i r m o s t intensive intermixin$.
However, i n
ancient t i m e s - - a p p a r e n t l y u p to t h e second c e n t u r y B. C . - - t h e zone of d i r e c t contact
and mixing of E u r o p e o i d s and Mongoloids w a s l o c a t e d f a r e a s t of C e n t r a l A s i a , within the bounds of the Sayan-Altai highlands. L a t e r we s h a l l m o r e than once dwell on
this fact, which i s of p a r t i c u l a r significance i n the whole p r o b l e m of the ethnogenesis of the nations of C e n t r a l Asia.
The v a s t extent of the a r e a s inhabited by E u r o p e o i d s and Mongoloids m u s t a l s o
be taken into account. In t h i s connection, i t suffices to r e c a l l t h a t the Europeoid
Race populated not only a l l of E u r o p e f r o m G r e a t B r i t a i n and Scandinavia t o t h e
Urals and the C a u c a s u s ("Caucasian r a c e " i s one of t h e obsolete synonyms of the
Great Europeoid R a c e ) but a l s o all of t h e n o r t h e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n p a r t of Africa,
and a considerable p a r t of s o u t h e r n A s i a down t o n o r t h e r n India.
xii
INTRODUCTION
T h e r e f o r e , a definite geographic a r e a resulting f r o m p r o l o n g e d i s o l a t i o n on a given
t e r r i t o r y c o n s t i t u t e s , i n addition t o the p r e s e n c e of a s p e c i f i c c o m p l e x of inheritable
morphological t r a i t s , a s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r of a human r a c e .
A c o m p l e x of distinguishing morphological t r a i t s , which evolved d u r i n g a long p e .
r i o d by i n h e r i t a n c e , and the p r e s e n c e of a definite a r e a o r g e o g r a p h i c c e n t e r c o n s t i t u t e s . i n e s s e n c e . o u r concept of h u m a n r a c e s .
Anthropologists do not c o n s i d e r s e p a r a t e morphological t y p e s ( f o r e x a m p l e , c o n stitutional t y p e s of body s t r u c t u r e ) a s r a c i a l t y p e s if they a r e not connected with def.
inite c e n t e r s of d i s t r i b u t i o n w h e r e t h e s e t y p e s a p p e a r of c o u r s e not i n a b s o l u t e p u r i t
( f o r in view of t h e intensive mingling of the p r e s e n t - d a y populations of t h e world, s u
c a s e s do not e x i s t ) but m o s t c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d and m o s t frequently e n c o u n t e r e d .
Hence, the n a t u r a l tendency of anthropologists i s t o u s e a s a designation.of h u m a n
r a c e s g e o g r a p h i c a l r a t h e r t h a n morphological and, s t i l l l e s s , ethnic o r l i n g u i s t i c
t e r m i n o l o g y . According t o a n a p t p h r a s e of Salomon Reinach, ethnic a n d l i n g u i s t i c
designations a r e a 'veritable plague f o r Anthropology." T h e d i s a r r a y i n t e r m i n o l ogy l e a d s occasionally t o a confusion of s u c h d i s t i n c t c a t e g o r i e s a s r a c e (a biologic a l c a t e g o r y ) , t r i b e o r nation ( a n ethnic c a t e g o r y ) and language ( a linguistic c a t e gory). Such confusion i s f r a u g h t with c o n s e q u e n c e s which c a s t doubt upon the s c i entific significance of t h e whole concept, including the a t t e m p t s a t c o n s t r u c t i n g
pseudo-scientific * t h e o r i e s n of r a c i s m . I t i s sufficient t o r e c a l l in t h i s r e g a r d t h e
notorious "Aryan r a c e " which, a s a m a t t e r of f a c t , d o e s mot e x i s t i n n a t u r e .
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , we a r e using f o r the designation of h u m a n r a c e s , which we have
identified i n the r a t h e r mixed population of C e n t r a l A s i a , g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s , which
indicate the c e n t e r s of d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e r a c e s , r e g a r d l e s s of the l i n g u i s t i c , t r i b .
a1 o r national affinities of the population of a given t e r r i t o r y .
As e a c h of t h e two b a s i c G r e a t R a c e s of E u r a s i a , t h e Mongoloid and the E u r o peoid, had long ago become differentiated into a n u m b e r of s m a l l e r r a c e s , C e n t r a l
A s i a was s e t t l e d not by two but actually by s e v e r a l Mongoloid and Europeoid r a c e s .
T h e l a t t e r moved into C e n t r a l A s i a principally f r o m the south and southwest, c r o s s ing A n t e r i o r A s i a and the I r a n i a n c o u n t r i e s .
T h e Mongoloid r a c e s m i g r a t e d f r o m
t h e n o r t h and e a s t , c r o s s i n g t h e expanse of t h e n o r t h e r n steppe zone of C e n t r a l A s i a
which w a s c a l l e d , i n ancient t i m e s , the Dasht-i-Kipchak.
We a s s u m e , on the b a s i s of anthropological investigations, t h a t a t l e a s t two
g r o u p s of E u r o p e o i d s moved into C e n t r a l A s i a f r o m t h e south and southwest, and
l i k e w i s e not l e s s than two g r o u p s of Mongoloids f r o m the n o r t h and e a s t .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s e i m m i g r a n t s did not find C e n t r a l A s i a uninhabited. On the
c o n t r a r y , t h e y found h e r e a r e l a t i v e l y d e n s e population, p a r t l y s e t t l e d , p a r t l y n o m a d i c , of v a r i o u s Iranian-speaking t r i b e s whose e x i s t e n c e h a s b e e n f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d f r o m existing s o u r c e s . Anthropological d a t a have r e v e a l e d t h a t t h i s a n c i e n t
indigenous population was r e l a t e d , i n a n y event, t o t h e two Europeoid r a c e s which
still predominate here.
One of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t questions f o r the solution of the p r o b l e m of the Ethnog e n e s i s of t h e peoples of C e n t r a l A s i a i s the length of t i m e t h a t the r a c e s which now
l i v e t h e r e have been i n e x i s t e n c e and, i n t h i s connection, t o what extent c a n we u s e ,
as a p r i m a r y s o u r c e , t h e i r g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e p a s t f o r t h e elucidation
of the h i s t o r y of t h e i r settling i n C e n t r a l Asia.
3 . P r o b l e m of the F i r s t Appearance of t h e
T h r e e B a s i c G r e a t R a c e s of C o n t e m ~ o r a r vMan.
c o m p a r i s o n of Anthropological and Geological Data.
The e n t i r e chronology of f o s s i l m a n and t h e t i m e of the e m e r g e n c e of the g r e a t
r a c e s a r e dated i n the l a s t s t a g e of the h i s t o r y of o u r planet, the P l e i s t o c e n e o r
INTRODUCTION
- ..
Xlll
Quaternary Ice Age with its subdivision into four glacial and t h r e e i n t e r g l a c i a l
periods.
There a r e two schools of thought among geologists. One of t h e m c o n s i d e r s that
there was one "great glaciation, * the other that t h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l glaciations followed by intermittent i n t e r g l a c i a l epochs. The f i r s t school is called Monoglacialism,
the second Polyglacialism. The difference of opinion between the two schools of
thought is f a r f r o m settled, thus accounting f o r considerable difficulties i n the c h r o n ological dating of f o s s i l human bones. We, like the m a j o r i t y of Soviet anthropologists
and archaeologists, accept the t h e o r y of Polyglacialism because it is m o s t consistent
with the finds of human f o s s i l s i n t e m p e r a t e regions, i n s o m e c a s e s i n combination
with Arctic fauna (Neanderthalers); i n o t h e r s with w a r m climate fauna (Homo
heidelbergensis). According to the t h e o r y of Polyglacialism, the climate became
much m o r e s e v e r e during t h e g l a c i a l p e r i o d s than that which now p r e v a i l s in the
Temperate Zone; during i n t e r g l a c i a l p e r i o d s t h e climate was considerably w a r m e r .
Flora and fauna changed correspondingly.
During t h e glacial periods, the tundra, widespread on the plains of t h e T e m p e r a t e
Zone belt, was inhabited by c o n t e m p o r a r y o r extinct A r c t i c fauna ( r e i n d e e r , m a m moth, woolly r h i n o c e r o s , m u s k ox, glutton [Gulo g u l ~ ]and lemming) and by a n i m a l s
descending f r o m the highlands onto the plains (mountain goat, Alpine p a r t r i d g e and
marmot). Meadows and woods, expanding during the interglacial p e r i o d s , were inhabited by a n i m a l s coming p a r t l y f r o m t e m p e r a t e zones, p a r t l y f r o m t o r r i d regions
of Asia and Africa (elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, hyaena, lion and t i g e r ) .
The consecutive glaciations r e c e i v e d t h e i r designations f r o m the t r i b u t a r i e s of
the Upper Danube i n the Alps where t h e i r t r a c e s m a y e a s i l y be found: I, the e a r l i e s t ,
Giinz; 11, Mindel; 111, Riss; and the l a s t , IV, Wiirm. Correspondingly, the i n t e r glacial periods a r e indicated not by Roman but by Arabic numerals: 1, Giinz-Mindel;
2, Mindel-Riss; and 3 , Riss-Wiirm. This f u r n i s h e s some basis f o r a relative c h r o nology of the e n t i r e Quaternary P e r i o d and f o r a corresponding dating of human fos sils. Thus, p a r t s of human skeletons found in Giinz, Giinz-Mindel o r Mindel deposits
are older than those found i n R i s s , Ris s -Wfirm o r Warm deposits. However, even
this relative chronology encounters considerable difficulty and provokes debate among
different investigators. F o r example, s o m e anthropologists and geologists a s s i g n the
Neanderthalers t o the Wiirm (IV), o t h e r s t o the R i s s (111) glaciation. We encounter
even g r e a t e r difficulties and contradictory opinions on the question of absolute c h r o nology, namely, t h e duration of given glacial and i n t e r g l a c i a l p e r i o d s i n t e r m s of
years.
From the extensive and v e r y contradictory l i t e r a t u r e on this question, one example
w i l l suffice. In Soviet Geology and Anthropology, it i s accepted that the Q u a t e r n a r y
lasted about one million y e a r s . However, Henry Fairfield Osborn, well-known A m e r
ican palaeontologist, e s t i m a t e d the duration of the Quaternary a t 500,000 y e a r s . C o r respondingly, the duration of the individual subdivisions, among which the second was
the longest, i s reduced by half.
As mentioned before, E u r a s i a was the original c e n t e r of the distribution of the
basic Great R a c e s , the Europeoid and Mongoloid. The t h i r d G r e a t Race, the Negroid,
settled Africa south of the Sahara, A u s t r a l i a and Melanesia. All t h r e e g r e a t r a c e s ,
which had eventually become differentiated into a number of s m a l l e r r a c e s o r r a c e s
of the second o r d e r , belong undoubtedly t o a single zoological species. The g r e a t
races were originally r e p r e s e n t e d by types with common, generalized t r a i t s which
were specific f o r a l l Europeoids, o r a l l Mongoloids o r a l l Negroids. ,
These oldest a n c e s t o r s of c o n t e m p o r a r y g r e a t r a c e s a r e called Proto-Europeoids,
Proto-Mongoloids and Proto-Negroids. The time of t h e i r formation coincided with
the epoch when Man i n h i s present-day f o r m evolved f r o m the Neanderthaloid type
which preceded it everywhere i n the Old World. In other words, those a n c e s t o r s a r e
-
INTRODUCTION
a s ancient a s p r e s e n t -day Man h i m s e l f . T h e m o d e r n s m a l l r a c e s , which b e c a m e
differentiated f r o m the t h r e e b a s i c r a c i a l t r u n k s of humanity, a p p e a r e d considerably
l a t e r . As a r u l e , h u m a n f o s s i l i z e d r e m a i n s a r e a s s o c i a t e d with a r t i f a c t s of t h e
Palaeolithic, Neolithic, B r o n z e o r I r o n Ages. Archaeology enables u s t o date t h e
e m e r g e n c e of the m o d e r n s p e c i e s of man, and likewise h i s differentiation into b a s i c
r a c i a l s t e m s , t o t h e Upper Palaeolithic. In E u r o p e t h e b e a r e r s of t h e Upper P a l a e o lithic Aurignacian and Magdalenian c u l t u r e s a l r e a d y belonged t o t h e p r e s e n t r a c i a l
types and w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d by the Negroid Race of G r i m a l d i and t h e Europeoid Race
of C r 6 - ~ a ~ n o n .
Within the s c h e m e of geological t i m e , the a p p e a r a n c e of t h e s e r a c e s coincided,
according t o Osborn, with the end of t h e W a r m Glaciation; t h i s m a y have b e e n
25,000-30,000 y e a r s ago [39, pp. 219-201. I n t h e opinion of t h e Soviet Archaeologist
P. P. Efimenko, we m u s t c o n s i d e r the above -mentioned Palaeolithic c u l t u r e s and,
consequently, t h e i r b e a r e r s , the G r i m a l d i and Crg-Magnon r a c e s , t o b e c o n s i d e r ably o l d e r , since t h i s author a s s i g n s t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e not t o t h e end of the 'WBrm
but t o the end of the R i s s Glaciation [65, pp. 428-35 and table V].
Such g r e a t d i s c r e p a n c i e s a r e caused by the a b s e n c e of a g e n e r a l l y accepted p r e c i s e methodology f o r determining the duration of g l a c i a l and i n t e r g l a c i a l p e r i o d s i n
t e r m s of y e a r s . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s mentioned above, even the r e l a t i v e chronology
evokes s h a r p d i s a g r e e m e n t s a s v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s ' a s s i g n human f o s s i l s t o dif f e r e n t p h a s e s of the Pleistocene.
However, r e g a r d l e s s of a l l contradictions of published data, the undisputed f a c t
i s t h a t two of t h e t h r e e b a s i c G r e a t Races, t h e Europeoid and t h e Negroid, have
e x i s t e d t e n s of thousands of y e a r s .
The P r o t o - E u r o p e o i d Crc-Magnon r a c e r e c e i v e d its n a m e f r o m t h e location of
one of the f i r s t finds of this r a c i a l type i n 1868 i n C r c - ~ a g n o nCave n e a r L e s
E y z i e s , Dordogne. T h e r e i s no doubt t h a t C r c -Magnon m a n belonged t o t h e p r e s e n t
day h u m a n s p e c i e s - t o be exact, t o the G r e a t Europeoid Race. Subsequent i n v e s t i gations have shown t h a t v a r i a n t s of the C r c - ~ a ~ n or anc e w e r e widely d i s t r i b u t e d i n
E u r a s i a , f r o m Western Europe up t o t h e Sayan-Altai highlands, and that, i n e v e r y
i n s t a n c e , they p r e c e d e d t h e a p p e a r a n c e of m o d e r n Europeoid r a c e s .
T h e oldest Crz-Magnon r e m a i n s w e r e a s s o c i a t e d with Upper Palaeolithic i m p l e
ments
the s o -called Aurignacian c u l t u r e .
Although the a p p e a r a n c e of P r o t o - N e g r o i d s o c c u r r e d e a r l i e r , t h i s type belongs,
n e v e r t h e l e s s , t o a n epoch c l o s e l y r e l a t e d i n t i m e . T h i s i s evidenced by the g e n e r ally known Negroid skeletons of a n old woman and a youth, which w e r e found i n t h e
g- r o t t o e s of G r i m a l d i a t Menton on the F r e n c h - I t a l i a n b o r d e r . Associated with t h e s e
r e m a i n s w e r e Aurignacian i m p l e m e n t s and o r n a m e n t s of the Upper Palaeolithic.
T h a t G r i m a l d i Negroids belonged t o a p r e s e n t - d a y human s p e c i e s , namely the G r e a t
Negroid Race, i s a l s o beyond doubt. I n t h e s a m e g r o t t o e s of Grimaldi, t h e r e w e r e
a l s o found typical Cr6-Magnons with typologically s i m i l a r Aurignacian a r t i f a c t s .
In o t h e r words, the G r i m a l d i Negroids and t h e Europeoid C r 6 - ~ a g n o n slived d u r ing the s a m e epoch. T h e question of how and when t h e P r o t o - N e g r o i d s , whose a n c e s t r a l home i n a l l likelihood was i n Africa, c a m e t o dwell in s o u t h e r n F r a n c e r e
m a i n s unanswered. The g r e a t antiquity of the Negroids i s indicated not- only by the
two skeletons f r o m G r i m a l d i but a l s o by a Negroid c r a n i u m belonging to t h e - U p p e r
Palaeolithic found l a t e r in A s s e l i a r i n the southern p a r t of t h e S a h a r a 113, p . 31 11.
The p r o b l e m of t h e t i m e and o r i g i n a l a r e a of the a p p e a r a n c e of the t h i r d r a c e ,
the Mongoloid, h a s b e e n developed i n many studies by Soviet anthropologists. In
foreign writings, s i n c e the t i m e of the investigations m a d e by T e s t u t (toward 'the
end of t h e 18801s), i t was c u s t o m a r y t o r e g a r d the 'Chancelade r a c e , " which received i t s name f r o m t h e location of a skeleton found i n a r o c k s h e l t e r i n t h e Dis
t r i c t of Chancelade i n F r a n c e [75, p. 2981, a s the o l d e s t memb%r of the Mongoloid
-
-
-
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INTRODUCTION
xv
Race. Geologically, this find is attributed t o the end of the glacial period, and i n
archaeological chronology t o the Magdalenian- - l a t e r than the Aurignacian. According to Testut, the Chancelade type r e v e a l s a g r e a t s i m i l a r i t y to that of the modern
Eskimo. It was a l s o pointed out that during the nineteenth century the Eskimo culture stood on t h e s a m e l e v e l a s the Magdalenian, which was widespread i n Western
Europe a t the close of the glacial period. On this b a s i s , broad theories were e s t a b lished regarding E s k i m o migrations after the r e t r e a t i n g g l a c i e r s i n the Arctic regions
of Eurasia, A m e r i c a and Greenland.
However, the relating of the Chancelade type t o that of Eskimos proved to be e r roneous. Mongoloid c h a r a c t e r s a r e not p r e s e n t in the Chancelade cranium. On the
other hand, the Eskimos a r e undoubtedly r e l a t e d t o the G r e a t Mongoloid Race and
represent m e r e l y a p a r t i c u l a r variant. The traditional viewpoint of relating the
Chancelade skeleton t o the Eskimo type was criticized i n foreign l i t e r a t u r e . Keith
correctly classified the Chancelade skull a s typically Europeoid [81, p. 861. F o r
the rest, the s i m i l a r i t y of the m a t e r i a l culture of the Eskimos with the a r t i f a c t s of
the Magdalenians a t t h e end of the Old Stone Age in Western Europe may have resulted
from convergent evolution. It is, therefore, fallacious t o consider the Chancelade
type as Mongoloid. Neither is t h e r e any substance in the broad t h e o r i e s concerning
the westward migrations of the Mongoloids following the edge of retreating g l a c i e r s ,
or a very e a r l y penetration of Mongoloids f r o m e a s t t o west (according to Breuil)
during the Pleistocene P e r i o d .
Debets proved m o s t convincingly i n his important monograph [13] based upon
most extensive factual m a t e r i a l s that the Mongoloid Race was formed i n e a s t e r n
Eurasia in Transbaikalia, the Amur region, Manchuria, Mongolia and North China.
Opinions based on indirect evidence s e e m to indicate that the Mongoloid Race
emerged during the end of the second half of the Upper Pleistocene a s did the Europeoid
and Negroid Races. Prolonged isolation i n a p a r t i c u l a r t e r r i t o r y was one of the m o s t
important f a c t o r s in the formation of human r a c e s , with t h e i r specific complexes of
differentiating t r a i t s . The p r o c e s s e s of extensive l a r g e - s c a l e migrations f r o m t h e i r
original a r e a s began considerably l a t e r .
Roginskii long ago e x p r e s s e d the opinion that the geographic b a r r i e r separating
the Mongoloids and Europeoids could have been the p r o c e s s e s of glaciation which
divided the West S i b e r i a n plains f r o m e a s t e r n E u r a s i a . Unfortunately, we do not
yet possess the information which would m a k e it possible t o date accurately the ancient remains of Mongoloids i n t e r m s of archaeological o r geological periods. F u r thermore, it is still difficult t o c o r r e l a t e the Palaeolithic cultures of Siberia with
those of Europe. Apparently, the Mongoloid element had already appeared west of
Lake Baikal during the Upper Palaeolithic. T h i s i s indicated by a fragment of f r o n tal bone with p a r t s of n a s a l bones which were found during a n excursion in Siberia of
the Seventeenth International Geological Congress by the F r e n c h geologist and a n thropologist Jacques F r o m a g e t at Afontova Gora3 n e a r Krasnoyarsk. Fromaget's
determination of this fragment a s typically Mongoloid was l a t e r fully confirmed by
measurements made by Debets [13, pp. 42-43]. The flint implements f r o m the
Afontova site were a t f i r s t attributed to the Lower Mousterian culture, but l a t e r
finds of flint and bone a r t i f a c t s showed t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y with Magdalenian implements
from Western Europe [13, pp. 40-411. Efimenko a l s o considered the Afontova site
as typically Magdalenian [65, pp. 51 2-1 71. The probability of a n introduction of this
culture to the West Siberian plains f r o m the e a s t is indicated by the g r e a t s i m i l a r i t y
of objects f r o m the Afontova s i t e and f r o m all the other Siberian Palaeolithic s i t e s
with those of Mongolia and China [13, p. 411.
On the other hand, the oldest human r e m a i n s found on the other side of Lake Baikal, in the e a s t e r n p a r t of Asia--the m o s t probable a r e a of Mongoloid o r i g i n - - a r e
either, a s yet, unauthenticated o r e l s e v e r y meager.
xvi
INTRODUCTION
Weidenreich, one of the investigators of Sinanthropus, observed a number of
t r a i t s which, in his opinion, a r e Mongoloid, and which were supposedly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c even f o r the Sinanthropus found in China, i n the Pleistocene deposits of Choukou,
tien n e a r Peking [13, p. 31 11. However, Roginskii criticized Weidenreich's a r g u ments stating that the t r a i t s of Sinanthropus cited by him a r e by no m e a n s specific
f o r Mongoloids, but a l s o occur in other human r a c e s [43, pp. 69-70].
It m u s t be noted that Sinanthropus r e p r e s e n t s one of the oldest stages i n human
evolution, preceding by tens of thousands of y e a r s the appearance of modern species
of man. Transitional f o r m s , on the other hand, a r e indubitable only in the l a t e r
Neanderthaloid stage. Of g r e a t significance i s the fact that the present-day species
of m a n with the complex of Mongoloid c h a r a c t e r s was discovered not i n the Lower or
Middle Pleistocene deposits but i n the upper levels of Choukoutien. However meager,
these facts a g r e e fully with the hypothesis that the Proto-Mongoloid r a c e was formed
e a s t of Lake Baikal- -in Transbaikalia, Manchuria, Mongolia and China - -in the same
epoch, during the second half o r in the final phase of the glacial period.
The question of the t i m e and place of the formation of the Proto-Mongoloid r a c e ,
which l a t e r became differentiated into Mongoloid r a c e s of the second o r d e r , i s of
p r i m a r y significance i n the solution of a number of ethnogenetic problems of the
nations of Central Asia. The above-cited hypothesis a g r e e s perfectly with the f a r
m o r e numerous and authenticated facts of f u r t h e r migrations of Mongoloids to the
west of Lake Baikal, within the l i m i t s of the Sayan-Altai highlands, and f r o m t h e r e
to the wide northern steppe belt of Central Asia.
Thus, i t m a y be considered a s sufficiently f i r m l y established that the t h r e e basic
stems of the Great Races of modern mankind - -the Europeoid, Mongoloid and Negroid
- - w e r e formed, in any event, toward the end, o r m o r e probably during the second
half, of the Pleistocene. In spite of the relativity of "absolute chronology, " we have
e v e r y r e a s o n to accept a s fact that t h e i r age may be counted in tens of thousands of
y e a r s . T h e i r appearance o c c u r r e d much e a r l i e r than the epoch during which t r i b e s
and peoples, not to speak of nations, began t o f o r m .
4 . P r o b l e m of the Time of the AA~A ~ e a r a n c
ofe Mongoloid
and Europeoid R a c e s of
u
the Second O r d e r in Central Asia. Comparison of Anthropological Data
with those of History and Archaeology.
As previously mentioned, Central Asia was settled not by two but by s e v e r a l Mongoloid and Europeoid r a c e s . These s m a l l r a c e s , o r r a c e s of the second o r d e r , whic'
becamedifferentiatedfrom the two basic g r e a t r a c e s of E u r a s i a a r e , although to a
l e s s e r degree, of sufficiently Yancient age" to justify the utilization of t h e i r p a s t and
present geographic distribution f o r the h i s t o r y of the settling of Central Asia by v a r ious Mongoloid and Europeoid r a c e s of the second o r d e r .
Investigations by Soviet archaeologists and anthropologists have shown that the
most ancient remains of the brachycephalic Europeoid Race i n the Central Asiatic
Interfluvial Region, the type which s t i l l predominates in Tadzhikistan and Uzbekistan, i s attributed to the transition of the third to the second millennium B. C.
The second Europeoid r a c e , the dolichocephalic T r a n s c a s p i a n , now predominant
in Turkmenistan, dates f r o m about the same period. Both of these autochthonous
r a c e s developed in Central Asia. Still older i s the so-called Anterior Asia o r A r menoid r a c e , which migrated f r o m Anterior Asia, where i t s center of distribution
s t i l l l i e s in the northern p a r t ; i t s vestiges may be t r a c e d back to the transition
between the fifth and fourth millennium B . C .
The Mongoloid r a c e s of the second o r d e r , on the other hand, cannot be differentiated on the basis of Central Asiatic data. The c e n t e r s of t h e i r distribution lie to
INTRODUCTION
the north and e a s t of C e n t r a l A s i a , i n S i b e r i a and t h e -Far E a s t . Nevertheles s , suf ficiently definite d a t a a r e available on the t i m e of Mongoloid p e n e t r a t i o n into C e n t r a l
Asia, although we cannot a l w a y s d e t e r m i n e t o which Mongoloid r a c e of the second
order they belong.
During t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B. C . , the Mongoloids a p p e a r e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n
the wide steppe b e l t n o r t h of t h e S y r D a r y a , c a l l e d the Dasht-i-Kipchak i n the Middle Ages. Subsequently, the E u r o p e o i d population which p r e c e d e d t h e m b e c a m e
more and m o r e Mongolized, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t y p e s of t h e s u c c e s s i v e waves of Mongoloids coming f r o m the e a s t . As a r e s u l t , the ancient Europeoid population b e c a m e
Mongolized t o t h e extent t h a t i t s t r a i t s b e c a m e p r e d o m i n a n t l y Mongoloid.
The p r e s e n t - d a y inhabitants of t h e Dasht-i-Kipchak, t h e Kazakhs and the Kirghiz,
related t o the Mongoloids r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e Europeoids, a r e known a s t h e South
Siberian Mongoloid r a c e , of which they a r e t h e m o s t t y p i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . T h i s
race, mixed i n i t s o r i g i n a s a r e m a n y o t h e r r a c e s , but with a distinctly Mongoloid
component prevailing, began t o f o r m about 2,000 y e a r s ago.
The Mongoloid e l e m e n t , which f o r m e d on t h e Dasht-i-Kipchak, s e r v e d a s a kind
of reservoir f r o m which p r o c e e d e d the Mongolization of the ancient Europeoid population of the c o u n t r i e s south of t h e S y r Darya.
We shall d i s c u s s l a t e r , i n g r e a t e r detail, t h i s p r o b l e m which i s of t h e g r e a t e s t
importance f o r the ethnogenesis of t h e Uzbeks, T u r k o m a n s and Kara-Kalpaks.
The foregoing d i s c u s s i o n c l a r i f i e s t h e v e r y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Anthropology and the b a s i c h i s t o r i c a l d i s c i p l i n e s of t h e Humanities - -Archaeology and
History.
The relating of s k e l e t o n s o r c r a n i a l f r a g m e n t s t o a specific r a c i a l type i s d e t e r mined, of c o u r s e , wholly by the p h y s i c a l anthropologist. However, the chronological dating, p r e c i s e o r tentative, m a y be given only by h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s - - a r c h a e ological o r written.
As we have s e e n , t h e m o s t ancient human r e m a i n s , which a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e
various stages of hominid evolution and t o t h e epochs of the f o r m a t i o n of t h e g r e a t
human r a c e s , a r e d a t e d on the b a s i s of geological periodization.
Nevertheless, f o r the chronology of the m o r e ancient s t a g e s of h u m a n h i s t o r y ,
archaeological d a t a p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e . Human f o s s i l s a s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e
Neanderthalers, who f o r m e d t h e b a s i c e l e m e n t of the e n t i r e population of E u r a s i a
during the Riss (111) Glaciation, w e r e usually accompanied by typologically Mous
terian stone i m p l e m e n t s . Stone and bone i m p l e m e n t s a r e often well p r e s e r v e d i n
the ground; the f a r m o r e f r a g i l e human s k e l e t o n s much l e s s f r e q u e n t l y . F o r t h i s
reason, Mousterian s i t e s widely found i n E u r a s i a a r e u s u a l l y indicated only by
stone implements. T h e i r p r e s e n c e , however, i s sufficient proof t h a t a given s i t e
was inhabited by h u m a n s of t h e Neanderthal anthropological type. In addition, the
sites yielding h l o u s t e r i a n i m p l e m e n t s , a s a r u l e , d a t e geologically f r o m the s a m e
Riss (111) Glaciation d u r i n g which the N e a n d e r t h a l e r s f o r m e d t h e b a s i c population
of Eurasia. Thus, M o u s t e r i a n and Neanderthal a r e synonymous. On the o t h e r
hand, remains of Homo s a p i e n s a r e g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d with stone and bone i m plements of l a t e r c u l t u r e s of t h e Old Stone A g e - - t h e Aurignacian, Solutrean and
Magdalenian. T h e r e f o r e , we have s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n t o a s s u m e that w h e r e v e r Up per Palaeolithic s i t e s a r e found, the inhabitants w e r e m e n of the p r e s e n t - d a y
types
Finally, the human r e m a i n s obtained f r o m g r a v e s of l a t e r epochs --the I r o n ,
Bronze and Stone A g e s - - a r e a l w a y s d a t e d on t h e b a s i s of v a r i e g a t e d archaeological
inventories- -pottery and b r o n z e o r i r o n i m p l e m e n t s and weapons. However, i t
should be mentioned t h a t chronological dating b a s e d on a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l
alone is frequently difficult. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , the d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n the dating of
some finds a r e often c o n s i d e r a b l e , and m a y v a r y f r o m s e v e r a l hundreds t o
-
.
xviii
INTRODUCTION
1
thousands of years. F o r example, Purnpelly, the f i r s t excavator of Anau n e a r
Ashkhabad, attributed the lower s t r a t a in which he found the m o s t valuable palaeoanthropological m a t e r i a l s t o the sixth-fifth millennia B. C. ; this would have indicated the g r e a t antiquity of the l o c a l Europeoid dolichocephalic r a c e . However, recen
investigations by Masson revealed that those s t r a t a a r e not older than the Ill-I1 millennia B. C. Pumpelly's e r r o r was c o r r e c t e d by Masson on the basis of comprehensive comparative m a t e r i a l s f r o m l a t e r finds and m o r e advanced excavation t e chniqu
However, discrepancies in dating ancient g r a v e s a r e not infrequent among Soviet
archaeologists. F o r this reason, written s o u r c e s a r e of especial importance.
On the basis of critically evaluated sources, historians r e p o r t the t i m e of the appearance in Central Asia of one o r another people and frequently indicate i t s country
of origin. Then, knowing the racial type corresponding to the center of distribution
to which that country of origin belonged a t that time, physical anthropologists a r e i n
a position to determine which new r a c i a l type was introduced by the immigrating
nation.
Nevertheless, the question of which basic, m o s t numerous, stock of the population became p a r t of one or the other modern nation, the local ancient one o r the late
immigrants, can only be answered by an analysis of the r a c i a l composition of that
nation.
As a rule, s o u r c e s do not contain information on the numerical strength of local
t r i b e s o r of the immigrating tribes. At the most, the only definite data obtainable
r e f e r to the number of w a r r i o r s in the a r m y of a conqueror. F o r example, t h e r e
a r e r e p o r t s that the a r m y of Alexander the G r e a t numbered no m o r e than 30,000
Hellenes and that of Darius no m o r e than 40,000 P e r s i a n s . Genghis [Jenghis] Khan
had 200,000 soldiers i n his a r m y , but Mongolians w e r e i n the minority, a l l o t h e r s
belonged to various T u r k i t r i b e s .
Meanwhile, the conquering nation, even if insignificant i n number, can hold sway
f o r a long time, subdue a f a r m o r e numerous local population, and even impose i t s
name on this local population. F o r example, the Uzbek nomads, who occupied mode r n Uzbekistan during the sixteenth century, gave t h e i r name t o the entire population already inhabiting the country.
In the anthropological composition of peoples and nations consisting of various
human r a c e s , the clearly predominating complex of r a c i a l c h a r a c t e r s will always
be that of the basic, most numerous stock.
Therefore, the analysis of the r a c i a l composition of modern nations appears to
be one of the most dependable and, occasionally, even the only source f o r determining which i s the basic and by f a r the l a r g e s t stock in a given nation, the autochthon0
o r the immigrant.
In other words, only an analysis of the r a c i a l composition of the population will
provide the answer to the question whether to consider the basic stock of a given
people to be "descendants" of the ancient local t r i b e s o r of new t r i b e s which i m m i grated l a t e r . At t i m e s , this question becomes highly controversial.
It i s sufficient to cite the long-held, naive viewpoint which considered the present1
Uzbeks a s d i r e c t "descendantsw of the Uzbek conquerors of the sixteenth century and!
the Turkomans a s the udescendants" of the Turki-Seljuks who occupied Turkmenistan
during the eleventh century.
Meanwhile, an analysis of the r a c i a l composition of the p r e s e n t population showed
that the local ancient Europeoid r a c e s of Central Asia, which composed the old local
t r i b e s , a r e undoubtedly the dominant component of both Uzbeks and Turkomans.
The t r i b e s that came l a t e r to Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan only added one o r another
kind of admixture of Mongoloid t r a i t s t o the ancient indigenous population.
On the contrary, the basic stock of the Kirghiz and Kazakhs consists of Mongoloid t r i b e s , which came f r o m the e a s t and assimilated, in a n anthropological sense,
1
INTRODUCTION
xix
the ancient E u r o p e o i d population of the Dasht-i-Kipchak which p r e c e d e d i t .
In addition t o aiding i n t h e chronological dating of s k e l e t o n s o r t h e i r p a r t s obtained f r o m a n c i e n t g r a v e s , and giving i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t i m e of m i g r a t i o n of c e r tain nations, H i s t o r y and Archaeology a l s o f u r n i s h anthropologists with valuable
material f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e r a c i a l t y p e s of a n c i e n t t r i b e s .
The few palaeoanthropological d a t a f r o m C e n t r a l A s i a frequently s e r v e m e r e l y
for purposes of o r i e n t a t i o n . H i s t o r i c a l r e p o r t s , w e s t e r n a s well a s e a s t e r n , which
contain information on t h e t y p e s of a population, thus a c q u i r e the g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e .
Such, for i n s t a n c e , a r e the r e p o r t s of the Chinese Annals on t h e t y p e s of population
from Davan' ( C h i n e s e T a Yiian), now F e r g h a n a , t o An'si ( C h i n e s e A n - H s i ) , l a t e r
Parthia, and on t h e w u s u n s 6 [60, pp. 61, 651; t h e r e p o r t s of A m m i a n u s M a r c e l linus [circa 330-4001 and of J o r d a n e s [sixth c e n t u r y ] on the type of Huns [70, p. 781;
those of P r o c o p i u s [died 562?] on t h e E p h t h a l i t e s o r "White Huns" [61, p. 111; of
i z they lived on the
Hardizi ( R u s s . G a r d i z i ) on t h e type of c o n t e m p o r a r y ~ G ~ h when
Yenissei R i v e r [58, p. 1081; of ~ l - M u k k a d i s i 7on s o m e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the c r a n i a l
structure of the c o n t e m p o r a r y people of ~ h w a r i z mand
~ of t h e ~ h u z e s 9 - t h e a n c e s tors of the T u r k o m a n s [66, 68, p. 1861; of H i p p o c r a t e s on t h e congenital a n d a r t i ficial dolichocephaly of the Scythians [62, pp. 294, 2971; of the A r a b h i s t o r i a n
A 1 'Utbi on the type of t h e T u r k i who b e s i e g e d Balkh i n the y e a r 1008 [13, p. 2841.
Ancient c h r o n i c l e r s , h i s t o r i a n s and g e o g r a p h e r s , not v e r s e d i n Anthropology,
recorded observations of t h o s e m o r p h o l o g i c a l t r a i t s which caught t h e i r attention a s
being different f r o m t h o s e t o which t h e y w e r e a c c u s t o m e d i n t h e i r own c o u n t r i e s .
All reports of t h i s n a t u r e , although s c a r c e and f r a g m e n t a r y , a r e undoubtedly v a l uable for the study of the r a c i a l t y p e s of a n c i e n t t r i b e s .
In some c a s e s we a r e able t o judge the anthropological type of ancient t r i b e s only
on the basis of h i s t o r i c a l accounts. Such, f o r e x a m p l e , a r e t h e r e p o r t s on the s o called "Dinlin" o r " f a i r - h a i r e d [blond] r a c e , " which a t one t i m e inhabited a v a s t
territory f r o m the Upper Y e n i s s e i t o I s s y k Kul. Under t h i s n a m e , t r i b e s which
were mentioned i n the Chinese Annals of the f i r s t c e n t u r i e s of o u r E r a , a s well a s
in Persian r e p o r t s of t h e eleventh c e n t u r y , have b e e n known f o r a c e n t u r y i n h i s t o r ical and anthropological l i t e r a t u r e . T h e s e s o u r c e s , w r i t t e n i n s u c h different epochs
and in countries s o f a r r e m o v e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r , r e p o r t s u c h p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r s
of these t r i b e s that t h e r e i s no doubt of t h e i r belonging t o the Europeoid Race with
light eyes and f a i r h a i r . T h i s r a c e d i s a p p e a r e d long ago both i n C e n t r a l A s i a and
in the Sayan-Altai highlands. It was a s s i m i l a t e d by subsequent s t r a t a of Mongoloid
brunets. That i t belonged t o the Europeoid type was l a t e r fully confirmed by p a l a e o anthropological d a t a obtained by Soviet anthropologists. However, the knowledge
that this r a c e p o s s e s s e d light e y e s and f a i r h a i r , i. e . , t h a t i t belonged t o the r a c e of
Europeoid blonds, we d e r i v e only f r o m h i s t o r i c a l r e p o r t s . T h e f a c t of i t s e x i s t e n c e
is of essential significance i n t h e p r o b l e m s of the ethnogenesis of C e n t r a l Asiatic
peoples. On the o t h e r hand, t h i s f a c t was exploited and d i s t o r t e d by G e r m a n r a c i s t s
for the purpose of establishing t h e f a n t a s t i c "theory" of the p e n e t r a t i o n of C e n t r a l
Asia by the notorious "Aryan r a c e " which was alleged t o have 'implanted" the a n cient culture of i t s peoples. A monograph devoted t o t h i s 'theory" by Hans Giinther
bore the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t i t l e , "The A r y a n r a c e among the Indo-Germans of Asia. "
Evidently the Mongoloid b r u n e t s , t h e Chinese, w e r e i m m e d i a t e l y s t r u c k by the
Europeoid t r a i t s of s o m e C e n t r a l A s i a t i c t r i b e s , which differed obviously f r o m
types of the population of China. However, A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s , the Roman
historian of the Ostrogoths who l i v e d i n the C r i m e a , o b s e r v e d a t once the Mongoloid traits, unusual f o r E u r o p e a n s , among the Huns who had invaded E u r o p e during
the fourth century. T h i s Mongoloid type noted i n the h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s h a s now
been fully confirmed by palaeoanthropologica1 m a t e r i a l s obtained f r o m b u r i a l s of
Huns in Hungary.
xx
INTRODUCTION
Sometimes h i s t o r i c a l r e p o r t s f u r n i s h only oblique clues to s o m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
anthropological t r a i t of a people. Such, f o r example, a r e t h e r e p o r t s of A r a b geogr a p h e r s of the tenth c e n t u r y which l e a v e no doubt that in the tenth century the ances.
t o r s of the Turkomans, the Ghuees, were d o l i ~ h o c e ~ h a l i ca, pronounced c h a r a c t e r
of modern Turkomans. About t h i r t y y e a r s ago, and without any palaeoanthropologi c a l data a t our disposal, we e x p r e s s e d , on the b a s i s of t h e s e r e p o r t s , the hypothes~
that the Turkomans and t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , the Ghuzes, w e r e descendants of the Scythii
S a r m a t i a n t r i b e s of T r a n s c a s p i a . T h i s hypothesis subsequently found full confirma.
tion in the palaeoanthropological data collected by Masson's archaeological expeditions in Turkmenia.
On the other hand, archaeological finds t h e m s e l v e s , comprising f i g u r e s i n relief
statuettes, and p o r t r a i t s on coins, often p o r t r a y the r a c i a l types of v a r i o u s ancient
t r i b e s in an excellent manner. F o r example, the exceedingly r i c h archaeological
and numismatic m a t e r i a l s obtained i n A n t e r i o r Asia p o r t r a y c l e a r l y the r a c i a l types
of ancient nationalities i n Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, i. e . , the Hittites, Sumeria
Assyrians, Babylonians and P e r s i a n s . This m a t e r i a l is just a s important f o r a r a cial diagnosis of ancient nations a s s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s obtained f r o m ancient g r a v e s .
The systematic anthropological study of the sufficiently abundant iconographic
m a t e r i a l s collected i n C e n t r a l Asia by archaeological expeditions under the l e a d e r ship of Tolstov, Masson, Diakonov, IAkubovskii, Shishkin and Voronets has not yet
begun. T h e i r investigations f o r m a p r i o r i t y t a s k facing the anthropologists.
However, i n contradistinction to the iconographic m a t e r i a l s obtained i n A s s y r i a
and Babylonia and those of the Hittite and P e r s i a n E m p i r e s , r a c i a l t r a i t s a r e not
always clearly delineated i n s i m i l a r d a t a f r o m C e n t r a l Asia. We frequently encoun,
t e r considerable difficulties in determining r a c e [literally, difficulties i n r a c e diag .
nosis] in t e r m s of the two G r e a t R a c e s , not to speak of r a c e s of the second o r d e r .
T h e r e f o r e , it i s not only legitimate but actually n e c e s s a r y to examine a s thoroughly
a s possible all pertinent h i s t o r i c a l r e p o r t s which mention the t i m e of the appearancl
i n Central Asia of a given t r i b e and the country f r o m which i t had come.
5. On the T r i b a l Composition of the Population. Comparison
of Anthropoloeical and Ethnographic Data.
T o the extent that a given national union includes in i t s composition not only varir
human r a c e s but a l s o various ethnic components, a n ethnic analysis revealing the
f r a g m e n t s of ancient clan and t r i b a l groups i s a l s o one of the methods used f o r the
solution of complex problems of Ethnogenesis
One of t h e basic t a s k s confronting Soviet ethnographers i s the analysis of the eth,
nic composition of modern peoples. Yet a d i r e c t c o m p a r i s o n of anthropological10
data with those obtained by ethnographers s o m e t i m e s r e v e a l s a diversified and, a t
f i r s t glance, contradictory picture. In some c a s e s , various national unions include1
i n t h e i r composition different t r i b e s and clans a s well a s different human r a c e s . In
other words, they differ in t h e i r anthropological a s well a s t h e i r ethnic composition
In o t h e r c a s e s , different nations may have included i n t h e i r composition s p l i n t e r s of
the s a m e t r i b e s and clans, but different human r a c e s . T h e s e would be ethnically
homogeneous but anthropologically d i v e r s e . In a t h i r d instance, different nations
included e s s e n t i a l l y the s a m e r a c e s , but quite different t r i b e s and clans. These
nations would be anthropologically homogeneous, but d i v e r s e i n t h e i r ethnic
composition.
Such a d i s p a r i t y of anthropological and ethnic components i s a l s o encountered in
Soviet C e n t r a l Asia.
Hence t h e necessity of s t r i c t differentiation between the ethnic origin of a peoplt
and i t s anthropological origin.
.
INTRODUCTION
Investigations by e t h n o g r a p h e r s , who m u s t , a s a n e c e s s a r y condition, u t i l i z e
historical s o u r c e s , r e s u l t i n a h i s t o r y of t h e c o a l e s c e n c e of n a t i o n s out of v a r i o u s
clans, t r i b e s , p e o p l e s - - t h a t i s , s o l e l y f r o m d i v e r s e e t h n i c c o m p o n e n t s --but e m phatically not f r o m a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c o m p o n e n t s . H o w e v e r , a s noted above, t h e
order of s u c c e s s i v e s e t t l e m e n t of a g i v e n t e r r i t o r y by v a r i o u s t r i b e s i s a l s o v e r y
important f o r a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s b e c a u s e the t r i b e s m o v e d f r o m t h e c e n t e r s of dis tribution of d i f f e r e n t h u m a n r a c e s , b r i n g i n g d i f f e r e n t r a c i a l c o m p o n e n t s into C e n tral Asia. As long a s we l a c k e d s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l obtained f r o m chronologically
dated and e t h n i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d a n c i e n t i n t e r m e n t s i n C e n t r a l A s i a , we f r e q u e n t l y
had to follow t h i s l e a d , which p r o v e d e f f e c t i v e i n e v e r y i n s t a n c e .
Let us c i t e one e x a m p l e . C h i n e s e and M o s l e m s o u r c e s t e s t i f y t h a t t h e m o s t a n cient population of t h e n o r t h e r n s t e p p e zone of C e n t r a l A s i a w a s of a E u r o p e o i d r a cial type. S u p e r i m p o s e d upon t h i s a n c i e n t E u r o p e o i d population c a m e u n i n t e r r u p t e d
stratifications of T u r k i - s p e a k i n g and Mongolic-speaking t r i b e s , which m o v e d into
the northern steppe b e l t f r o m t h e e a s t , f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l c e n t e r of d i s t r i b u t i o n of
the Great Mongoloid R a c e . T h i s p r o c e s s c o u l d h a v e begun, i n a n y c a s e , f r o m the
second c e n t u r y B. C., t h a t i s , d u r i n g t h e e p o c h of Hunnish expansion. A f t e r . t h e
Huns, this t e r r i t o r y w a s t r a n s v e r s e d by t h e Jou ~ a n l (l J w e n - J w e n ) of C h i n e s e
sources, known i n a n c i e n t R u s s i a n Annals as t h e O b r i , and i n W e s t e r n s o u r c e s a s
the Avars. S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r , t h i s t e r r i t o r y b e c a m e s e t t l e d by T u r k i t r i b e s during
the f i r s t Khanate ( s i x t h c e n t u r y ) moving i n m a i n l y f r o m Mongolia. L a t e r , t h e n o r t h ern steppe zone of C e n t r a l A s i a w a s o c c u p i e d by T u r k i - K a r l u k s ; t h e n , i n t h e eleventh
century, by the K i p c h a k s - - t h e P o l o v t s i of R u s s i a n Annals; and finally, i n the t h i r teenth century, by Mongolian and T u r k i t r i b e s of t h e e p o c h of Genghis K h a n ' s c o n quests. All t h e s e n e w c o m e r s m i g r a t e d f r o m t h e e a s t , f r o m t h e v e r y c e n t e r of t h e
Mongoloid Race, p r o b a b l y m a i n l y t h r o u g h t h e f a m o u s D z u n g a r i a n [ Z u n g a r i a n o r
Sungarian] Gate. T h e s u c c e s s i v e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s p r o d u c e d by the inflow of a l l t h e s e
tribes during t h e c o u r s e of m a n y c e n t u r i e s r e s u l t e d i n t h e e m e r g e n c e of a n a n t h r o pological s t r a t u m of population with a n obviously d o m i n a n t Mongoloid component,
the stratum now known a s t h e South S i b e r i a n r a c e , which e n t e r s into the c o m p o s i tion of the p r e s e n t -day K a z a k h s and K i r g h i z . T h e K a z a k h s a n d K i r g h i z a r e v e r y
similar in t h e i r r a c i a l c o m p o s i t i o n . T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y w e r e f o r m e d f r o m the
same r a c e s , i n about e q u a l p r o p o r t i o n s , we m a y s t a t e t h a t t h e y h a v e a c o m m o n
anthropological o r i g i n .
However, in s p i t e of t h i s c o m m o n o r i g i n , t h e e t h n i c and t e r r i t o r i a l and c h r o n o logical origin of t h e K a z a k h s and K i r g h i z a c t u a l l y d i f f e r s . The K a z a k h s a n d K i r g h i z
included in t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n q u i t e h e t e r o g e n e o u s e t h n i c c o m p o n e n t s . It i s t r u e t h a t
among them one e n c o u n t e r s h o m o n y m o u s t r i b a l d e s i g n a t i o n s , s u c h a s the Kipchak,
Naiman, Argyn, and o t h e r s . Such s i m i l a r i t y i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e c a u s e the K a z a k h s
wandered o v e r a huge t e r r i t o r y f r o m t h e T i e n S h a n t o t h e U r a l s and f r o m t h e Altai
to the lower c o u r s e o f t h e Amu D a r y a and t h e n o r t h e r n s h o r e of t h e C a s p i a n S e a .
Across this v a s t t e r r i t o r y s p r e a d a l l t h e T u r k i t r i b e s d e s c e n d i n g f r o m the Altai,
as well a s o t h e r T u r k i and Mongol t r i b e s who dwelt o r i g i n a l l y in Mongolia. I n r e gard to d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of K a z a k h s and K i r g h i z , an adequate
explanation m a y b e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l c o r e s of t h e s e nations
were being f o r m e d i n d i f f e r e n t e p o c h s and i n widely s e p a r a t e d t e r r i t o r i e s . T h e
initial core of t h e Kazakh p e o p l e w a s f o r m e d d u r i n g t h e f o u r t e e n t h - f i f t e e n t h c e n turies within t h e l i m i t s of the D a s h t - i - K i p c h a k of t h e Middle A g e s , on t h e s t e p p e s
near the A r a l S e a and b e s i d e t h e C a s p i a n S e a . T h e i n i t i a l c o r e of t h e K i r g h i z was
already f o r m e d between t h e t h i r d - s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s B. C. i n t h e Upper Y e n i s s e i
region [ 5 9 , p . 71.
On the o t h e r hand, t h e K a z a k h s and Uzbeks r e v e a l u n m i s t a k a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n
their anthropological o r i g i n , i n s p i t e of the c o m m o n t e r r i t o r i a l , ethnic and
xlrii
INTRODUCTION
chronological f a c t o r s of t h e i r origin. The initial, original c o r e s of the Kazakhs and
Uzbeks w e r e being formed on the same extensive t e r r i t o r y , which cannot be limited
to the steppes of the Volga, Caspian S e a and A r a l regions, but m u s t a l s o be conside r e d to include other a r e a s of the v e r y extensive ulus of Juchi. l
F u r t h e r m o r e , the
Kazakh and Uzbek associations both originated during the fourteenth-fifteenth
centuries.
Originally, the Kazakhs and Uzbeks formed one single nation on the Dasht-i-Kipchak steppes [69]. It i s natural, t h e r e f o r e , that a g r e a t number of the s a m e t r i b e s
entered into t h e i r composition, such a s , f o r instance, s p l i n t e r s of the Kipchak,
Kangli, Naiman, Kungrad (Kungrat), Dzhalair, Kereit, uishunl (Wusun) t r i b e s
and o t h e r s . Anthropometric analyses, however, revealed that in spite of t h e s e
common f a c t o r s - - t e r r i t o r i a l , chronological and even, originally, ethnic - -of t h e i r
origin, obviously different stocks entered into the composition of the Kazakhs and
the Uzbeks.
A p a r t of the T u r k i t r i b e s , who wandered a c r o s s the Dasht-i-Kipchak, and who
in the fourteenth century received the name of Uzbeks, remained f o r the following ,
centuries on the s a m e stepp'es north of the Syr Darya. These nomadic t r i b e s , which
remained in t h e i r original grazing lands, became known i n the fifteenth century a s
the Uzbek-Kazakhs, and l a t e r m e r e l y a s the Kazakhs. Into t h e i r composition e n t e r e d the m a s s of the nomadic population of the Dasht-i-Kipchak, which by that time,
had become Mongolized a s to physical type.
I
Another p a r t of the s a m e Dasht-i-Kipchak T u r k i t r i b e s , who retained the c o m mon designation of Uzbeks, occupied, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the
plains a r e a between the Central Asiatic Interfluvial Region, now Uzbekistan. In .
this "new homelandn the Uzbeks found a densely settled, agricultural and urban pop
ulation, r e p r e s e n t e d by the local autochthonous Europeoid r a c e of the Central Asiatic Interfluvial Region. L a t e r t h i s Europeoid population became p a r t of the unifie
Uzbek nation. 1 4 ~a sr e s u l t , the r a c i a l composition of the Uzbeks, who m i g r a t e d on
the plains, changed radically. At this t i m e the Europeoid component of the Central
Asiatic Interfluvial Region c l e a r l y predominates, r a t h e r than the Dasht-i-Kipchak
Mongoloid component.
The Uzbeks who, in the sixteenth century, occupied m o d e r n Uzbekistan, a r e
m e r e l y one of the numerous t r i b a l groups which compose the present-day unified
Uzbek nation.
The p r a c t i c e of naming an entire people after any one of the l a r g e s t t r i b a l group
making up i t s composition i s v e r y widespread. Even now we speak of Britons, Brit
ain and Great Britain, although the Brythons r e p r e s e n t m e r e l y one of the Celtic
t r i b e s which dominated England f r o m the ninth century B. C. to the fifth century
A. D. On the other hand, peoples of this nation a r e called English o r Anglo-Saxons
and their country England a f t e r the names Angles and Saxons --two of the four G e r m a n t r i b e s which, in the fifth century, conquered the country ruled by the Brythons
The Hungarian people c a l l themselves Magyars after the name of a Finno-Ugrian
t r i b e . However, the Hungarian Magyars r e p r e s e n t only one of the numerous t r i b a l
groups comprising the Hungarian people. It was not until the end of the ninth centu
that they occupied present-day Hungary. The name of these new conquerors was
then t r a n s f e r r e d to a l l the preceding multi-tribal population o i the country which in
ancient t i m e s was called Pannonia, and Pannonia itself was called Hungary.
The Bulgarian people and i t s country Bulgaria received i t s name f r o m the Bulg a r s , a Turki t r i b e believed t o be the western branch of the Huns who invaded Euro
in the fourth-fifth centuries. These Turki-speaking Bulgarians, who occupied the
t e r r i t o r y of modern Bulgaria during the seventh century, became assimilated by th
Slavic population that preceded them and adopted t h e i r language.
The F r e n c h to this day call the G e r m a n s l e s Allemands, and Germany Allemagn
-
1
INTRODUCTION
after the name of one of the G e r m a n t r i b e s , the Alemanni. On the other hand,
the French call themselves and t h e i r country after the name of the West German
tribes, the F r a n k s , who raided n o r t h e r n F r a n c e f r o m the third to the fifth century.
During the fifth-sixth centuries, the F r a n k s occupied the c e n t r a l p a r t of the country,
and founded the F r a n k i s h State during the ninth century.
It follows, then, that the name of a given people does not, by itself, solve ethnogenetic problems. The widely held naive and primitive view that the history, and
consequently the ethnogenesis, of the Uzbek people s t a r t e d only f r o m the fifteenthsixteenth centuries when the nomadic Uzbeks occupied present-day Uzbekistan, i s
now considered e r r o n e o u s , a s pointed out c o r r e c t l y by IAkubovskii. Actually, the
direct descendants of the Uzbeks, a s well a s the d i r e c t descendants of the Brythons,
Angles, Hungarians, Bulgars and other t r i b e s who gave their names to the various
modern nations, undoubtedly constituted only a minor p a r t of the numerous ethnic
groups composing these nations.
The words " a n c e s t o r s " or 'descendants" a r e used with reference to a chain of
generations- -their consecutive change. Only an analysis of the r a c i a l composition
provides a dependable answer to the question of whether the basic, distinctly p r e dominating stock of a given people should be considered a s descending f r o m the ancient indigenous population o r f r o m l a t e r i m m i g r a n t s .
This consideration, however, does not exclude the necessity of taking into account
data on the clan and t r i b a l composition of various national associations. In a number
of areas in Uzbekistan a r e s t i l l widely r e m e m b e r e d the names of those clans and
tribes, whose splinters were included in the "initial c o r e " of the Uzbeks going back
to the time when the l a t t e r were s t i l l in the p r o c e s s of formation on the Dasht -iKipchak. Judging by the p r e s e n c e of such t r i b a l and clan designations, Uzbek groups
which preserved them may be regarded, f r o m the ethnographic viewpoint, a s d i r e c t
descendants of the Dasht-i-Kipchak Uzbeks, whereas groups which do not p o s s e s s
such tribal and clan names may be considered a s the local population, partly T u r k i fied in language b e f o r e the Uzbek conquest of the sixteenth century, and p a r t l y
Turkized t h e r e a f t e r . Such a viewpoint would be indirectly confirmed if the Uzbeks
who preserved the clan and t r i b a l designations w e r e m o r e closely related anthropologically to the Kazakhs--a people very s i m i l a r to them in ethnic, chronological
and territorial origin--than the Uzbeks who do not p o s s e s s t r i b a l and clan divisions.
In some c a s e s , the Uzbek t r i b e s indeed p r e s e r v e d to a higher degree 'anthropological t r a c e s n of t h e i r Mongoloid Dasht-i-Kipchak origin a s compared with the
surrounding Uzbek population without t r i b a l division. Such a r e , f o r instance, the
following tribes: the Kungrad and ~ u z 1 5(IUz) in the Surkhan Darya Oblast; the
Lokay in the Kulyabskaya Oblast of Tadzhikistan; the B a r l a s in the H i s s a r Oblast
of Tadzhikistan; the Kara-Kitay in the Angren basin, and o t h e r s .
Nevertheless, in a number of c a s e s , the Uzbeks of c e r t a i n t r i b e s and clans a r e
no more Mongoloid than other Uzbeks, and sometimes l e s s .
Some Uzbek t r i b e s , which came f r o m the Dasht-i-Kipchak--for example, those
examined by us in the Kashka Darya Oblast, the Katagan, Kauchin, Kenegez, Saray,
Mangyt and others --turned out t o be l e s s Mongoloid than the Uzbeks of the Tashkent
Oblast who have no t r i b a l and clan divisions. Evidently, significant s t r a t a of the
local Europeoid population in some c a s e s considered themselves a s belonging to the
Dasht-i-Kipchak t r i b e s which assumed a dominant position.
The significance of Ethnography f o r the science of r a c e s i s by no means limited
to the determination of the t r i b a l and clan composition of a population. Even such
an area, seemingly f a r removed f r o m the field of Anthropology a s that of religious
beliefs and related customs and m o r e s of a given people, an a r e a lying wholly within the scope of Ethnography, does also have some significance for r a c i a l studies.
For example, religion may be a factor in determining the p r o c e s s of mestization
INTRODUCTION
among r a c e s . As a r u l e , r a c e s coming into contact by occupying t h e s a m e territory!
m i x and p r o d u c e a m e s t i s i z e d population. Depending on the r e l a t i v e s i z e of t h e locy
r a c e and the i m m i g r a n t s , they will exhibit p r e d o m i n a n t l y t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the ,
n u m e r i c a l l y l a r g e r g r o u p . However, t h e i n t e n s i t y of the p r o c e s s of m e s t i z a t i o n o r I
I
e v e n i t s t o t a l a b s e n c e a r e d e t e r m i n e d not by biological but by s o c i a l f a c t o r s , including, i n s o m e c a s e s , r e l i g i o u s p r e j u d i c e . L e t us c i t e one e x a m p l e . In Uzbekistan
I
a r e two p e o p l e s of S e m i t i c o r i g i n , who h a d i m m i g r a t e d f r o m t h e v e r y c e n t e r of disI
t r i b u t i o n of the A n t e r i o r ~ s i a rna c e . T h e s e a r e t h e J e w s and the A r a b s who have
b e e n studied by u s .
One of the two p e o p l e s , t h e J e w s , p r e s e r v e d i t s o r i g i n a l A n t e r i o r A s i a n r a c i a l
type i n a l l i t s p u r i t y . They a r e , s o t o s p e a k , a s p l i n t e r of t h e A n t e r i o r A s i a n anthro~
pological s t r a t u m , N e a r E a s t r a c i a l e l e m e n t c a r r i e d by the J e w s who m i g r a t e d to t h b
C e n t r a l A s i a t i c I n t e r f l u v i a l Region i n the tenth c e n t u r y . In t h i s c a s e , t h e p r o c e s s of
m e s t i z a t i o n with t h e l o c a l r a c e was excluded by a r e l i g i o u s wall which l a s t e d through
the c e n t u r i e s a s a n i n s u p e r a b l e b a r r i e r . Both I s l a m and J u d a i s m p e r m i t t e d m a r r i a g e only among c o r e l i g i o n i s t s . Meanwhile the o t h e r S e m i t i c people, the A r a b s ,
who a l s o c a m e t o m o d e r n Uzbekistan f r o m t h e s a m e g e n e r a l a r e a , A n t e r i o r A s i a ,
p r e s e r v e d t h e i r o r i g i n a l A n t e r i o r A s i a type a s a n exception. Individual c h a r a c t e r s
of t h i s type w e r e , t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e , "dissolved" i n the l o c a l population.
Examined on t h e b a s i s of t h e t o t a l i t y of t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s , the A r a b s , a s a typically
m e s t i s i z e d group, occupy an i n t e r m e d i a t e position between the E u r o p e o i d s of
A n t e r i o r A s i a and t h o s e of C e n t r a l A s i a , with a n inclination t o w a r d the E u r o p e o i d
type of t h e l a t t e r . The A r a b s brought t o C e n t r a l A s i a the I s l a m i c r e l i g i o n , which
was soon adopted by b r o a d s t r a t a of the l o c a l population. In t h i s c a s e , the religious
b a r r i e r was a b s e n t and the m e s t i z a t i o n p r o c e s s between A r a b s and the l o c a l population continued i n t h e c o u r s e of c e n t u r i e s . T h u s , r e l i g i o n and t h e deeply r o o t e d c u s t o m s connected with it d e t e r m i n e d i n d i f f e r e n t ways t h e r a c i a l composition of two
Semitic-speaking peoples which e m i g r a t e d f r o m A n t e r i o r A s i a t o Uzbekistan.
Anthropological d a t a a r e sufficient t o d e t e r m i n e the A n t e r i o r Asian o r i g i n of the
J e w s of Uzbekistan. The anthropological type p o i n t s d i r e c t l y t o the i n i t i a l a r e a of
origin.
I
But the A r a b s , a s well, in s p i t e of t h e i r m e s t i z a t i o n during c e n t u r i e s with the
l o c a l population, p r e s e r v e n o n e t h e l e s s "anthropological t r a c e s " of t h e i r A n t e r i o r
Asian o r i g i n . T h e s e " t r a c e s " m u s t be t a k e n into account when studying the e t h n o g e n e s i s of t h e C e n t r a l A s i a t i c A r a b s . Some g r o u p s of A r a b s studied by us s t i l l use
a living A r a b i c d i a l e c t [134]. Thus "anthropological t r a c e s " of A r a b o r i g i n find con-,
f i r m a t i o n i n linguistic d a t a . Of g r e a t i n t e r e s t would be "ethnographic t r a c e s , " if
I
they had been p r e s e r v e d i n the m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l c u l t u r e of o u r A r a b s .
6. T h e P r o b l e m of C o r r e l a t i o n between F a m i l i e s . C o m p a r i s o n of
Anthropoloeical D a t a with L i n e u i s t i c Evidence.
The languages of C e n t r a l A s i a a l s o evolved h i s t o r i c a l l y i n t h e t e r r i t o r i e s where I
nations w e r e f o r m e d by v a r i o u s r a c e s and t r i b e s . Common language, t o g e t h e r with
common t e r r i t o r y , i s one of the m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a i t s o f . a nation.
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e p r o b l e m s of Ethnogenesis cannot be e x p l o r e d without taking
into c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e development of t h e language of a t r i b e , nationality o r nation.
In s o m e c a s e s , t h e language a p p e a r s t o be the m o s t r e l i a b l e s o u r c e f o r the d e t e r m i nation of the o r i g i n of a c e r t a i n t r i b e . A c a s e i n point a r e the languages of the Gyps i e s o r t h e Yagnobi (IAgnobi), who l i v e i n t h e s e c l u d e d Yagnob D a r y a Gorge of the
Upper Z a r a f s h a n [ Z e r a v s h a n ] R i v e r . It i s known that the gypsy language [ R o m ,
any], t o g e t h e r with the languages of Bengal and Hindustan, belong to the s o - c a l l e d
INTRODUCTION
nxv
Indo-Aryan languages of India. T h e language indicates t h e country whence the Gypsies were m i g r a t i n g t o o t h e r c o u n t r i e s of E u r a s i a . On t h e b a s i s of l i n g u i s t i c s , the
Yagnobi have long been c o n s i d e r e d a r e m n a n t of the ancient Sogdian population of
Central Asia. O u r anthropological investigations have fully confirmed t h i s viewpoint.
In other c a s e s , h o w e v e r , the language of a given nation changed r a d i c a l l y in the
course of t i m e . T h i s o c c u r r e d m o s t frequently a s a r e s u l t of consecutive linguistic
stratification, a s a r e s u l t of a s s i m i l a t i o n of s o m e languages by a n o t h e r .
Of particular significance i n the solving of ethnogenetic p r o b l e m s a r e the c o r r e l a tions of r a c i a l types on one side, and of languages of v a r i o u s linguistic f a m i l i e s on
the other. Race and language, of c o u r s e , have no c a u s a l r e l a t i o n whatsoever.
Neither does a r a c e influence a language, nor d o e s a language with i t s c h a r a c t e r i s tic grammatical s t r u c t u r e and b a s i c vocabulary i n any way affect e y e c o l o r , h a i r
structure, skin c o l o r , n a s a l f o r m , e t c . T h i s f a c t i s self-evident.
Nevertheless, in t h e p r o c e s s of t h e i r f o r m a t i o n , r a c e and language m a y coincide
territorially, and actually have done s o in a n u m b e r of c a s e s . In the c o u r s e of i t s
formation in a c e r t a i n t e r r i t o r y , a given t r i b e , the c a r r i e r of a c e r t a i n language,
should also have included i n i t s composition t h a t r a c e whose c e n t e r of distribution,
present o r p a s t , was t h e s a m e t e r r i t o r y . Language and r a c e could h a v e and not i n frequently did in f a c t coincide. In s u c h c a s e s , the a p p e a r a n c e of new language on a
given t e r r i t o r y coincides with the t i m e when a new r a c i a l type a p p e a r s i n that t e r r i tory. In such c a s e s we a r e justified i n determining, on the b a s i s of anthropological
data, the time when a new language e m e r g e d in a given t e r r i t o r y and, conversely,
on the basis of linguistic d a t a , t h e t i m e when a new r a c i a l component made i t s a p pearance in the r a c i a l composition of a nation. F o r e x a m p l e , p a r a l l e l i s m of the
two processes i s c l e a r l y evident in C e n t r a l Asia: the ~ u r k i z a t i o n l bof the ancient
local Iranian-speaking population in r e g a r d t o language; and t h e Mongolization of t h e
ancient Europeoid type. In o t h e r words, in the p a s t , Europeoid r a c e s were the
bearers of Iranian languages, and t h e Mongoloid r a c e s of T u r k i c languages. In addition, there a l s o took p l a c e i n C e n t r a l Asia a mixing of S e m i t i c and Mongolian
languages .
In Central Asia, Mongolian-speaking t r i b e s soon b e c a m e Turkized, while the
immigrating Semitic -speaking peoples adopted p a r t l y t h e l o c a l Iranian, p a r t l y the
Turkic, languages. As a r e s u l t of t h e s e linguistic c r o s s e s t h e "conquering languagen
in Tadzhikistan became t h e "descendant" of t h e ancient l o c a l I r a n i a n language, and
in Uzbekistan and T u r k m e n i a the language of the T u r k i c linguistic family was i n t r o duced by Turki-speaking t r i b e s which a r r i v e d l a t e r .
As mentioned before, Mongoloid t r i b e s w e r e m i g r a t i n g into C e n t r a l Asia f r o m
the north and e a s t , while m e m b e r s of the Europeoid R a c e moved in f r o m the south
and west. These n e w c o m e r s found h e r e a r e l a t i v e l y d e n s e ancient population of a
Europeoid anthropological type with which they mixed i n v a r i o u s d e g r e e s .
On the other hand, i t i s known that during t h e e n t i r e period of r e c o r d e d h i s t o r y
tribes of the Iranian group of the Indo-European linguistic f a m i l y and of the S e m i t i c
one moved into C e n t r a l Asia f r o m the south and west, while f r o m the north and e a s t
came tribes of the T u r k i c and Mongolian l i n g u i s t i c f a m i l i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s
known that these immigrating t r i b e s found in C e n t r a l A s i a a s e t t l e d and nomadic
population which spoke l o c a l languages, i. e . , C h o r a s m i a n , 1 7 Sogdian, B-actrian and
Sacan languages. As a r e s u l t of M a s s o n ' s b r i l l i a n t archaeological d i s c o v e r i e s , t h e
Parthian language a l s o became known i n r e c e n t y e a r s . The philologists r e l a t e a l l
these ancient l o c a l languages of C e n t r a l A s i a t o the I r a n i a n group.
Comparison of these f a c t s with the o r i g i n a l geographic distribution of Europeoid
and Mongoloid r a c e s shows that i n C e n t r a l Asia and adjoining c o u n t r i e s , t h e o r i g i n a l
areas of distribution of the Europeoids coincided with t e r r i t o r i e s inhabited by
xxvi
I
INTRODUCTION
I r a n i a n s and S e m i t e s , and a r e a s of d i s t r i b u t i o n of the Mongoloids with t e r r i t o r i e s of
the T u r k i c - and Mongolian-speaking peoples. At any r a t e , s u c h a coincidence i s
noted throughout r e c o r d e d h i s t o r y , beginning with the sixth c e n t u r y B. C. when h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s , s u c h a s t h e f a m o u s Behistun [Bisutun o r Bisitun] i n s c r i p t i o n i n
w e s t e r n I r a n , mention f o r the f i r s t t i m e t h e ancient population of C e n t r a l A s i a . The
p r o c e s s of T u r k i z a t i o n of t h e language of t h e l o c a l population, which began l a t e r and
p r o c e d e d f r o m n o r t h and e a s t , was accompanied by Mongolization of t h e s e Europeoic
inhabitants.
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , we a r e justified i n expecting t h a t the T u r k i c - s p e a k i n g t r i b e s app e a r e d in C e n t r a l Asia a t the t i m e and p l a c e of the f i r s t a d m i x t u r e of Mongoloid
t r a i t s with the Europeoid population. I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a T u r k i c
language in a given locality m a y s e r v e a s a s i g n a l t o the anthropologist t h a t a n a d m i x t u r e of Mongoloid t r a i t s i s t o be expected, o r , c o n v e r s e l y , t h e p r e s e n c e of Mongoloid c h a r a c t e r s a s d e t e r m i n e d by anthropologists m a y indicate t o t h e philologist
the probable a p p e a r a n c e of the T u r k i c language.
However, this p a r a l l e l i s m of two p r o c e s s e s , Mongolization of the type and Turki.
zation of the language, was f a r f r o m always complete, and did not take p l a c e even
i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s . F o r example, on t e r r i t o r i e s n e a r e s t t o the o r i g i n a l a r e a of the
Mongoloids, those of Kazakhstan and Kirghizia, t h e T u r k i z a t i o n of the l o c a l p r e T u r k i c population was accompanied by an i n t e n s e Mongolization of t h e ancient local
Europeoid type. The Mongoloid component p r e v a i l s m a r k e d l y in the r a c i a l composition of the m o d e r n Kazakhs and Kirghiz. On t h e c o n t r a r y , i n Uzbekistan and
T u r k m e n i a , which include the ancient d i s t r i c t s of C h o r a s m i a , Sogdiana, B a c t r i a ,
Margiana ( a n c . M e r v ) and P a r t h i a , the T u r k i z a t i o n of t h e ancient l o c a l I r a n i a n speaking population was accompanied only by an a d m i x t u r e , although c o n s i d e r a b l e
in c e r t a i n p l a c e s , of Mongoloid t r a i t s t o t h e autochthonous Europeoid population of
t h e s e c o u n t r i e s . The r a c i a l composition of t h e Uzbeks and the T u r k o m a n s exhibit
c l e a r l y not a Mongoloid, but a dominant Europeoid, r a c i a l component.
Finally, i n the long T u r k i z e d l a n d s l o c a t e d f a r f r o m a r e a s of Mongoloids ( f o r exa m p l e , the O s m a n l i T u r k s of Anatolia and t h e A z e r b a i j a n i s of I r a n whom we i n v e s t i g a t e d ) , the a d m i x t u r e of Mongoloid t r a i t s i s e i t h e r negligible o r completely absent.
The l a t t e r c a s e m a y be explained by t h e f a c t t h a t the i m m i g r a t i n g nation, frequently
s m a l l in n u m b e r s , m a y " a s s i m i l a t e " t h e whole native population in r e g a r d to l a n guage, but will itself be r a c i a l l y 'assimilated" by the n u m e r i c a l l y predominating
stock of l o c a l population.
Thus, the p r o c e s s e s of linguistic and r a c i a l a s s i m i l a t i o n m a y coincide, e i t h e r
p a r t l y o r completely, o r they m a y d i v e r g e .
The f o r m a t i o n of "base languages, " I 8 i n o t h e r words " a n c e s t o r - l a n g u a g e s "
["prayazyki"] of the m o d e r n linguistic f a m i l i e s d o e s not, i n v e r y many c a s e s , take
place t e r r i t o r i a l l y within t h e " a n c e s t r a l homeland" [ " p r a r o d i n a
of a given r a c e .
Linguistic f a m i l i e s could a l s o have been f o r m e d in an anthropologically h e t e r o g e neous environment. F u r t h e r m o r e , the initial coincidence of a definite r a c i a l type
with a definite linguistic f a m i l y was d i s r u p t e d r a d i c a l l y by the subsequent m i g r a t i o n
of t r i b e s which took p l a c e not only i n C e n t r a l Asia, but throughout E u r a s i a .
I t i s sufficient t o mention that a t p r e s e n t the T u r k i c languages, which extend
f r o m the Yakut ASSR a t the n o r t h e a s t e r n tip of E u r a s i a t o the .Balkan P e n i n s u l a in
the southwest, a r e spoken by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of v e r y different Mongoloid and E u r o peoid r a c e s . On t h e o t h e r hand, m e m b e r s of t h e G r e a t Europeoid Race speak not
only the languages of the Indo-European family, but a l s o T u r k i c , Semitic, Hamitic
and Ibero-Caucasian languages.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , the foregoing does not p r e c l u d e the r a i s i n g of t h e question of a pos
sible i n i t i a l identification of definite languages with definite r a c e s . T h i s question,
which i s one of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r the c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the whole p r o b l e m of
"1
INTRODUCTION
Ethnogenesis, should be s o l v e d c o n c r e t e l y i n e a c h c a s e on t h e b a s i s of a c o m p a r i s o n
of actual d a t a o n t h e Anthropology, P a l a e o a n t h r o p o l o g y , and H i s t o r y of the m i g r a tion of t r i b e s a n d p e o p l e s and of t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e i r l a n g u a g e s .
Soviet a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , h i s t o r i a n s , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , e t h n o g r a p h e r s and p h i l o l o g i s t s
have c r e a t e d a c o m p l e t e l y new b r a n c h of h i s t o r y c a l l e d E t h n o g e n e t i c s , i . e . , the s c i ence of the o r i g i n of t r i b e s , p e o p l e s a n d n a t i o n s , which involves f o u r b a s i c q u e s t i o n s ,
each one of which r e p r e s e n t s a n e s s e n t i a l l y independent, c o m p l e x p r o b l e m :
1. When, i n which epoch, and w h e r e did the f a r m a t i o n of t h e i n i t i a l c o r e of a
certain nation t a k e p l a c e ? D u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d , who inhabited t h a t ' a n c e s t r a l h o m e land, " of what r a c i a l c o m p o s i t i o n w a s t h i s population, a n d of what ethnic and l i n g u i s tic affinity?
2 . In which epoch, a n d t h r o u g h which c o u n t r i e s did t h e i n i t i a l c o r e of a given
nation m i g r a t e u n t i l i t r e a c h e d i t s p r e s e n t d o m i c i l e ? By whom w e r e t h e s e c o u n t r i e s
populated, by what r a c e s and t r i b e s , and what w a s t h e i r l a n g u a g e ? A l s o , t o what
extent did t h e y e n t e r i n t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e i n i t i a l c o r e of a given n a t i o n ?
3 . Which population p r e c e d e d t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a people on the t e r r i t o r y which
it now occupies, what w a s i t s a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n d t r i b a l c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d what l a n guage did t h i s p r e c e d i n g population s p e a k ?
4. To what d e g r e e d i d t h e n e w c o m e r s e x t e r m i n a t e o r d i s l o d g e , o r , on the c o n trary, a b s o r b the m a s s of t h e p r e c e d i n g p o p u l a t i o n ? In s o m e c a s e s the n e w c o m e r s
became "dissolved, " w e r e t h e m s e l v e s a s s i m i l a t e d by the m u c h m o r e n u m e r o u s p r e ceding population; i n o t h e r c a s e s , t h e n e w c o m e r s w e r e n u m e r i c a l l y s t r o n g e r and
assimilated, i . e . , swallowed up and a b s o r b e d t h e l o c a l population into t h e i r own
stock
composition. Which e l e m e n t p r e v a i l s i n t h e p r e s e n t n a t i o n a l association-the
of the ancient l o c a l population o r , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h a t of t h e n e w c o r h e r s ? In o t h e r
words, the q u e s t i o n i s : who should be r e g a r d e d a s the a n c e s t o r s of a given p e o p l e ,
the local ancient t r i b e s o r t h e t r i b e s which i m m i g r a t e d l a t e r ?
The answer t o t h e l a s t q u e s t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the a b s e n c e of sufficient definite
information a s t o t h e n u m e r i c a l s t r e n g t h of t h e n e w c o m e r s and of f o r m e r i n h a b i t a n t s ,
will be decided by Anthropology. H o w e v e r , not one of t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d b a s i c
questions of E t h n o g e n e t i c s m a y b e s o l v e d without taking into account a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
data.
Biologists have long u s e d H a e c k e l ' s m e t h o d of " t r i p l e p a r a l l e l i s m " f o r the s o l u tion of p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n i n g t h e o r i g i n , m i g r a t i o n and s e t t l e m e n t of zoological s p e cies, genera, f a m i l i e s a n d o t h e r l a r g e r t a x o n o m i c u n i t s , i . e . , o f p r o b l e m s of philogenesis. T h i s method i n v o l v e s t h e c o m p a r i s o n of t h e d a t a of C o m p a r a t i v e Anatomy,
Embryology and P a l a e o n t o l o g y . S i m i l a r l y , f o r the solution of p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n i n g
the origin, m i g r a t i o n and s e t t l e m e n t of v a r i o u s t r i b e s and p e o p l e s , i. e . , p r o b l e m s
of Ethnogenetics, a m e t h o d of p a r a l l e l i s m of i t s own m u s t b e applied-a
method
which juxtaposes the d a t a of Anthropology, a biological s c i e n c e , with t h o s e of s u c h
Humanities a s H i s t o r y , Archaeology, L i n g u i s t i c s and E t h n o g r a p h y . T h i s m e t h o d
has become t r a d i t i o n a l i n t h e w o r k s of t h e Soviet s c i e n t i s t s , who c r e a t e d t h e new
historical s c i e n c e of E t h n o g e n e t i c s .
CHAPTER I
1. ETHNIC AND LINGUISTIC COMPOSITION O F THE POPULATION
O F CENTRAL ASIA, AND DATA ON THE ANTHROPOLOGY
O F ITS MODERN POPULATION.
The population of C e n t r a l A s i a i s distinguished by i t s e x t r a o r d i n a r y d i v e r s i f i e d
national, t r i b a l , linguistic and r a c i a l composition. Various t r i b e s of C e n t r a l A s i a
have now b e c o m e nations. As o t h e r nations, t h e s e national a s s o c i a t i o n s of C e n t r a l
Asia occupy definite t e r r i t o r i e s , w h e r e t h e i r own c o n t e m p o r a r y national languages
have been f o r m e d . T h e s e national languages a r e r e l a t e d t o v a r i o u s groups of t h e
Turkic family and t h e I r a n i a n languages of t h e Indo-European linguistic family.
The T u r k i c -speaking nations of C e n t r a l A s i a include t h e Uzbeks, Kazakhs, K i r ghiz, Turkomans and the K a r a - K a l p a k s . T h e Iranian'-speaking nations a r e the
Tadzhiks [Tajiks] and s m a l l ethnic g r o u p s living i n isolation i n the r e l a t i v e l y i n a c cessible d i s t r i c t s of the P a m i r - A l a i highlands, who s t i l l p r e s e r v e r e l i c s of ancient
Iranian languages. Such a r e t h e Yagnobi (IAgnobi), who l i v e i n the n o r t h e r n P a m i r Alai along t h e c o u r s e of the Yagnob D a r y a , one of the upper t r i b u t a r i e s of t h e
Zarafshan, and, south of t h o s e highlands, the Rushan, Shugnan, Vakhan [Wakhan],
Ishkashim [Ishkashmi] and G o r a n t r i b e s , who l i v e on the banks of the Upper Pyandzh
and its t r i b u t a r i e s , t h e B a r t a n g , Gunt, Shakhdara, P a m i r D a r y a and Vakhan D a r y a .
The t e r r i t o r i e s occupied by t h e s e nationalities and t r i b e s a r e shown on a s c h e m a t i c
map. 2
According t o t h e C e n s u s of 1939, the m o s t n u m e r o u s of the Turkic-speaking n a tionalities of Soviet C e n t r a l A s i a a r e : (a) Uzbeks (4,884,000 within the b o u n d a r i e s
of the USSR); (b) Kazakhs (3,500,000) of whom 3.1 million a r e on the t e r r i t o r y of
the USSR; ( c ) K i r g h i z ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 million, of whom 884,000 a r e in t h e USSR);
(d) Turkomans (812,000 i n the USSR), and ( e ) the K a r a - K a l p a k s (186,000).
The t e r r i t o r i e s , w h e r e the f o u r m o s t n u m e r o u s Turkic-speaking peoples - -Uzbeks,
Kazakhs, Kirghiz and T u r k o m a n s - - p r e d o m i n a t e , f o r m the p r e s e n t s e p a r a t e Soviet
Socialist Republics of C e n t r a l Asia, while t h e t e r r i t o r y inhabited m a i n l y by t h e
Kara-Kalpaks f o r m s a s e p a r a t e Autonomous SSR within p r e s e n t Uzbekistan.
The Iranian-speaking Tadzhiks (1,229,OOO i n the USSR according t o the 1939 C e n sus) form the b a s i c population of the fifth Republic, national i n f o r m , s o c i a l i s t i c i n
content, of C e n t r a l A s i a - -the Tadzhik SSR.
These peoples a r e not confined t o the g e o g r a p h i c a l l i m i t s of t h e i r own Republics,
but, in varying n u m b e r s , a r e encountered i n o t h e r Soviet Republics of C e n t r a l A s i a .
Thus, compact g r o u p s of Tadzhiks l i v e i n v a r i o u s c i t i e s ( B u k h a r a and S a m a r k a n d )
and in many r u r a l s e t t l e m e n t s of Uzbekistan and p a r t l y i n Kirghizia. Uzbeks l i v e
in Tadzhikistan and Kazakhstan; Kirghiz i n Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan; K a z a k h s
in Uzbekistan, T u r k m e n i a and Tadzhikistan; and T u r k o m a n s i n Uzbekistan and i n
the Kara-Kalpak USSR.
In itself such d i s p e r s a l of the p r i n c i p a l nationalities of C e n t r a l A s i a o v e r a l l of
its territory excludes any p o s s i b i l i t y of limiting anthropological investigations t o
the present a d m i n i s t r a t i v e b o u n d a r i e s of any one of the p r e s e n t Soviet Republics of
Central Asia. F o r the study of the r a c i a l composition of i t s peoples, and f o r the
clarification of the b a s i c ethnogenetic p r o c e s s e s , C e n t r a l A s i a m u s t be r e g a r d e d a s
an integral whole. M o r e o v e r , a s it was pointed out i n t h e Introduction, h i s t o r i c a l l y
the population of C e n t r a l A s i a f o r m e d only p a r t of the population of t h e i m m e n s e
2
PEOPLES O F CENTRAL ASIA
continent of E u r a s i a . F r o m this point of view, it is a l s o n e c e s s a r y to take into account those Mongoloid and Europeoid R a c e s whose c e n t e r s of distribution l i e f a r
beyond the bounds of Central Asia, a s , f o r example, i n the Sayan-Altai highlands,
in Mongolia, in the F a r E a s t , and in countries of Anterior Asia.
F u r t h e r m o r e , of p a r t i c u l a r importance in the study of the r a c i a l composition
and ethnogenesis of the peoples of Central Asia a r e ethnic groups f r o m adjacent
e a s t e r n countries, such a s Sinkiang, Afghanistan and I r a n [Persia]. The historical
t i e s , i n the c o u r s e of many centuries, between these countries and Central Asia
have been long known. In p a r t i c u l a r , t h e s e t i e s became reflected in the ethnic composition of the population of Central Asia and adjacent countries. On the one hand,
separate and sometimes numerically strong groups of i t s nationalities live in Sinkiang (Uzbeks, Kazakhs and Kirghiz), in Afghanistan (approximately 2,000,000
Tadzhiks, 1,000,000 Uzbeks and 500,000 Turkomans), and i n I r a n (about 200,000
Turkomans). On the other hand, many e m i g r a n t s f r o m those countries settled i n
the Soviet Central Asian Republics. In Kirghizia and in the Ferghana Valley there
live compact groups of Uigurs, who migrated f r o m Sinkiang where they constitute
the basic population. F r o m Sinkiang a l s o emigrated Dungans into various districts
of Kirghizia. Groups of Baluchis, who originally inhabited Baluchistan [divided
now between southeastern I r a n and West Pakistan], have moved i n Soviet t i m e s from
Afghanistan into Turkmenia. S m a l l e r groups of P e r s i a n s [Iranians] and Azerbai
janis emigrated f r o m I r a n into various towns of Turkmenia, and some Kurdish
During the l a s t decade Koreans
t r i b e s migrated into the Transcaspian steppes
moved f r o m the F a r E a s t into the Tashkent Oblast and into southern Kazakhstan.
An anthropological study of all these i m m i g r a n t s f r o m the countries of the Near
and F a r E a s t i s v e r y important f o r two reasons: in the f i r s t place, to differentiate'
the r a c e s which entered into the composition of the original population of Central
Asia, f r o m other Mongoloid and Europeoid r a c e s of E u r a s i a ; and i n the second
place, to determine s i m i l a r i t i e s o r differences in basic ethnogenetic p r o c e s s e s in the historically caused successions of the r a c i a l , t r i b a l and linguistic composition of the population of Central Asia and adjacent countries. The migration of
these ethnic groups into Central Asia took place v e r y recently--partly in the second
half of the nineteenth century (Uigurs and Dungans), p a r t l y in Soviet t i m e s (Baluchis
and Koreans). However, s o m e groups which now constitute national minorities in
Uzbekistan, and which did not mix a t a l l o r v e r y little with the original population
of Central Asia before the G r e a t October Revolution, came f r o m the countries of
Anterior Asia about a thousand y e a r s ago. Such a r e Semitic in t h e i r original roots,
namely groups of Jews in various towns of Central Asia, and Arabs, who live in
s o m e suburbs (so-called 'Arab-Khona") n e a r Samarkand, Bukhara, Kermine, and
i n various r u r a l settlements (kishlaks).
It should be added to the foregoing that s e p a r a t e groups of clans, occasionally
split within themselves, which l a t e r entered into the composition of m o r e o r l e s s
l a r g e t r i b a l unions, did not unite into nations until Soviet t i m e s . However, before
the Revolution, the peoples that l e d an essentially nomadic existence based on a
cattle -raising economy (Kazakhs , Kirghiz and Turkomans) p r e s e r v e d durable clan
and t r i b a l s t r u c t u r e . However, the settled r u r a l agricultural and u r b a n population
i n many oblasts and raions of Uzbekistan also p r e s e r v e d some clan and t r i b a l designations. The r a c i a l composition of these ancient t r i b a l and clan groups, which now
a r e a p a r t of l a r g e national unions i n Central Asia, may be different - -a f a c t of sig nificance for s e v e r a l problems of Ethnogenesis. F o r this r e a s o n it i s important
that anthropological investigations in Central Asia should be c a r r i e d out not only on
the basis of l a r g e national unions but a l s o with s e p a r a t e t r i b a l and clan groups which
e n t e r into their composition.
-
.
--
ETHNIC, LINGUISTIC, AND ANTHROPO METRIC DATA
3
The a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l study of t h e population of C e n t r a l A s i a , which i s s o d i v e r s i fied a s t o t r i b e s a n d l a n g u a g e s , had a l r e a d y b e e n begun by R u s s i a n i n v e s t i g a t o r s
before the G r e a t O c t o b e r Revolution.
Anthropology, a s a n independent s c i e n c e , i s one of t h e youngest. Only d u r i n g t h e
second half of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y did t h i s d i s c i p l i n e define t h e l i m i t s of i t s own
field of investigation, a n d begin t o w o r k out i t s own methodology f o r the study of the
phenomena within i t s f i e l d .
In Russia, t h e f o u n d e r of t h i s b r a n c h of s c i e n c e w a s o n e of t h e g r e a t e s t R u s s i a n
scientists, Anatolii P e t r o v i c h Bogdanov, P r o f e s s o r of Zoology, Moscow U n i v e r s i t y .
He was both a z o o l o g i s t and a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , and t h e a u t h o r of a s e r i e s of a n t h r o pological p u b l i c a t i o n s . In Bogdanov's b a s i c w o r k s , Anthropology a p p e a r s a s a v e r y
important b r a n c h of s c i e n c e i n the c l a r i f i c a t i o n of a n u m b e r of ethnogenetic p r o b l e m s .
His craniological i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , devoted t o q u e s t i o n s of the e t h n o g e n e s i s of a n c i e n t
Slavs, r e m a i n t o t h i s d a y a b a s i c s o u r c e f o r the ethnogenetic i n v e s t i g a t o r s of the
Russian people. I n 1864, he founded t h e S o c i e t y of F r i e n d s of N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , Anthropology and Ethnography, which i n t h e following y e a r s published i t s J o u r n a l
[Trudy]. In 1879, he o r g a n i z e d a n a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l exhibition i n Moscow. Many of
his students b e c a m e outstanding R u s s i a n s c i e n t i s t s , z o o l o g i s t s and a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s ;
among t h e m D. N. Anuchin, N. IU. Z o g r a f , M. A . M e n z b i r , M. V . Shirnkevich, and
others. Another of h i s s t u d e n t s w a s A. P. F e d c h e n k o , d i s t i n g u i s h e d e x p l o r e r of Central Asia, who c o l l e c t e d t h e f i r s t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d a t a , p a r t l y on living s u b j e c t s ,
partly f r o m s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l s . T h e s e d a t a w e r e p u b l i s h e d by Bogdanov [2].
During p r e - R e v o l u t i o n a r y t i m e s , t h e e l a b o r a t e network of m o d e r n r e s e a r c h i n stitutions, A c a d e m i e s of S c i e n c e , I n s t i t u t e s and Institutions of H i g h e r L e a r n i n g ,
were not in e x i s t e n c e i n C e n t r a l A s i a . N e v e r t h e l e s s , m u l t i f a c e t e d and s o m e t i m e s
very valuable s t u d i e s of i t s n a t u r e and i t s population w e r e m a d e , a t t h e i r own i n i tiative, by individual inquisitive and c u l t u r e d R u s s i a n s who found t h e m s e l v e s in
obscure p a r t s of C e n t r a l A s i a . Anthropological p r o b l e m s w e r e d e a l t with m a i n l y
by physicians. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e o u t l i n e s and i n s t r u c t i o n s d r a f t e d by the Society of
Friends of N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , Anthropology and Ethnography, t h e f i r s t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
investigations of v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l i t i e s a n d t r i b e s i n C e n t r a l A s i a w e r e conducted and
published. Among p h y s i c i a n s m a k i n g t h e s e s t u d i e s w e r e t h e following: V. D. T r o n o v
[45], A. P. Shishov [47], V. A. B l a g o v e s h c h e n s k i i [1], V. E. P a i s e 1 [40], N. L. Z e l a n d
[18], and S. W e i s s e n b e r g [ V a i s e n b e r g ] [82].
The value of t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i s s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t f o r c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s .
Some of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w e r e of g r e a t s u b s t a n t i v e v a l u e t o t h i s w r i t e r a t t h e t i m e
when he was c o m m e n c i n g h i s anthropological investigations of the population of C e n tral Asia and did not have, a s yet, h i s own d a t a . Using m o d e r n m e t h o d s of v a r i a tional s t a t i s t i c s he r e c a l c u l a t e d t h e published m a t e r i a l s on t h e Anthropology of t h e
Uzbeks of Tashkent by Shishov [47], the T u r k o m a n s by I A v o r s k i [48], t h e C e n t r a l
Asiatic Jews by W e i s s e n b e r g [ € ) 2 ] , and t h e Uigurs of S e m i r e c h i e by P a i s e 1 [40]. T h e
results obtained by t h e p i o n e e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s of t h e Anthropology of C e n t r a l A s i a
are included in t a b l e 3 i n t h e g e n e r a l l i s t of a l l d a t a which we have u s e d .
Particularly e x t e n s i v e and valuable d a t a w e r e c o l l e c t e d m o r e than half a c e n t u r y
ago by N. V . Bogoiavlenskii, m e m b e r of A . A. S e m e n o v ' s ethnographic expedition.
In 1898, Semenov, Bogoiavlenskii and A. A. B o b r i n s k i i l e d a n expedition t o the l e s s
accessible mountainous d i s t r i c t s of T a d z h i k i s t a n , t o D a r v a z , K a r a t e g i n , and the
Upper Zaraf shan R i v e r .
In passing, we should note t h a t i n May, 1898, they s t a y e d f o r a few d a y s i n t h e
small obscure village of Dyushambe, t h e s i t e of Stalinabad, the f l o u r i s h i n g p r e s e n t
capital of Tadzhikistan, where S e m e n o v i s now a n a c t i v e m e m b e r of the A c a d e m y
of Sciences of t h e Tadzhik SSR and t h e D i r e c t o r of i t s I n s t i t u t e of H i s t o r y , A r c h a e ology and Ethnography. Under h i s l e a d e r s h i p , t h e Staff of t h i s I n s t i t u t e conducted
4
P E O P L E S O F C E N T R A L ASIA
and published, i n r e c e n t y e a r s , v a l u a b l e s t u d i e s on t h e Ethnography, Archaeology
and H i s t o r y of T a d z h i k i s t a n . In 1898 Semeno-v, who i s one of the e a r l i e s t i n v e s t i g a t o r s of p e o p l e s of C e n t r a l A s i a , m a d e t h e f i r s t ethnographic i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the
population of T a d z h i k i s t a n . During S e m e n o v ' s 1898 Expedition, Bogoiavlenskii coll e c t e d t h e f i r s t e x t e n s i v e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d a t a on the T a d z h i k s of D a r v a s , ~ a r a t e ~ i n
and t h e Upper Z a r a f s h a n . T h e s t i l l l e s s a c c e s s i b l e s o u t h e r n P a m i r r e g i o n s w e r e
i n v e s t i g a t e d by Bogoiavlenskii t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1901. H e r e he c o l l e c t e d anthrop o l o g i c a l d a t a o n R u s h a n , Shugnan, I s h k a s h i m , G o r a n a n d Vakhan t r i b e s m e n . His
u n t i m e l y d e a t h [I9301 p r e v e n t e d h i m f r o m publishing t h i s m a t e r i a l . Much l a t e r ,
Ginzburg 141 w o r k e d up t h i s m a t e r i a l a c c o r d i n g t o m o d e r n v a r i a t i o n a l s t a t i s t i c a l
m e t h o d s . T h i s valuable m a t e r i a l w a s p u b l i s h e d i n A n t r o p o l o g i c h e s k i i Z h u r n a l ,
193 7. Bogoiavlenskii's m a t e r i a l i s a l s o included i n o u r s u m m a r y ( t a b l e 3).
However, b e c a u s e of the g e n e r a l d e v e l o p m e n t of Anthropology d u r i n g the second
half of the nineteenth c e n t u r y a n d the beginning of t h e twentieth c e n t u r y , a l l t h e
a f o r e m e n t i o n e d m a t e r i a l c a n now be u s e d only f o r c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s . I t cons i s t s m a i n l y of s e r i e s of c h a r a c t e r m e a s u r e m e n t s and c o n t r i b u t e s l i t t l e t o the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of r a c i a l t y p e s ; i n f a c t , f o r t h i s p u r p o s e d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r s a r e
not l e s s i m p o r t a n t , a n d f r e q u e n t l y m o r e s o , t h a n m e a s u r e m e n t s .
I t i s only during the Soviet p e r i o d t h a t .anthropologists of t h e Lomonosov Moscow
S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y h a v e w o r k e d out a new a n d d e t a i l e d methodology of anthropological
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ; have r e s o l v e d t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e t a x o n o m i c value f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of v a r i o u s r a c i a l t y p e s ; have developed m e t h o d s of i s o l a t i n g r a c i a l t y p e s i n a
m i x e d population; and h a v e unified p r o g r a m s of a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . In
addition t o contributing a new methodology f o r s p e c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l investigations,
Soviet a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have c a r r i e d out a v e r y l a r g e t a s k i n solving b a s i c t h e o r e t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s t h r o u g h t h e application of m e t h o d s of d i a l e c t i c
materialism.
T h e new methodology and r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m s t h u s developed a n d unified f o r the
USSR by a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s of Moscow S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y have b e e n adopted by us, t h u s
e n s u r i n g t h e c o m p a r a b i l i t y of o u r d a t a with t h o s e obtained by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s .
T h e study of t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e population of C e n t r a l A s i a
began i n 1923. In view of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s t a s k , t h e C h a i r of Anthropology
had b e e n planned d u r i n g the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y of C e n t r a l A s i a in
1920, although t e a c h i n g did not begin until 1925. During the f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s [1923251, 0 s h a n i n 3 c o l l e c t e d a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d a t a , p a r t i c i p a t i n g as a p h y s i c i a n on e x p e d i t i o n s f o r m e d i c a l r e s e a r c h which w e r e conducted a c c o r d i n g t o o r d e r s f r o m t h e P e o p l e ' s C o m m i s s a r i a t of ~ e a l t h 4of t h e USSR. S i n c e 1926, however, all expeditions
w e r e conducted by Oshanin a n d h i s f e l l o w - w o r k e r s with s p e c i a l o b j e c t i v e s a s s i g n e d
by v a r i o u s s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s of the C e n t r a l A s i a t i c Republics.
V. K. IAsevich, S c i e n t i f i c D i r e c t o r of t h e Uzbek I n s t i t u t e of Blood T r a n s f u s i o n ,
p a r t i c i p a t e d i n o u r expeditions into the K a s h k a D a r y a O b l a s t (1927), T u r k m e n i a
(1929), t h e P a m i r s (1935) and Yagnob (1936). On t h e s e expeditions IAsevich c o l l e c t e d e x t e n s i v e m a t e r i a l o n blood g r o u p s of v a r i o u s t r i b e s and p e o p l e s of C e n t r a l
A s i a , a s well a s a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d a t a . In 1930 he a l s o t r a v e l e d into t h e highlands
of T a d z h i k i s t a n , t o K a r a t e g i n a n d Matcha on the Upper Z a r a f s h a n R i v e r , w h e r e he
r e c o r d e d a n t h r o p o m e t r i c d a t a on the T a d z h i k s . With 1 ~ s e v i c h " sp e r m i s s i o n , t h e s e
d a t a have b e e n included in o u r c o m p a r a t i v e t a b l e s .
A l i s t of all o u r a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l expeditions follows i n t a b l e 1.
I
1
'
ETHNIC, LINGUISTIC, AND ANTHROPO METRIC DATA
TABLE 1: ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXPEDITIONS BY ASSOCIATES O F T H E
DEPARTMENT O F ANTHROPOLOGY O F S A G U ~AND O F T H E
INSTITUTE O F HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY O F T H E
ACADEMY O F SCIENCES O F T H E UZBEK SSR
Expedition
Year
1923
Expedition t o K h w a r i z m ( K h o r e s m ) a s a m e m b e r of t h e m e d i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n t e a m of t h e P e o p l e ' s C o m m i s s a r i a t of P u b l i c H e a l t h .
L. V . O s h a n i n c o l l e c t e d d a t a on t h e Anthropology of K h w a r i z m
U z b e k s . P u b l i s h e d [27].
1924
Expedition t o I s s y k Kul a n d T e r s k y - A l a t a u , a s a m e m b e r of the
m e d i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n t e a m of t h e P e o p l e ' s C o m m i s s a r i a t of P u b l i c
Health. L . V . O s h a n i n c o l l e c t e d d a t a on t h e Anthropology of the
K i r g h i z . P u b l i s h e d [26].
1925
Investigation of K a r a t e g i n T a d z h i k s a t t h e cotton-ginning p l a n t s of
the T a s h k e n t O b l a s t by L. V . Oshanin. P a r t l y published [35].
1926
L. V . Oshanin, l e a d e r of the Anthropological Expedition of t h e Uzbek
S t a t e Scientific R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e t o t h e B u k h a r a and S a m a r k a n d
O b l a s t s . D a t a c o l l e c t e d on the Anthropology of t h e Uzbeks, T a dzhiks a n d J e w s . P u b l i s h e d [29].
1927
L . V. Oshanin, l e a d e r , Anthropological Expedition of t h e Uzbek
State Scientific Research Institute to the Kashka Darya Oblast.
Data c o l l e c t e d o n t h e Anthropology of t h e Uzbeks, J e w s and A r a b s .
P u b l i s h e d [29].
1928
L. V. Oshanin's t r i p t o K i r g h i z i a . Data c o l l e c t e d on t h e A n t h r o pol'ogy of the K a z a k h s and K i r g h i z . P a r t l y p u b l i s h e d [51].
1929
L. V. Oshanin, l e a d e r , Anthropological Expedition of TURKMEN KULT t o T u r k m e n i a . M a t e r i a l s o n t h e Anthropology of t h e T u r k o m a n s c o l l e c t e d by L. V . O s h a n i n a n d V. K. IAsevich. P a r t l y p u b l i s h e d [51].
1930-34
Investigation of Uzbek m e n and women i n t h e c i t y of T a s h k e n t by
L . V. Oshanin. P a r t l y published [35].
1935
L. V . Oshanin, l e a d e r , Anthropological P a m i r Expedition f r o m
the I n s t i t u t e of E x p e r i m e n t a l Medicine of Uz SSR on t h e study of
the influence of c l i m a t e on Man. Anthropological d a t a c o l l e c t e d by
L. V. Oshanin, and published i n a s e p a r a t e monograph [33].
1936
L. V . O s h a n i n , l e a d e r , Anthropological Expedition of the I n s t i t u t e
of E x p e r i m e n t a l Medicine of Uz SSR t o t h e u p p e r c o u r s e of the
Z a r a f s h a n and Yagnob. M a t e r i a l s on t h e Anthropology of the
Yagnobi and T a d z h i k s c o l l e c t e d by L . V. 0 shanin. P a r t l y published [35].
P E O P L E S O F CENTRAL ASIA
Year
1937
L. V. Oshanin, l e a d e r , Anthropological Expedition of t h e Institute
of E x p e r i m e n t a l Medicine of Uz SSR to t h e K a r a Kum. M a t e r i a l s
unpublished.
Investigation of t h e Tadzhiks along the upper c o u r s e of the Chirchik
and P s k e m r i v e r s by students of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of Anthropology of
SAGU under t h e l e a d e r s h i p of L . V. Oshanin. P a r t l y published [35].
P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the State Expedition f o r the opening of the G u r - E m i r
M a u s o l e u m and investigation of the r e m a i n s of T i m u r and of t h e
T i m u r i d s . P a r t l y published by V. IA. Zezenkova [17].
T r a v e l s of V. IA. Zezenkova, A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r of the D e p a r t m e n t
of Anthropology of SAGU, t o the S a m a r k a n d Oblast and to Nur-Ata.
Investigation of t h e T u r k o m a n s of the Nuratin Mountains by m e m b e r s of the Institute of H i s t o r y and Archaeology AN Uz SSR. 6
Published [ 2 9 ] .
Anthropological Expedition of t h e Institute of H i s t o r y and A r c h a e ology of the AN Uz SSR t o study K o r e a n s of the T a s h k e n t Oblast.
Expedition l e d by V. IA. Zezenkova. P a r t l y published [35].
Anthropological Expedition of t h e Institute of H i s t o r y and A r c h a e ology of t h e AN Uz SSR t o Kara-Kalpak ASSR. Expedition l e d by
V. IA. Zezenkova. P a r t l y published [35].
Anthropological Expedition of t h e Institute of H i s t o r y and A r c h a e ology of t h e AN Uz SSR t o Kazakhstan, K i r g h i z i a and F e r g h a n a .
Expedition l e d by V. IA. Zezenkova. Published [35].
Anthropological Expedition of t h e Institute of H i s t o r y and A r c h a e ology of the AN Uz SSR t o the F e r g h a n a Valley. Expedition l e d by
V. IA. Zezenkova. P a r t l y published [35].
Anthropological Expedition of t h e Institute of H i s t o r y and A r c h a e ology of t h e AN Uz SSR t o the Surkhan D a r y a Oblast. L e d by K.
Nadzhimov, Senior L e c t u r e r of the D e p a r t m e n t of Anthropology of
SAGU. T h i s m a t e r i a l , p a r t of h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , i s being p r e p a r e d
f o r publication and i s p a r t l y published i n t h i s study.
Continuation of t h e Anthropological Expedition t o the Surkhan D a r y a
Oblast. Led by K. Nadzhimov. T h i s m a t e r i a l , now being p r e p a r e d
f o r publication, i s p a r t l y published i n t h i s study.
Anthropological Expedition of the Institutes of H i s t o r y of the Acade m y of S c i e n c e s of Tadzhikistan and Uzbekistan t o the s o u t h e r n
d i s t r i c t s of Tadzhikistan. L e d by V. IA. Zezenkova. P a r t l y publ i s h e d i n t h i s study.
Continuation of t h e expedition t o the s o u t h e r n d i s t r i c t s of Tadzhiki s t a n . L e d by V . LA. Zezenkova. P a r t l y published i n t h i s study.
ETHNIC, LINGUISTIC, AND ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA
Year
-
Expedition
1954
Anthropological Expedition of t h e I n s t i t u t e of H i s t o r y and A r c h a e ology of t h e AN Uz SSR t o t h e A n g r e n V a l l e y (Akhangoran and
P s k e n t r a i o n s ) . L e d by K. Nadzhimov. P a r t l y published i n t h i s
study.
1955-56
Anthropological Expedition of t h e I n s t i t u t e of H i s t o r y a n d A r c h a e o l ogy of t h e AN Uz SSR t o T u r k m e n i a . T h i s m a t e r i a l i s being p r e p a r e d f o r publication.
At the v e r y beginning of t h e 1920's Moscow and L e n i n g r a d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s b e g a n
a systematic study of t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e e n t i r e m u l t i - n a t i o n a l
population of t h e Soviet Union. T h e s e s y s t e m a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a l s o c o v e r e d t h e p o p ulation of C e n t r a l A s i a . In 1926 t h e A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s o r g a n i z e d a n a n t h r o p o l o g ical expedition t o Uzbekistan. Under the l e a d e r s h i p of t h e L e n i n g r a d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t
V. V. Vishnevskii, t h i s expedition r e c o r d e d d a t a on t h e Uzbeks, T a d z h i k s and I r a n i ans in S a m a r k a n d a n d P e n d z h i k e n t . Unfortunately, t h e s e d a t a r e m a i n unpublished.
During the following y e a r s , A. I. IArkho, Moscow S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t ,
led a number of expeditions i n t o v a r i o u s d i s t r i c t s of Uzbekistan, K a z a k h s t a n , t h e
Kara-Kalpak ASSR, K i r g h i z i a a n d T u r k m e n i a . An u n t i m e l y d e a t h p r e v e n t e d IArkho
from publishing all t h e m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d by h i m a n d h i s c o - w o r k e r s . Some d a t a ,
however, w e r e p u b l i s h e d d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e [49-541 a n d p o s t h u m o u s l y [55-571, but
the g r e a t e r p a r t s t i l l r e m a i n s unpublished. With t h e p e r m i s s i o n of t h e I n s t i t u t e of
Anthropology of Moscow S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , p a r t of the s t a t i s t i c a l l y p r o c e s s e d , but
previously unpublished, m a t e r i a l by I A r k h o has b e e n included i n o u r l a t e s t work [35],
and part i s p u b l i s h e d h e r e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e .
During t h e t h i r t i e s , L e n i n g r a d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t V V. Ginzburg l e d a n expedition
into Tadzhikistan. T h e e x t e n s i v e r e s u l t s w e r e published i n a s e p a r a t e m o n o g r a p h
[3] and in p e r i o d i c a l s [4, 6, 81.
After World W a r I1 t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s of Moscow S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y a n d of t h e
Department of Anthropology of t h e I n s t i t u t e of E t h n o g r a p h y of the A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s ,
V. V. Ginzburg, G. F. D e b e t s , N. N. C h e b o k s a r o v , a n d M. G. Levin, l e d a n u m b e r of
expeditions t o K a z a k h s t a n , K i r g h i z i a a n d Uzbekistan. P a r t of t h e i r e x t e n s i v e d a t a
was published by t h e m , i n a b b r e v i a t e d f o r m , in p e r i o d i c a l s [ l l ] , and p a r t , s t a t i s t i cally p r o c e s s e d , w a s s e n t t o u s o n a n exchange b a s i s .
Our work i s c a r r i e d out i n c l o s e c o n t a c t with t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s of Moscow S t a t e
University and of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of Anthropology of t h e I n s t i t u t e of Ethnography of
the Academy of S c i e n c e s . A helpful t r a d i t i o n of exchanging unpublished m a t e r i a l h a s
been e s t a b l i s h e d with t h e r i g h t of publication a s c o m p a r a t i v e d a t a whenever w a r r a n t e d
in the i n t e r e s t of Soviet Anthropology.
In table 2 a r e r e p r e s e n t e d all p e o p l e s of C e n t r a l A s i a which have, up t o t h i s t i m e ,
been investigated by Soviet a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s i n a c c o r d a n c e with t h e i r unified p r o g r a m s .
Table 3 l i s t s the r e g i o n s i n which t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w e r e conducted, the y e a r , a n d
the r e c o r d e r .
From t h e s e t a b l e s i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s of t h e p e o p l e s of S o viet Central A s i a a r e now s o e x t e n s i v e t h a t t h i s r e g i o n m a y be r e g a r d e d a s one of t h e
most completely i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h e Soviet Union.
The m a t e r i a l shown i n t a b l e s 2 a n d 3 f o r m s t h e b a s i s of the p r e s e n t study.
.
8
P E O P L E S O F C E N T R A L ASIA
T A B L E 2: GROUPS AND IMMIGRANTS STUDIED I N CENTRAL ASIA
Groups
Central Asia
Uzbeks
Tadzhiks
Kirghiz
Kazakhs
Turkomans
Mountain t r i b e s ( T a d z h i k i s t a n )
K a r a - Kalpaks
Kipchaks
P a m i r tribes ( l a t e r Tadzhiks)
I m m i g r a n t s f r o m Neighboring C o u n t r i e s
Uigur s
Koreans
Jews
Azerbaijanis, P e r s i a n s , Baluchis
Arabs
Dungans
Males
Total
... ..
Females
ETHNIC, LINGUISTIC, AND ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA
T A B L E 3: CROUPS STUDIED B Y DISTRICT
KIRCHIZ
No.
1
District
Males
Issyk-Kul (shores)
100
Issyk-Kul (shores)
213
T i e n Shan ( v a r i o u s
Districts)
78 2
T i e n Shan ( n o r t h e r n
Districts)
166
T i e n Shan ( s o u t h e r n
Districts)
T a l a s s Valley
T a l a s s Valley
Chu Valley
Kant R a i o n n e a r F r u n z e
F e r g h a n a Valley
Ferghana (southern
Districts)
Ferghana (eastern
Districts)
Ferghana (northern
Districts)
217
Alai Valley
10 1
A l a i Valley
35
P a m i r Plateau
37
T o t a l . . 3, 207
Females
0
0
Observer
0
16-s
Miklas h e v s k a i a
0
IArkho [54]
0
Miklashevskaia [23]
Miklas h e v s k a i a [23]
O s h a n i n [35]
Miklashevskaia [39, 231
Miklas h e v s k a i a
Zezenkova [35]
IArkho [75]
M i k l a s h e v s k a i a [23]
Miklashevskaia [2 31
0
0
0
0
118
M i k l a s h e v s k a i a [ 2 31
M i k l a s h e v s k a i a [23]
Oshanin [35]
Oshanin [35]
KAZAKHS
T a l a s s Valley
100
K a r a - K a l p a k ASSR
0
Alma-Ata
0
Alma-Ata
83
Eastern Kazakhstan
65
Karaganda
130
Western Kazakhstan
Southern K a z a k h s t a n
Ili R i v e r lowlands
(Dzhalair tribes)
Alma-Ata O b l a s t
Bolshaia Orda
Bolshaia S r e d n i a i a O r d a
Kzyl-Ordin O b l a s t
Malaia O r d a ( L i t t l e H o r d e )
D z h a r k e n t (Panfilov Raion)
T i e n Shan (Narynkolskii
Raion)
T i e n Shan (Kegenskii
Raion)
T i e n Shan (Kegenskii
Raion)
Chirnkent and Dzhambul
Raions
104
T o t a l . . 1, 581
Oshanin [35]
Zezenkova [35]
Zezenkova [35]
Debets [ll]
Debets [ l l ]
Debets [ll]
D e b e t s [ll]
Debets [ l l ]
Debets [ll]
.....
Levin [ l l ]
Levin [ll]
.....
Levin [ l l ]
Cheboksarov [ l l ]
Ginzburg [ l l ]
Cinzburg [ll]
Miklashevskaia [23]
Miklashevskaia [2 31
Year
1924
1953
10
P E O P L E S O F CENTRAL ASIA
T A B L E 3 (continued)
KARA-KALPAKS
No.
56
37
38
39
District
Kara-Kalpak ASSR
~ a r a - ~ a i ASSR
~ a k
F e r g h a n a Valley
F e r g h a n a Valley
~ e r g h a n aValley
Females
Males
303
87
100
85
100
Total.
o
Observer
IA.ZKZTI
138
0
115
Year
1930
Zezenkova-[35]
IArkho [53]
Zezenkova [35]
Zolotareva [19]
.675
KIPCHAKS
F e r g h a n a Valley
F e r g h a n a Valley
( P a p Raion)
F e r g h a n a Valley
(Izbaskent and
Naryn Raions)
100
0
159
202
IArkho [5 31
Zezenkova [35]
102
Total.
Zolotareva [l9]
.361
UZBEKS O F DEFINITE CLANS AND TRIBES
No.
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
District
Khwarizm
(Khorezm)
Angren Valley
Angren Valley
Angren Valley
Angren Valley
Angren Valley
Angren Valley
Angren Valley
Angren Valley
T r i b e s and C l a n s
Angren Valley
Angren Valley
F e r g h a n a Valley
F e r g h a n a Valley
F e r g h a n a Valley
Samarkand Oblast
K e r m i n e Raion
Shakhrasiab
Kitab
Karshi
Guzar
Surkhan D a r y a O b l a s t
Surkhan D a r y a Oblas t
Surkhan D a r y a O b l a s t
Surkhan D a r y a O b l a s t
Southern Tadzhikistan
Southern Tadzhikistan
Southern Tadzhikistan
Southern Tadzhikistan
Southern Tadzhikis tan
Southern Tadzhiki-
Males
Females
Observer
Mangyt
Uishuu
Ivelek
Ungut
Kanzhigalys
Dzhalair
Kereit
Balgaly s
O t h e r c l a n s and
tribes
Various clans
and tribes
Turki
T u r k i Kalta-tai
Turki Barlas
Turki
Various tribes
Various tribes
Various tribes
Various tribes
Various tribes
Various tribes
Kungrad (Kungrat)
Turki
Yuz (IUz)
Other s m a l l tribes
Nadzhimov
Nadzhimov
IArkho [53]
IArkho [53]
Zolotareva [19]
Oshanin [35]
Oshanin [29]
Oshanin [29]
Oshanin
Oshanin [29]
LAsevich
Nadzhimov
Nadzhimov
Nadzhimov
Nadzhimov
Lokai
Oshanin
Lokai
Zezenkova
Karluk
Z e z enkova
Barlas
Zezenkova
Kesemir
Zezenkova
IArkho
IArkho
LArkho
IArkho
IArkho
LArkho
IArkho
IArkho
[53]
[53]
[53]
[53]
[53]
[53]
[53]
[5 31
Zezenkova
Year
11
ETHNIC. LINGUISTIC, AND ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA
E 3 (continued)
District
T r i b e s and C l a n s
Males
Southern Tadzhikistan
Musa-Bazari
26
Southern Tadzhiki22
stan
Dzhan-Katagan
Southern Tadzhiki21
stan
Kauchin
Southern Tadzhiki17
stan
Kung r ad
Southern Tadzhikistan
Mirshikor (Meri12
shhor)
Southern TadzhikiOther small tribes
18
T o t a l . . 3, 894
Females
Year
Observer
16
Zezenkova
22
Zezenkova
14
Zezenkova
26
Zezenkova
24
Zezenkova
43
909
Zezenkova
1952-53
In the Angren Valley Nos. 48-54 belong t o the K u r a m a t r i b e s and c l a n s . Nos. 60-63 a r e i n the
shka D a r y a Oblast.
UZBEKS O F UNKNOWN CLAN AND TRIBAL SUBDIVISION
District
Males
Khwarizm (Khorezm)
100
Khwarizm
100
Khwarizm
0
Tashkent
119
Tashkent
200
Tashkent
133
Samarkand
86
Angren Valley
18 1
F e r g h a n a Valley (Andizhan) 199
F e r g h a n a Valley (Namangan) 200
F e r g h a n a Valley (Sharikhan)
95
F e r g h a n a Valley (Kuva)
200
F e r g h a n a Valley ( P a p )
36
F e r g h a n a Valley ( L e n i n s k
o r Assake)
91
F e r g h a n a Valley ( V a r i o u s )
116
53
Surkhan D a r y n O b l a s t
T o t a l . . 1, 909
Females
0
0
86
0
0
0
0
159
0
0
0
0
23
Observer
0
17-s
IArkho [53]
Zezenkova [35]
Shishov [47]
Oshanin [35]
Oshanin [35]
Oshanin [35]
Nadzhimov
IArkho [35]
IArkho [35]
Oshanin [35]
Oshanin [35]
Zezenkova [35]
Year
19L3
Nadzhimov [35]
Zolotareva [ l 9 ]
Nadzhimov
TADZHIKS O F T H E UZBEKISTAN PLAINS AND PIEDMONT
District
Towns Uzbekistan
Towns Uzbekistan
Towns Uzbekistan
Upper t r i b u t a r i e s of
Chirchik, KokSu and P s k e m
Rivers
Angren Valley
Ferghana Valley
Ferghana Valley
Ferghana Valley
Ferghana Valley
Ferghana Valley
Ferghana Valley
Ferghana Valley
Locality
Samarkand
Samarkand
Bukhara
B r i c h - Mulla,
Nanai and
Bogustan
.....
P a p Raion
Kanibadam, I s f a r a
Leninabad
Ura-Tiube,
Shakhristan
Ura-Tiube,
Shakhristan
Males
?
139
163
Females
0
Observer
]-p
e
Oshanin [35]
Oshanin [35]
Oshanin [35]
Nad zhimov
Bl,agoveshchenskii [l]
IArkho [53]
Zezenkova [35]
Ginzburg [5]
Ginzburg [5]
Ginzburg [5]
P e t r o v [5]
Year
19 2 7
1926
1926
12
P E O P L E S O F CENTRAL ASIA
T A B L E 3 (continued)
No.
-
District
F e r g h a n a Valley
109
110
F e r g h a n a Valley
F e r g h a n a Valley
F e r g h a n a Valley
Southern Uzbekistan. S u r k h a n
Daryn Oblast
108
111
112
Locality
Ura-Tiube,
Shakhristan
Vuadil. K a s s a n s a i
Chust
Uch-Kurgan
.....
Male s
Females
?
0
0
50
29
99
0
0
22 1
T o t a l . . 1, 252
0
287
Observer
Year
-
P e t r o v [5]
Z o l o t a r e v a [19]
O s h a n i n [35]
O s h a n i n [35]
Nadzhimov
TADZHIKS O F T H E TADZHIKISTAN PIEDMONT
No.
113
District
Males
Southern T a d z h i k i s t a n
(Baldzhuan and
Muminabad)
117
Southern T a d z h i k i s t a n
(Dangara)
58
Southern T a d z h i k i s t a n
(Kangur)
38
Southern T a d z h i k i s t a n
36
(Khovaling)
Southern T a d z h i k i s t a n
(Kyzyl-Mazar)
12
Southern T a d z h i k i s t a n
(IAvan Valley)
94
Southern Tadzhikistan
(IAkh-Su Valley)
37
Central Tadzhikistan
( U p p e r Varzob, Zidda)
33
Central Tadzhikistan
(Eastern Raions)
147
Central Tadzhikistan
(Central Raions)
33
W e s t e r n Tadzhikistan
(Pendzhikent)
2 79
T o t a l . .884
Females
Observer
Ze z enkova
Ze zenkova
zezekova
Zezenkova
Zezenkova
Zezenkova
Bogoiavlens kii [7]
Oshanin [35]
Ginzburg [5]
Ginzburg [5]
Vishnevskii [5]
TADZHIKS O F T H E TADZHIKISTAN HIGHLANDS
D a r v a z (Khingou Valley)
D a r v a z ( P i a n d z h Valley)
D a r v a z ( C e n t r a l and
Eastern)
D a r v a z (Southwestern)
Karategin (Various
Districts)
Karategin (Various
Districts)
Karategin (Garm)
Karategin (Various
Districts)
Upper Z a r a f s h a n R i v e r
Upper Z a r a f s h a n R i v e r
Upper Z a r a f s h a n R i v e r
(Matcha)
Upper Z a r a f s h a n R i v e r
(Zakhmatabad, V a r z a minor)
Upper. Z a r a f s h a n R i v e r
(IAgnob D a r y a , Takfon)
Bogoiavlenskii [4]
Bogoiavlenskii [4]
Ginzburg [3]
Ginzburg [3]
Bogoiavlenskii [4]
O s h a n i n [35]
IAsevich [35]
Ginzburg [3]
Bog oiavlenskii [4]
Maslovskii
IAsevich 1351
O s h a n i n [35]
O s h a n i n [35]
Year
-
ETHNIC. LINGUISTIC, AND ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA
TABLE 3 (continued)
No.
-
137
Females
Males
District
Upper
Zarafshan
..
R i v e r (Yagnob
Darya, Khshartob)
51
T o t a l . . 1. 581
Observer
O s h a n i n [35]
0
-
Y
ear
1936
0
ANCIENT HIGHLAND TRIBES O F SOUTHERN TADZHIKISTAN
(NOW TADZHIK-SPEAKING)
No.
138
District
Vanch Vallev
Vanch Valley
Vanch Valley
Vanch Valley
IAzgulem Valley
Tribes
Vanchi
Vanchi
Vanchi
Vanchi
IAzgulemi
Males
42
23
80
40
20
Total.
.=
Females
0
0
0
0
0
0
Observer
Bogoiavlenskii -[4]s t e i n [35]
Korovnikov [35]
Ginzburg [3]
S t e i n [35]
Year
1901
1915
1928
1932
1915
MOUNTAIN TRIBES O F TADZHIKISTAN WHICH PRESERVED
TRACES O F ANCIENT IRANIAN LANGUAGES
Yagnob D a r y a Valley
Rushan
Rushan
Rush an
Bartang Valley
Shugnan
Shugnan (Gunt Valley)
Shugnan (Gunt Valley)
Shugnan ( P i a n d z h
Valley)
Shugnan (Shakhdara
Valley)
Shugnan (Shakhdara
Valley)
Vakhan
Vakhan
Vakhan
Garan
Ishkashim
Ishkashim
Ishkashim
Yagnobi
Rushani
Rushani
Rushani
Bartangi
Shugni
Shugni
Shugni
Oshanin [33]
Bogoiavlenskii [4. 71
S t e i n [35]
Oshanin [33]
Oshanin [33]
S t e i n [33]
Bogoiavlenskii [4, 71
Oshanin [33]
Shugni
Oshanin [33]
Shugni
Oshanin [33]
Shugni
Vakhani
Vakhani
Vakhani
G a r a n i (now
Tadzhik- speaking)
Ishkashim
I s h k a s him
Ishkashim
Total.
Bogoiavlenskii
Stein [35]
Bogoiavlenskii [4, 71
O s h a n i n [33, 491
Bogoiavlenskii [4. 71
Bogoiavlenskii [4]
Stein [35]
Oshanin [33]
T UR KO MANS
Mary ( M e r v )
Kara Kum
Teke
Teke
Kara-Kala
Kazandzhik
Kara Kum
Gokleni
Yomudi
Y omudi
Khwarizm
Khwarizm
Kelif e
Bakharden
(Murcha Aul)
Southern Uzbekistan (Termez)
Y omudi
Chaudyri
Ersari
Oshanin and IAsevich [35] 1929
E l i s t r a t o v and
Shmakov [35]
1936
1929
Oshanin and IAsevich
Oshanin [35]
1929
E l i s t r a t o v and
Shmakov [35]
1936
IArkho [52]
1930
IArkho
1930
1926
Oshanin [25]
Murc hali
Zezenkova
1952
Nadzhimov
1952
Ersari
203
T o t a l . . 1, 427
14
P E O P L E S O F CENTRAL ASIA
T A B L E 3 (continued)
UIGURS FROM SINKLANG
No.
168
District
Ili Valley
Ili Valley
Alma-Ata O b l a s t
Panfilov ( D z h a r k e n t
Raion)
T i e n Shan (Aksui Raion)
Males
277
Females
0
0
132
Year
1893
Observer
paIArkho [53]
Levin [ll]
Cheboksarov [ll]
Ginzburg and
C h e b o k s a r o v [ll]
Zezenkova [35]
Kant R a i o n ( n e a r F r u n z e )
F e r g h a n a Valley
(Leninsk, Assake)
O s h and F e r g h a n a Valley
(Kuva Pakhta-Abad)
Total
Zezenkova 1351
Z o l o t a r e v a [19]
DUNGANS FROM DZHUNGARIA
Alma-Ata
Kant Raion ( n e a r F r u n z e )
Total.
23
46
14
Levin
Nadzhimov [36]
.-
KOREANS FROM FAR EAST
T a s h k e n t O b l a s t (NizhneC h i r c h i k Raion)
189
T a s h k e n t , S a m a r k a n d and
Kzyl-Ordin O b l a s t s
48 6
T o t a l . . 675
-
168
Zezenkova [35]
0
-
Levin
168
GROUPS FROM IRAN
Azerbaijanis (Tabriz)
P e r s i a n s (Khurasan)
Baluchis (Baluchistan)
K u r d s (Azerbaijan)
53
56
84
16
Total.
Note:
-
,209
0
0
0
-0
0
Oshanin [35]
Oshanin [35]
Oshanin [35]
E l i s t r a t o v and Shmakov
A z e r b a i j a n i s in I r a n , but A z e r b a i d z h a n i s i n T r a n s c a u c a s i a (H. F. ).
ANCIENT GROUPS FROM ANTERIOR ASIA
No.
184
Group
Jews
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
Jews
Jews
Jews
Jews
Jews
Arabs
Arabs
Locality
Males
Herat
10
Samarkand
100
Bukhara
40
Bukhara
136
Kermine
59
Shakhrasiab
103
Kamashi near Karshi
100
Surkhan D a r y n O b l a s t
46
T o t a l . . 594
Females
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
'
Observer
Weissenberg
Weissenberg
Weissenberg
Oshanin [29.
Oshanin [29,
Oshanin [29,
Oshanin [29,
[82]
[82]
[82]
351
351
351
351
Year
1919
1919
1919
1926
1926
1927
1927
1951
11. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION O F BASIC ANTHROPOLOGICAL
CHARACTERS O F THE POPULATION O F CENTRAL ASIA
AND THE ISOLATION O F RACIAL TYPES
The importance of the study of the p r e s e n t and p a s t geographic distribution of
human races f o r the clarification of fundamental problems of Ethnogene s i s has been
pointed out i n the Introduction.
In addition t o the complex of morphological t r a i t s , which a r e t r a n s m i t t e d by inheritance in the c o u r s e of a n indefinitely long period of t i m e , t h e r e i s also, a s a
characteristic peculiarity of human r a c e s , a definite a r e a o r c e n t e r of distribution
where c h a r a c t e r s specific f o r a given r a c e a r e m o s t concentrated, and where they
are most frequently encountered.
Likewise, one of the specific c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a nation i s a definite t e r r i t o r y
where the formation of a given nation took place historically. The basic national
unions of Central Asia- -the Kirghiz, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Turkomans and the Tadzhiks
--were formed on different t e r r i t o r i e s . In comparing these unions anthropologists
find the g r e a t e s t concentration of definite r a c i a l t r a i t s in the t e r r i t o r y which i s o c cupied by the given national union and, a t tFe s a m e t i m e , r e v e a l the differences i n
the racial composition of the peoples of Soviet Socialist C e n t r a l Asia.
Whereas present-day national unions in this a r e a u s e languages belonging to two
linguistic f a m i l i e s - - T u r k i c (Kirghiz, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and T u r k o m a n s ) , and I r a n i an (Tadzhiks)- - a comparative anthropological a n a l y s i s a l s o d i s c l o s e s differences in
the racial composition of t h e s e Turkic-speaking and Iranian-speaking peoples of
Central Asia. F o r this r e a s o n , the geographical and comparative anthropological
methods came to be generally r e g a r d e d i n the Soviet Union a s the m o s t effective
means for the isolation of r a c e s in mixed populations, and simultaneously f o r the
disclosure of s i m i l a r i t i e s o r differences i n the r a c i a l s t r u c t u r e of nations that speak
the same o r different language f a m i l i e s . The l a t t e r point i s of definite significance
in the clarification of p r o b l e m s regarding the correlation of r a c i a l types with linguistic families.
On the basis of a l l the data listed i n tables 2 and 3, chapter I, the geographical
distribution of the m o s t important anthropological c h a r a c t e r s of the highly mixed
population of C e n t r a l Asia has now been thoroughly investigated.
As previously mentioned in the Introduction, C e n t r a l Asia r e p r e s e n t s a n extensive
border zone between the initial distribution a r e a s of two basic G r e a t Races of E u r a s i a ,
the Mongoloid and the Europeoid, each of which differentiated into a number of s m a l l
racial groups, o r r a c e s of the second o r d e r . The Mongoloid r a c e s moved into the
territory of Central Asia, originally occupied by local Europeoid r a c e s , f r o m the
east and north. The c l o s e r the p r e s e n t Republic l i e s to the common initial a r e a of
distribution of the Mongoloid r a c e s , the m o r e intensively was that t e r r i t o r y settled
by peoples of Mongoloid type. This i s reflected in the geographical distribution of
individual Mongoloid and Europeoid c h a r a c t e r s among the basic m o d e r n national
unions of Central A s i a - -Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Kirghiz, Turkomans and the Tadzhiks.
In order to isolate the Mongoloid and Europeoid components, we give the d i s t r i bution of the basic anthropological c h a r a c t e r s among these five peoples. These peoples live not only within the l i m i t s of t h e i r p r e s e n t - d a y Republics, but a l s o i n the
neighboring Soviet Republics of C e n t r a l Asia, where they had become mixed, i n
greater or l e s s e r d e g r e e , with the indigenous population. F o r this r e a s o n we p r e s e n t
data of only those groups living within the boundaries of t h e i r own Republics.
Regions in which investigations w e r e made a r e indicated i n table 2, chapter I.
16
PEOPLES O F CENTRAL ASIA
In addition t o the Turkoman t r i b e s l i s t e d i n table 2 , we a l s o included the Baiat,
Salyr, Soryk t r i b e s and E r s a r i t r i b e of Chardzhou, studied during 1955-56 by
Nadzhimov.
As shown i n table 2, the investigations covered the Kirghiz of various regions,
f r o m the I s s y k Kul basin i n the north to the Alai Valley and P a m i r Plateau i n the
south, f r o m the T a l a s s and Chu lowlands in the west t o the boundary of China in tht
e a s t . Within the boundaries of Kazakhstan, groups of Kazakhs w e r e investigated in
the n o r t h e r n , c e n t r a l , southern, w e s t e r n and e a s t e r n p a r t s . Investigations a l s o
covered a l l of Uzbekistan, f r o m Khwarizm in the west to the F e r g h a n a Valley in th
east, and f r o m the Tashkent O b l a s t i n the north to the Surkhan Darya Oblast i n the
south. The Tadzhiks w e r e studied in various raions of northern, c e n t r a l and south
Tadzhikistan. The Turkomans w e r e examined f r o m Khwarizm in the west t o the
boundaries of Afghanistan i n the e a s t , and f r o m Mary [Merv] i n the north t o the
boundaries of I r a n in the south.
F o r the sake of brevity, we u s e the t e r m "Mongoloid" f o r a l l Mongoloid r a c e s
the second o r d e r , that i s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e G r e a t Mongoloid Race a s a who1
and the t e r m "Europeoidw f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of a l l Europeoid r a c e s of the secon
o r d e r , i . e . , the G r e a t Europeoid Race a s a whole. Some of the r a c i a l c h a r a c t e r s
a r e determined on the b a s i s of a generally accepted standard of grading, while 0th
may be p r e c i s e l y m e a s u r e d . The f o r m e r a r e called d e s c r i p t i v e o r qualitative; the
l a t t e r , m e t r i c o r quantitative c h a r a c t e r s . Mongoloids differ f r o m Europeoids in a
number of m e t r i c and descriptive c h a r a c t e r s .
P a r t i c u l a r l y significant descriptive t r a i t s distinguishing the Mongoloids f r o m
Europeoids a r e the following: ( a ) the p r e s e n c e of the "Mongoloid foldw; (b) s p a r s e
h a i r on the f a c e and body; (c) a f l a t face, a s if flattened backward, with v e r y pronounced m a l a r s ; ( d ) m o r e convex position of the eyeballs in the o r b i t a l cavities;
and ( e ) a number of t r a i t s that c h a r a c t e r i z e the morphology of the nose. Among the
m e a s u r a b l e f e a t u r e s , considerably g r e a t e r longitudinal and especially t r a n s v e r s e
d i a m e t e r s of the head and f a c e a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r the Mongoloids. The s a m e
m e t r i c c h a r a c t e r s distinguish not only the Mongoloids f r o m the Europeoids a s a
whole, but a l s o those Europeoid r a c e s of the second d e g r e e which entered into the
composition of the population of Central Asia.
The t e r r i t o r y c l o s e s t t o the g e n e r a l initial a r e a of distribution of the Mongoloid
r a c e s a r e the countries north of the Syr Darya, namely the broad steppe belt of
C e n t r a l Asia, and the mountain s y s t e m of Tien Shan, now p a r t of the Kirghiz and
Kazakh SSR. The g r e a t e s t concentration of Mongoloid c h a r a c t e r s m a y be observed
among the Kirghiz and Kazakhs, who speak a Turkic language. However, among
other Turkic -speaking nations living south of the S y r Darya (Uzbeks and Turkomans;
the Mongoloid t r a i t s a r e g r e a t l y reduced. Among the Iranian- speaking Tadzhiks
Mongoloid t r a i t s a r e , a s a rule, completely absent, o r i n the r a r e c a s e s where they
do o c c u r , a p p e a r only a s a n insignificant admixture.
The comparative tables indicate the distribution of Mongoloid t r a i t s among the
above-mentioned nationalities of Central Asia.
One of the m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c Mongoloid t r a i t s i s the p r e s e n c e of a s p e c i a l fold
in the upper eyelid which h a s long been known in Anthropology a s the "Mongoloid"
o r epicanthic fold. I t s p r e s e n c e may be considered a n "indicatorw of the Mongoloid
Race, since i t s distribution c o r r e s p o n d s with the 'distribution of a l l other Mongoloid
c h a r a c t e r s . The upper eyelid usually has s o m e kind of skin fold, but i t s position is
different in Mongoloids and Europeoids. In the l a t t e r , the fold of the upper eyelid is
high and does not cover e i t h e r the f r e e edge of the upper lid on which the eyelashes
grow, o r the inner c o r n e r of the eye where the caruncula l a c r y m a l i s i s located.
Among the Mongoloids, this fold i s considerably lower, and c o v e r s the f r e e edge of
the upper eyelid a s well a s the inner c o r n e r of the eye with the caruncula lacrymali
17
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION O F RACIAL TYPES
That part of the Mongoloid fold which i s located above the i n n e r c o r n e r of the eye,
also partly covering the c a r u n c u l a l a c r y m a l i s , likewise i s c a l l e d the i n n e r o r i n ternal epicanthic fold. I n t y p i c a l c a s e s , the epicanthus begins a t t h e l o w e r eyelid,
curves like a s i c k l e o v e r the c o r n e r of the eye, and extends along the u p p e r eyelid
as a solid fold which i s c a l l e d the epicanthic o r Mongoloid fold of the u p p e r eyelid.
The eyes of a J a p a n e s e a n d of a E u r o p e a n a r e typical, m a r k e d l y e x p r e s s e d c a s e s .
[Russian text, p. 60; s e e a l s o Rudolf M a r t i n , vol. 1, p . 528, 1928. ] However, a
simple Europeoid fold f r e q u e n t l y s i m u l a t e s a Mongoloid fold by being located below
the usual position, but failing t o produce a genuine epicanthic fold. F o r t h i s r e a s o n
table 4 indicates m e r e l y the p e r c e n t a g e of o c c u r r e n c e of the Mongoloid fold among
the nationalities of C e n t r a l A s i a . However, t h e r e i s a g r e a t v a r i a t i o n i n the d e g r e e
of development of the i n n e r epicanthic fold. Hence t h e r e i s a n a l m o s t unavoidable
noted many f e w e r c a s e s of the
subjective e l e m e n t i n i t s d i a g n o s i s . T h u s , 1 ~ r k h d
Mongoloid fold among the Kirghiz than did we a n d o t h e r Moscow anthropologists.
There a r e no e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s between o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s and those m a d e by
Debets, Levin and Cheboksarov. T h e r e f o r e , the only d a t a shown a r e t h o s e obtained
by ourselves and the above -named Moscow anthropologists.
In table 4, the l e t t e r M i n d i c a t e s t h e g e n e r a l a v e r a g e [Mean] p e r c e n t a g e of e p i canthic fold o c c u r r i n g i n each given people. Min. and Max. a r e the m i n i m u m and
maximum p e r c e n t a g e s of the g r o u p s living i n v a r i o u s r e g i o n s , while the l e t t e r N
indicates the n u m b e r of s u b j e c t s examined. T h e t a b l e s follow t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t .
-
Table 4: Mongoloid Fold ( P e r c e n t a g e s )
People
Kirghiiil
Kazakh
uzbek2
Turkoman
Tadzhik
No.
1292
1480
4401
1901
2000
Male
Min.
- Max.
45. 0
74.4
6.3
49.0
0.0
35.4
0. 3
19.0
0.0
10.1
Mean
51.1
22.5
10. 6
5. 9
1.9
No.
118
228
20 1
789
67 1
Female
Min.
Max.
....
....
37. 6
14.0
1. 6
7.0
68.6
21.7
27. 0
18.8
Mean
83. 1
53.1
17.9
10.1
10.5
Table 4 shows t h a t the m a x i m u m concentration of epicanthus was o b s e r v e d among
the Kirghiz who have the h i g h e s t p e r c e n t a g e of i t s o c c u r r e n c e . In t h i s group, the
minimum percentage (45. 0) o c c u r r e d among Kirghiz investigated by Debets a t I s s y k
Kul and the m a x i m u m ( 7 4 . 4 ) among Kirghiz o b s e r v e d by 0 shanin on the P a m i r P l a teau. Among the Kazakhs, the m e a n a s well a s the m i n i m u m and m a x i m u m p e r centages of this c h a r a c t e r a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r . Among t h e Turkic-speaking n a tionalities living f u r t h e r south, the Uzbeks and T u r k o m a n s , the r e s p e c t i v e p e r c e n t ages are s t i l l l e s s , while among the I r a n i a n - s p e a k i n g T a d z h i k s , the epicanthic fold
is either completely a b s e n t , o r i s noted m e r e l y a s a n insignificant a d m i x t u r e i n
some regions of Tadzhikistan. T h e s a m e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s o b s e r v e d among f e m a l e
groups.
On the b a s i s of the g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n alone of t h i s c h a r a c t e r , we m a y s t a t e
that the migration of Mongoloid r a c e s s t a r t e d f r o m the e a s t , f r o m t h e i r c o m m o n
initial a r e a of d i s t r i b u t i o n . They occupied m o s t intensively the mountains and foothills of the Tien Shan, t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e the plains of p r e s e n t - d a y Kazakhstan, i . e . ,
the broad, n o r t h e r n steppe belt of C e n t r a l A s i a , whence they p e n e t r a t e d , i n s t i l l
smaller numbers, the plains of Uzbekistan and T u r k m e n i s t a n , by - p a s sing a l m o s t
completely the foothills and the mountains of the P a m i r - A l a i which a t p r e s e n t a r e
occupied by the I r a n i a n - speaking T a d z h i k s .
Hair. Another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a i t , distinguishing the Mongoloid f r o m the E u r o p e oid, is the d e g r e e of development of f a c i a l and body h a i r . T h i s i s called t e r t i a r y o r
18
I
PEOPLES O F CENTRAL ASIA
t e r m i n a l h a i r cover, since it does not develop until puberty, a s contrasted with the
secondary h a i r c o v e r which begins t o develop prenatally and which encompasses
in the [live-born] only t h e h a i r on the head, eyebrows and eyelashes. The primary
h a i r cover envelops the e n t i r e body of the fetus (one of the proofs that Man sprang
f r o m h i r s u t e a n c e s t o r s ) , and d i s a p p e a r s completely during fetal life. The development of the t e r t i a r y h a i r cover on t h e f a c e (beard and mustache) and on the body
(pubic region, a r m p i t s , trunk and e x t r e m i t i e s ) i s usually graded a s follows: 1, absent o r v e r y scanty; 2, scanty o r s p a r s e ; 3, average; 4, abundant; and 5, very
abundant. The d e g r e e of development of facial h a i r c o r r e s p o n d s t o g e n e r a l hirsuten e s s . T h e r e f o r e , we have only given data on the development of b e a r d growth for
men m o r e than 25 y e a r s of age.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r the Mongoloids i s a poorly developed b e a r d ( g r a d e s 1-2). and
f o r the Europeoids of C e n t r a l Asia a n a v e r a g e and above-average development
(grade 3 tending to 4).
In table 5, the m e a n s designate the a v e r a g e of b e a r d development within each
group. The minimum and m a x i m u m c a t e g o r i e s a r e given f o r v a r i o u s groups of the
s a m e nationality living i n different and distant raions. N = n u m b e r of subjects examined. The l a t t e r i s considerably s m a l l e r than in the preceding c a s e b e c a u s e on11
m a l e s m o r e than 25 y e a r s old have been included. F u r t h e r m o r e , the spreading
custom of shaving the b e a r d often m a k e s i t a l m o s t impossible to d e t e r m i n e the deg r e e of b e a r d growth.
Table 5: Beard Development (Males aged 25-x)
I
People
Kirghiz.
~ a z a k h ~
uzbek4
Turkoman
Tadzhik
No.
1276
925
2781
580
1198
Minimum
1. 04
1. 60
1.96
2.49
2. 96
Maximum
Mean !
1. 88
1.73
2.
3.
3.
4.
1.97
2. 70
2.93
3. 15
26
34
38
15
The geographical distribution of the d e g r e e s of development of the t e r t i a r y hair
cover follows p r e c i s e l y that of the Mongoloid fold among the five basic nationalities
of C e n t r a l Asia. The s c a n t i e s t h a i r growth o c c u r s among the Kirghiz, who live in
s c a t t e r e d raions of Kirghizia. Among the Kazakhs, who occupy the b r o a d steppe
zone of C e n t r a l Asia, the h i r s u t e n e s s i s considerably higher. An a v e r a g e development of h a i r growth ( m e a n about g r a d e 3, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r Europeoids) was r e corded among the Uzbeks and Turkomans, the Turkic-speaking nationalities, the
majority of whom live south of the S y r Darya. The m o s t intensive beard growth was
observed among the Iranian-speaking Tadzhiks.
Thus, geographic distribution of individual anthropological c h a r a c t e r s , which
differentiate the Mongoloids 'from the Europeoids a r e , in effect, " t r a c k s " left by
the p r o c e s s of settlement of the Mongoloid r a c e s in Central Asia.
F a c e . Another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a i t , which differentiates Mongoloids f r o m Europf
oids, i s the d e g r e e of f a c i a l f l a t n e s s .
Among typical Mongoloids, the e n t i r e face, especially the mid-facial section
with wide and prominent zygomata, a p p e a r s to be flattened backward. In c o n t r a s t ,
among Europeoids the so-called "horizontal profile of the middle face" n a r r o w s to
a c e r t a i n d e g r e e in a f o r w a r d direction [alveolar prognathism].
The d e g r e e of f a c i a l f l a t n e s s o r , conversely, the narrowing of the f a c e i n a f o r ward direction may be assigned n u m e r i c a l g r a d e s a s follows: 1, flat; 2, medium
v a r i a n t s of i t s n a r r o w n e s s ; and 3, f a c e s strongly narrowed i n front. The g r e a t e r the
f a c i a l flatness of the population of a given region, the c l o s e r do the a v e r a g e g r a d e s
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION O F RACIAL TYPES
19
approach g r a d e 1; t h e n a r r o w e r the f a c e s b e c o m e i n t h e f o r w a r d d i r e c t i o n , t h e
higher b e c o m e t h e g r a d e s .
As i n the d i a g n o s i s of o t h e r d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r s , e x p e r i e n c e and a t r a i n e d
eye a r e n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o develop a p p r o p r i a t e s c a l e s . A s t h e r e a r e no c o n t r a dictions i n the o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s among t h e s a m e peoples
when c o m p a r e d with o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s . we s u m m a r i z e h e r e a l l the d a t a obtained.
T a b l e 6: H o r i z o n t a l F a c i a l P r o f i l e
People
Kirghiz
Kazakh
Uzbek
Turkoman
Tadzhik
No.
2018
1580
3587
1706
1599
Male
Min.
1.03
1.12
1.48
1. 69
1. 90
Max.
Mean
1. 32
1. 22
1. 92
2. 27
2. 35
2.53
No.
-
188
288
20 1
789
5 66
1. 33
1.83
1. 99
2.20
Female
Min.
Max.
-
Mean
- .... 1.19
1.02
1. 37
1.96
2. 31
2. 1 3
....
1. 87
1. 76
1. 86
1. 18
1.93
1.92
1.97
Thus, the g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h i s c h a r a c t e r t r a c e s t h e s a m e path of
migration of f l a t - f a c e d Mongoloids f r o m t h e mountains of K i r g h i z i a down t o t h e
plains of Kazakhstan, and f u r t h e r south t o the plains of Uzbekistan and T u r k m e n i a ,
by-passing t h e P a m i r -Alai s y s t e m occupied by the T a d z h i k s .
The o b s e r v a t i o n s on f e m a l e s c o n f i r m fully the d a t a obtained on m a l e g r o u p s .
Nose. T h e Mongoloids d i f f e r f r o m E u r o p e o i d s i n a n u m b e r of n a s a l c h a r a c t e r s .
The nasal b r i d g e of the f o r m e r i s r e l a t i v e l y l e s s pronounced and "lower" than t h a t
of the l a t t e r . T h e height of the n a s a l b r i d g e i s d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g to a t h r e e grade s y s t e m : 1 , low; 2, m e d i u m ; and 3, high.
Obviously, a s i n the judging of o t h e r morphological c h a r a c t e r s , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
of the nasal b r i d g e height r e q u i r e s a sufficiently o b s e r v a n t and e x p e r i e n c e d i n v e s t i gator, who should have viewed h u n d r e d s of s u b j e c t s ; only then will h e have de veloped a sufficiently p r e c i s e s c a l e f o r concluding whether a given n a s a l b r i d g e
should be r e g a r d e d a s low, a s r a t h e r m e d i u m , a s m e d i u m , o r a s r a t h e r high.
There must a l s o b e a n a g r e e m e n t r e g a r d i n g the s c a l e s of s u c h d e t e r m i n a t i o n s
among the i n v e s t i g a t o r s .
As t h e r e w e r e no c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n the o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e by D e b e t s , IArkho,
Ginzburg, Cheboksarov, L e v i n and Oshanin, we s u m m a r i z e a l l t h e d a t a obtained
by these i n v e s t i g a t o r s .
I
-
T a b l e 7: N a s a l B r i d g e Height
People
Kirghiz
Kazakh
Uzbek
Turkoman
Tadzhik
No.
2275
1148
3804
1910
1951
Male
Max.
Min
1. 39
1. 74
1.49
2. 35
1. 57
2. 31
1. 77
2. 26
2. 15
2. 60
.
Mean
1. 63
1. 79
2. 08
2. 09
2. 30
No.
118
147
20 1
78 9
640
Female
Min.
Max.
....
Mean
.. . . 1.81
1:54
1. 98
1..95
2. 08
1. 69
2.09
2.02
2. 24
1. 64
2. 0 1
2.00
2. 1 4
One additional c h a r a c t e r r e f e r r i n g t o the morphology of the n o s e should a l s o be
recorded. According t o o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s , a f u r t h e r c h a r a c t e r helpful i n differenti ating Mongoloids f r o m E u r o p e o i d s i s the position of the l a t e r a l walls of the n o s e
[see Rudolf Martin, vol. 1, p. 559, 19281. Among the Europeoids of C e n t r a l A s i a ,
thealae usually have a m e d i u m slope, s o m e t i m e s sagittal, t h a t i s a l m o s t v e r t i c a l ,
P E O P L E S O F CENTRAL ASIA
20
while i n t h e Mongoloids they a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e sloping, and f o r m a m o r e ob- ,
t u s e angle with the n a s a l b r i d g e . F o r the n u m e r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n of t h i s c h a r a c t e r ,
we u s e the s a m e t h r e e - g r a d e s y s t e m : g r a d e 1, s h a r p l y r a i s e d l a t e r a l walls of the
n o s e i n a n a l m o s t v e r t i c a l position; g r a d e 2, m e d i u m slope; and g r a d e 3, a pro- 1
nounced s l o p e . T h e h i g h e r the g r a d e i n a given g r o u p of population, the m o r e slant4
ing a r e t h e l a t e r a l n a s a l walls; the l o w e r the a v e r a g e g r a d e , the s t e e p e r t h e position of the w a l l s .
Not a l l i n v e s t i g a t o r s noted t h i s c h a r a c t e r and published m a t e r i a l s d i f f e r greatly
f r o m o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s i n m a n y c a s e s . T h e r e f o r e , table 8 shows only the average
g r a d e s obtained by Oshanin o r by h i s c o - w o r k e r s who followed the s a m e s c a l e s .
!
1
Table 8: P o s i t i o n of N a s a l L a t e r a l Walls
People
Kirghiz
Kazakh
Uzbek
Turkoman
Tadzhik
No.
100
100
2509
1389
533
Male
Min.
Max.
- -
....
.. ..
....
. . ..
1. 69
1.80
1. 38
2.02
2. 01
2. 00
Mean
2.40
2.28
1.95
1. 90
1. 8 3
No.
118
187
178
78 9
49 0
Female
Min.
Max.
-
....
....
Mean
2.05
2. 15
1. 91
2. 01
2. 1 5
2. 0 1
2. 05
1.98
2.15
1.96
2.03
1.84
1. 53
The g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of the above g r a d e s follows the s a m e d i r e c t i o n as
t h a t of the preceding c h a r a c t e r s . T h e m o s t sloping a l a e o c c u r among the m o s t obvious Mongoloid peoples followed by Kazakhs. Among the T u r k i c -speaking peoples
living south of the Amu D a r y a , the Uzbeks and T u r k o m a n s , t h e a l a e a r e considerably
s t e e p e r ; the Iranian-speaking Tadzhiks exhibit the l e a s t incline. In o t h e r w o r d s ,
a l s o judging by t h i s c h a r a c t e r , t h e m i g r a t i o n of the Mongoloids p r o c e e d e d f r o m the
n o r t h e a s t toward t h e southwe s t , by - p a s sing t h e P a m i r -Alai Mountains.
In t h e Introduction i t w a s noted t h a t s o m e t i m e s c l u e s r e g a r d i n g the diagnostic
value of a c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r m a y be found i n the r e c o r d s of e a r l y e x p l o r e r s , h i s t o r i a n s and g e o g r a p h e r s , who noted i n the e x t e r n a l a p p e a r a n c e of ancient peoples
the m o s t s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s which they did not o r d i n a r i l y s e e among t h e i r own people.
Chinese Annals, r e l a t i n g the h i s t o r y of the Han dynasty (206 B. C. - A. D . 220)
r e c o r d the following c h a r a c t e r s of the population of C e n t r a l A s i a , beginning with
the F e r g h a n a Valley and ending a t the b o u n d a r i e s of I r a n .
" F r o m Ta-Yiian [ ~ e r ~ h a n w
a e] s t w a r d until An-Hsi [ ~ a r t h i a ] ,e v e n though
t h e r e be a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e i n the d i a l e c t s [of t h e people], [ t h e i r ] language i s
quite s i m i l a r , and i n c o n v e r s a t i o n [they] u n d e r s t a n d each o t h e r . T h e inhabit a n t s have i n g e n e r a l , sunken e y e s and long b e a r d s " [60, p. 111.
T h u s , a n c i e n t Chinese c h r o n i c l e r s noted t h a t a l l ancient peoples of C e n t r a l Asia,
f r o m F e r g h a n a i n the n o r t h e a s t t o s o u t h e r n T u r k m e n i a i n the southwest, belonged
to the s a m e g r o u p of r e l a t e d languages which a r e now b r a c k e t e d u n d e r the n a m e of
n o r t h e r n o r e a s t e r n I r a n i a n languages.
T h e s e Chinese Annals a l s o indicate s o m e anthropological t r a i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of t h i s a n c i e n t Iranian-speaking population of C e n t r a l Asia. Veselovskii, f r o m whom
we b o r r o w e d the foregoing quotation, r e m a r k e d about eighty y e a r s a g o that, "to the
b e a r d l e s s Chinese with t h e i r protruding e y e s , the outward a p p e a r a n c e of the inhabi-
21
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION O F RACIAL TYPES
tants of the Syr and Amu D a r y a b a s i n s m u s t have s e e m e d s t r a n g e indeed" [60, p .
111. The Chinese t r a v e l e r s noted t h e f e a t u r e s which a p p e a r e d m o s t striking t o t h e m ,
those which w e r e m o s t unusual and d i s t i n c t f r o m the Mongoloid type, i. e . , abundant
beard growth and e y e s d e e p - s e t o r "sunken" into the o r b i t a l cavj-ties.
Table 5 shows the m o r e abundant h a i r growth among the m o d e r n inhabitants of
the Syr Darya a n d , A m u D a r y a b a s i n s , the Uzbeks, T u r k o m a n s and Tadzhiks, a s
compared with the Mongoloid Kirghiz and Kazakhs. The second c h a r a c t e r noted by
the Chinese, the "sunken" e y e s , induced u s t o pay m o r e attention t o the position of
the eyeball among Mongoloid and Europeoid inhabitants of C e n t r a l Asia.
Eyes. The position of the eyeballs i n the o r b i t a l c a v i t i e s i s usually g r a d e d by the
following s y s t e m : 1, d e e p - s e t o r "sunken"; 2, the eyeball occupies a n i n t e r m e d i a t e
position; and 3, the eyeball i s located even with the s u r f a c e , "protruding e y e s . "
In other words, the l o w e r the g r a d e , the d e e p e r s e t i s the eyeball of the population
being studied; the h i g h e r the g r a d e , the m o r e "protruding" a p p e a r i t s e y e s . Table
9shows the d a t a which we, with o u r c o - w o r k e r s , obtained i n r e g a r d to the position
ofthe eyeballs i n the o r b i t a l c a v i t i e s among the f i v e basic peoples of C e n t r a l A s i a .
Table 9: Eyeball P o s i t i o n
-
People
Kirghiz
Kazakh
Uzbek
Turkoman
Tadzhik
-
No.
172
100
2476
1434
817
Male
Max.
Min.
2.67
2. 8 3
- -
.. ..
... .
1. 67
1. 74
1.45
2. 14
2. 0 1
1. 8 7
Mean
2. 72
2.52
1. 9 1
1. 8 4
1. 7 4
No.
118
147
20 1
789
430
Female
Min.
Max.
-
....
1. 9 2
1. 85
1. 88
1. 60
... .
2.0
2.0
2. 0 4
1.96
Mean
1.95
1.95
1.92
1. 9 6
1. 86
Thus, the "anthropological t r a c e s w of t h i s c h a r a c t e r , which have been p r e s e r v e d
since the spread of the Mongoloids into C e n t r a l Asia, i n g e n e r a l follows the s a m e
direction from the n o r t h e a s t t o the southwest. T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s l e a s t o b s e r v e d
among the Iranian-speaking Tadzhiks of the P a m i r - A l a i mountain s y s t e m .
The Mongoloids of c e n t r a l Asia a r e distinguished f r o m t h e Europeoids not only
by descriptive c h a r a c t e r s but a l s o by s o m e m e t r i c d a t a . The l a t t e r , however, a l s o
bring out the differences among t h e Europeoid r a c e s of the second o r d e r , which enter into the composition of the Uzbeks and T u r k o m a n s The f l a t f a c e of the Mongoloids is, at the s a m e t i m e , considerably wider than t h a t of t h e Europeoids, because
af the marked outward p r o t r u s i o n of the zygomatic a r c h e s . Malar p r o t r u s i o n , a
characteristic Mongoloid t r a i t , i s r e c o r d e d a s the bizygomatic b r e a d t h (table 10).
Table 10 r e p r e s e n t s , in m i l l i m e t e r s , the m i n i m a l (M = m i n . ) and the m a x i m a l
(M =max. ) mean magnitudes of this c h a r a c t e r , obtained f r o m s e p a r a t e groups living
in different regions, a s a l s o the m e a n (M) t y p i c a l of a l l investigated m a l e s and fe males in a given people.
The wide bizygomatic b r e a d t h , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the Mongoloids, becomes s m a l l e r
in the same direction a s the o t h e r "indices of the d e g r e e of Mo'ngoloidness " noted
above. In this m e a s u r e m e n t the Uzbeks a r e c l o s e t o the Tadzhiks. The m e a n magnitudes of the bizygomatic breadth of the T u r k o m a n s a r e s m a l l e r than those of the Uzbeks, and even somewhat s m a l l e r than those of the Tadzhiks. This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
noticeable in the f e m a l e g r o u p s .
.
PEOPLES O F CENTRAL ASIA
T a b l e 10: Bizygomatic B r e a d t h
Kazakh
Uzbek
Tadzhik
Turkoman
1484
4253
2069
1855
146
140
140
138
149
144
142
143
148
142
141
140
289
20 3
546
175
139
134
131
128
140
138
136
133
138
135
133
131
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r t h e Mongoloids i s not only the b r o a d f a c e with p r o t r u d i n g mal a r s , but a l s o a t o t a l f a c i a l height l o n g e r t h a n t h a t of E u r o p e o i d s . I t i s c u s t o m a r y
to m e a s u r e f a c e height, i n m i l l i m e t e r s , f r o m a point lying s o m e w h a t above the
d e e p e s t point of glabella ( a t the l e v e l of the l o w e r edge of the i n s i d e portion of the
e y e b r o w s ) t o a point lying u n d e r the chin. T h i s f a c e height i s c a l l e d "the morphological f a c e height. "
T a b l e 11: Morphological F a c e Height
People
Kirghiz
Kazakh
Uzbek
Tadzhik
Turkoman
No.
-
2066
1478
3380
2034
1854
Male
Min.
Max.
130
133
126
132
122
132
129
121
126
134
Mean
132
129
126
125
129
No.
118
290
20 3
543
575
Female
Max.
Min.
-
....
. . ..
Mean
118
116
121
118
118
120
119
116
117
119
115
117
117
The a v e r a g e magnitudes of t h i s m e a s u r e m e n t d e c r e a s e i n the s a m e d i r e c t i o n :
f r o m the m o s t pronounced Mongoloid (Kirghiz), t o the l e s s pronounced (Kazakhs),
to the s t i l l l e s s Mongoloid (Uzbeks). In t h i s c h a r a c t e r t h e Uzbeks a r e v e r y c l o s e to
the Europeoid T a d z h i k s .
The T u r k o m a n s occupy a s p e c i a l position among T u r k i c - speaking nationalities.
According t o o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s they a r e not m o r e Mongoloid than the Uzbeks, but
they have a g r e a t e r f a c i a l height. It m a y b e supposed t h a t h e r e e n t e r e d a Europeoid
component of g r e a t e r t o t a l f a c i a l height than t h a t which produced the Tadzhiks and
Uzbeks.
T h i s c h a r a c t e r d o e s not expose s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n the f e m a l e g r o u p s , s o m e thing that m a y be due e i t h e r t o a n insufficient n u m b e r of s u b j e c t s examined, o r to
a n i n a c c u r a t e location of nasion.
Absolute magnitudes of the height and b r e a d t h of the f a c e d o not sufficiently
c h a r a c t e r i z e i t s s h a p e . With t h e s a m e bizygomatic d i a m e t e r [breadth] the higher
f a c e a p p e a r s n a r r o w e r . T h e r e f o r e , f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the f o r m of the f a c e ,
i t i s the a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e t o u s e the r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e s e v a l u e s , the morphological
f a c i a l index. As a r u l e t h e morphological f a c i a l height i s s m a l l e r t h a n the bizygom a t i c b r e a d t h . T h e morphological f a c i a l index i s t h e p e r c e n t i l e r e l a t i o n of f a c i a l
height t o the bizygomatic breadth o r morphological f a c e height x 100
bizyg omatic b r e a d t h
The l o w e r the f a c i a l index, the l a r g e r i s t h e r e l a t i v e b r e a d t h of the f a c e ; t h e
higher the f a c i a l index, the n a r r o w e r the f a c e . T h e following g r o u p s r e p r e s e n t a
conventional s c a l e of the f a c i a l index:
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION O F RACIAL TYPES
Group
E x t r e m e l y broad
Broad
Medium
Narrow
Extremely narrow
Range
x
78.9
7 9 . 0 - 83.9
84.0 - 87.9
88.0 - 92.9
93.0 - x
-
Table 12: Morphological F a c e Index
People
Kirghiz
Kazakh
Uzbek
Tadzhik
Turkoman
-
No.
2075
1446
3677
2393
1845
Male
Min.
Max.
- 85.0
89.0
89.0
86.0
92. 0
84.0
90.0
86.0
96. 7
89.0
Mean
88.4
87.5
88. 8
88.6
91. 8
No.
118
91
199
572
374
Female
Min.
Max.
....
....
Mean
. . . . 85.0
.... 84.2
85.0
86.0
89.0
87.0
90.0
92. 0
85. 9
88.4
90. 0
No significant differences a p p e a r among the Mongoloid Kirghiz and Kazakhs, the
less Mongolized Uzbeks and the Europeoid Tadzhiks. All belong t o the medium
average category, tending toward the leptoprosopic. However, the Turkomans a r e
i n a separate category; they belong t o the typically narrow-faced group, with a tendency to extremely n a r r o w ( 9 3 . 0 - x).
The Mongoloids of C e n t r a l Asia differ f r o m the Europeoids not only in the g r e a t e r
absolute dimension of the face, but a l s o i n the wider head breadth. With regard t o
these characters, the T u r k o m a n s stand out a s a s e p a r a t e group.
Head Breadth. T h i s was m e a s u r e d between the e x t r e m e points on the sides of
the cranium in the p a r i e t a l region.
Table 13: Head Breadth
People
Kirghiz
Kazakh
Uzbek
Tadzhik
Turkoman
-
No.
2055
1580
4713
2267
1856
Male
Max.
161
160
157
155
149
Min.
156
157
152
152
143
Mean
160
159
155
158
147
No.
118
28 6
204
673
775
Female
Min.
Max.
...
Mean
...
153
151
147
153
150
152
143
146
13 7
152
149
148
139
The means r e v e a l the s a m e directional trend a s a l l the other "indices of the
Mongoloid c h a r a c t e r s , " declining fromthe m o s t Mongoloid Kirghiz to the Europeoid
Tadzhiks. Once again, t h e Turkomans stand out separately; they d i f f e r m a r k e d l y
from other nations of Central Asia by t h e i r n a r r o w heads. In this m e a s u r e m e n t , the
female groups exhibit the s a m e changes a s the m a l e groups.
Head Length. This was m e a s u r e d fromglabella to opisthocranion. AS shown i n
table 14, the head length tends t o become smaller in the s a m e direction, ranging
from the Mongoloid Kirghiz t o t h e Europeoid Tadzhiks. The Turkomans a l s o stand
separately in this m e a s u r e m e n t , f o r they combine the s m a l l e s t head breadth with the
longest head length.
,
The form of the head a s a whole, o r , properly speaking, of the c e r e b r a l box
[calvarium], i s defined by the c o r r e l a t i o n between i t s length and breadth. A combination of a narrow width with a high longitudinal d i a m e t e r produces the appearance
24
PEOPLES O F CENTRAL ASIA
of a long head. A combination of a n a r r o w width with a s h o r t longitudinal diameter,
o r of a medium width with a medium length, o r of a g r e a t width with a g r e a t lengtb
a l l r e s u l t i n a shortened, m o r e o r l e s s s p h e r i c a l head form. The long
- and narrow
f o r m of c r a n i u m b e a r s the name of dolichocephaly (longheadedness); the s h o r t and
wide f o r m , brachycephaly (shortheadednes s ) . T h e intermediate f o r m s a r e termed
mesoc ephaly (middleheadedne s s ) , the longitudinal d i a m e t e r of the head is always
longer than the t r a n s v e r s e , The percentile relation of the longitudinal d i a m e t e r to
the longitudinal d i a m e t e r o r t r a n s v e r s e d i a m e t e r x 100 b e a r s the name of Cephalic
Index.
longitudinal d i a m e t e r
Table 14: Head Length
People
Kirghiz
Kazakh
Uzbek
Tadzhik
Turkoman
No.
2055
1580
4716
2259
1857
Male
Max.
189
188
190
186
196
Min.
186
184
179
179
191
- Mean
188
187
183
183
194
-
No.
118
28 6
204
673
775
Female
Max.
Min.
...
Mean
.. . 177
175
176
173
182
178
179
174
176
177
174
I
Cephalic Index. This i s one of the m o s t important indices f o r the diagnosis of
the so-called r a c e s of the second o r d e r .
Group
Dolichocephalic
Mesocephalic
Brachycephalic
Hyperbrachycephalic
Range
x
- 75.9
76.0 - 80.9
81.0 - 8 5 . 4
85.5 - x
Table 15: Cephalic Index
People
Kirghiz
Kazakh
Uzbek
Tadzhik
T u r koman
Male
Min.
Max.
83
85
84
86
80
86
80
88
73
77
No.
2050
1520
4716
2259
1851
Mean
- 84.9
85.0
84.8
84.5
75. 6
Female
Max.
Min.
I
-
No.
116
..
Mean
..
86.0
286
20 2
670
774
86
82
81
72
87
86
87
77
86.0
84. 3
85.1
74.8
The Turkomans a r e the only dolichocephalic nation in Central Asia, bordering
on m e socephaly. According to the cephalic index, t h e r e i s no difference between t
Mongoloid Kirghiz, the intensely Mongolized Kazakhs, the weakly Mongolized Uzbeks and the Europeoid Tadzhiks. They a r e a l l markedly brachycephalic with a
dency to hyperbrachycephaly. However, a s we have already pointed out, the Mong
loids of C e n t r a l Asia a r e sharply distinguished f r o m Europeoids by the absolute
dimensions of the head d i a m e t e r s .
Stature. The following c a t e g o r i e s have been used:
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION O F RACIAL TYPES
Range
x - 1490
Group
Extremely short
Short
Below a v e r a g e
Average
Above a v e r a g e
Tall
As shown i n t a b l e 16, t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e i n s t a t u r e among t h e brachycephalic
peoples of C e n t r a l A s i a . They a l l belong i n the a v e r a g e height group. T h e t a l l e r
Turkomans, who a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s between above a v e r a g e and t a l l , f o r m the only
dolichocephalic people of C e n t r a l Asia. Among f e m a l e g r o u p s , t h i s difference i s
less evident. N e v e r t h e l e s s , T u r k o m a n women a r e somewhat t a l l e r than t h o s e i n
other groups.
T a b l e 16: S t a t u r e
People
Kirghiz
Kazakh
Uzbek
Tadzhik
Turkoman
No.
2049
1417
4478
2059
1799
Male
Min.
Max.
1670
1640
1640
1660
1670
1630
1680
1640
1700
1660
Me a n
1650
No.
118
Female
Min.
Max.
-
....
Mean
. . . . 1510
One of the e s s e n t i a l r a c i a l - d i a g n o s t i c c h a r a c t e r s i s s o - c a l l e d "coloring" - -the
color of the skin, h a i r and i r i s . According t o the d e g r e e of s a t u r a t i o n of the i r i s
with dark pigment, we distinguish d a r k (black, d a r k brown, brown, light brown),
light (light blue, blue, g r a y ) and mixed e y e s , i n which the d a r k s h a d e s a r e c o m bined in v a r i o u s d e g r e e s with light e l e m e n t s .
Eyes. The e y e c o l o r i s d e t e r m i n e d by e i t h e r the M a r t i n o r the c l o s e l y r e l a t e d
description according t o the Bunak s c a l e . Color of the i r i s i s usually a l s o c l a s s i f i e d
by grades: 1, d a r k ( M a r t i n s c a l e , Nos. 1-5); 2, mixed (Nos. 6-11); and 3, light
(Nos. 12-16).
T a b l e 17: I r i s C o l o r
People
No.
~ i r ~ h i z ~ 1220
Kazakh
532
Uzbek
2721
Tadzhik
1943
Turkoman
1379
Male
Min.
Max.
1. 36
1.45
1.25
1.39
1.05
1. 34
1. 03
1. 40
1. 04
1. 33
-
- Mean
1.40
1.29
1. 1 7
1. 28
1. 1 3
No.
118
147
201
636
Female
Max.
Min.
....
.. . .
1.07
1.19
1. 06
1. 18
1.10
1. 17
-
Mean
- 1.05
1.15
1. 12
1. 1 4
Dark eyes a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a l l peoples of C e n t r a l A s i a , although with a considerable proportion of mixed e y e s ; t h e r e i s a n a b s e n c e o r insignificant a d m i x t u r e
of light eyes. In t h i s r e s p e c t t h e r e a r e no d i f f e r e n c e s between Mongoloids and E u r o geoids of Central A s i a . T h e s a m e a d m i x t u r e of l i g h t e r , m o r e o r l e s s depigmented,
eyes is noted among the Mongoloid Kazakhs a s among the Europeoid Tadzhiks.
Even l e s s frequently d o e s one encounter among the population of C e n t r a l A s i a
26
I
PEOPLES O F CENTRAL ASIA
f a i r h a i r and f a i r (pale-rosy) skin color. All the nationalities exhibit characteristic
d a r k h a i r and slightly swarthy skin. F o r this reason, we believe it i s not v e r y reliable to make broad, ethnogenetic conclusions on the basis of a g r e a t e r o r smaller
admixture of depigmented eyes, a s has been not infrequently done in the past in anthropological studies. Understandably, t h e r e i s no denying the mention, in Chinese
and Moslem s o u r c e s , of blond peoples who once inhabited Central Asia. However, :
i t would be m o r e than risky to s e e "anthropological t r a c e s " of mestization with
these blond people wherever one encounters some admixture of mixed eyes. We
shall d i s c u s s l a t e r in g r e a t e r detail this so-called "blondn o r "Dinlin' r a c e which
once inhabited Central Asia. At this point we m e r e l y state the fact that d a r k eyes
and h a i r a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r the p r e s e n t day r a c e s of Central Asia, Mongoloid an
well a s Europeoid.
Nasal Measurements and Index. Another essential racial-diagnostic character ie
the relationship between nasal width, m e a s u r e d between the m o s t distant points of
the nostrils, and n a s a l height, m e a s u r e d f r o m nasion (approximately a t the level of'
the lower edge of inside points of the junction between nasal partition with the uppeq
lip) to subnasale. The percentile relation between nasal b r e a d t h p n d height o r
I
n a s a l breadth x 100
i s called Nasal Index. he lower the Nasal Index, the narrowet
n a s a l width
I
(relatively) , i s the nose; the higher the index, the broader, relatively, i s the nose.
I
On the b a s i s of the Nasal Index, human r a c e s a r e conventionally divided into the
following groups:
I
Group
Extremely n a r r o w
Narrow
Medium
Wide
Extremely wide
x
Range
- 54.9
Table 18: Nasal Index
People
Kirghiz
Kazakh
Uzbek
Turkoman
Tadzhik
-
No.
2092
1482
3868
1497
2182
Male
Max.
63
66
66
65
70
Min.
60
61
60
60
59
-
Mean
61, 0
63. 2
62. 5
61.9
63. 9
No.
116
98
199
380
494
Female
Min
Max.
.
..
..
Mean
..
65.0
62
60
61
64
..
63
65
66.0
62.9
60.4
63.0.
In this r e s p e c t then, t h e r e i s no difference among Mongoloids (Kazakhs and Kirghiz), Europeoids (Tadzhiks), Mongolized brachycephals (Uzbeks) and dolichocephals (Turkomans) in Central Asia--all of them a r e typically narrow-nosed [leptorrhine]
Conclusions. The geographical distribution of the principal' anthropometric
c h a r a c t e r s indicates that in Central Asia one may distinguish t h r e e a r e a s each different in the r a c i a l composition of i t s inhabitants:
.
1. Northern a r e a including the Tien Shan Mountains and the Kazakhstan
steppes.
2. Central a r e a between the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya, with
the Pamir-Alai Mountains in the southeast and the plains of Uzbekistan in the
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION O F RACIAL TYPES
northern ( F e r g h a n a Valley) and w e s t e r n (Khwarizm Oblast) a r e a s .
3 . Southern region, including the T r a n s c a s p i a n steppes.
In r e g a r d t o r a c i a l composition, the Kirghiz, who occupy the n o r t h e r n region,
exhibit a m a r k e d Mongoloid complex of c h a r a c t e r s . The Mongoloid f e a t u r e s a r e
less pronounced among the Kazakhs, but compared with nationalities living further
south, the Mongoloid type i s c l e a r l y prevalent among them, although in extenuated
form.
The Uzbeks, who inhabit the plains between the r i v e r basins [Duab] of Central
Asia, a r e c l o s e r t o the Tadzhiks than t o the Kazakhs o r Kirghiz. Among the Tadzhiks, the Europeoid complex of c h a r a c t e r s c l e a r l y predominates. This s a m e complex i s a l s o dominant among the Uzbeks, but with a considerable admixture of Mongoloid elements.
The Turkomans, who inhabit southern T r a n s c a s p i a , a l s o exhibit a markedly
pronounced Europeoid complex of c h a r a c t e r s with a n admixture of Mongoloid t r a i t s
similar t o those of the Uzbeks. However, the Europeoid type among the Turkomans
differs sharply in i t s dolichoc ephaly f r o m the brachycephalic Europeoid type that
entered into the composition of the Tadzhiks and Uzbeks. As we have seen, the
Turkomans a r e the only dolichocephalic nation in C e n t r a l Asia. In addition to dolichocephaly, they a r e distinguished f r o m the inhabitants of the Central Asiatic Interfluvial Region by a higher and relatively n a r r o w face and a t a l l e r s t a t u r e .
The actuality of t h e s e r a c i a l types, distinguished on the b a s i s of comparative
anthropological data collected in v a r i e d regions of the t h r e e indicated a r e a s , finds
full confirmation i n those m a s s observations which we made on living representatives
of the peoples of C e n t r a l Asia during the p a s t thirty y e a r s . Wherever the anthropologist may be, on special m i s s i o n s o r f o r other r e a s o n s , t h e r e pass before his
eyes thousands of men, women and children of v a r i o u s t r i b e s and peoples. These
mass observations made over a period of many y e a r s supplement and geographically
define more accurately those s p e c i a l anthropological investigations which were c a r ried out under detailed p r o g r a m s in various regions of t h r e e anthropological a r e a s
of Central Asia.
The r a c i a l types thus isolated have t h e i r c e n t e r s of distribution in the northern,
central, and southern p a r t s of Central Asia. Palaeoanthropologica1 data reveal that
they were actually f o r m e d on the t e r r i t o r y of Central Asia--that i s , that they a r e
local, autochthonous r a c e s .
However, in the anthropological composition of the population of Central Asia,
there also participated i n varying d e g r e e s r a c e s whose c e n t e r s of distribution a r e
located beyond the l i m i t s of this a r e a . Peoples which moved f r o m the e a s t , f r o m
Inner Asia, contributed admixtures of other Mongoloid r a c e s of the second o r d e r :
those coming f r o m the lands of I r a n and the Anterior Asia contributed admixtures
of other Europeoid r a c e s of the second o r d e r .
We shall now d i s c u s s briefly the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the r a c e s which we have d i s tinguished among the p r e s e n t population of Central Asia and of some adjacent countries.
111. SOUTH SIBERIAN MONGOLOID RACE
I
In c h a p t e r I1 we d i s c u s s e d the geographical distribution i n C e n t r a l Asia of Mongoloid t r a i t s , which a r e to .some d e g r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a l l Mongoloid r a c e s , or,
i n o t h e r words, of the G r e a t Mongoloid Race a s a whole. It was noted that the madm u m concentration of Mongoloid c h a ~ a c t e r si s observed in the n o r t h e r n a r e a of
C e n t r a l Asia a s defined by u s . This i s a n indication that the n o r t h e r n a r e a , which
includes the broad n o r t h e r n steppe belt of C e n t r a l Asia and the Tien Shan mountain
s y s t e m , was settled l a r g e l y by Mongoloids, who even now c l e a r l y predominate in
the composition of the Kazakhs and Kirghiz. However, a s h a s been pointed out, the
Mongoloid Race differentiated into a number of s m a l l r a c e s o r r a c e s of the second
order.
Mongoloid r a c e s of the second o r d e r cannot be determined on the b a s i s of Cent r a l Asiatic m a t e r i a l . F o r the purposes of determination, i t i s n e c e s s a r y to have
comparative data on other Mongoloid r a c e s , whose c e n t e r s of distribution lie beyond
the l i m i t s of C e n t r a l Asia, i n the various regions of the v a s t a r e a of distribution of
Mongoloids which e m b r a c e s Western, Inner, Northern and E a s t e r n Asia.
I
The l a t e Moscow anthropologist A. I. IArkho conducted extensive and very fruit.
f u l investigations among the Turkic-speaking nations of the Sayan-Altai highlands
[56] on one side, and among the Turkic -speaking nations of Central Asia, the Kirghiz [54], Kazakhs [51], Uzbeks [55], Turkomans [52] and Kara-Kalpaks [57]. On
the b a s i s of this m a t e r i a l , IArkho isolated a t that t i m e two Mongoloid r a c e s of the
second o r d e r , the South Siberian and the Inner Asiatic. The f i r s t i s c l e a r l y dominant in the composition of the Kirghiz and Kazakhs; the second i s encountered only
a s a n admixture .
IArkho considered the Kazakhs [56, p. 1251 a s particularly typical r e p r e s e n t a tive s of the South Siberian Mongoloid type.
The subsequent extensive investigations in Kazakhstan by Debets, Levin, Cheboks a r o v , Ginzburg and, p a r t l y , by Oshanin, confirmed fully the actuality of the South
Siberian r a c i a l type d e t e r m i n e d by IArkho.
At the s a m e t i m e , studies conducted i n r e c e n t y e a r s left no doubt that the South
Siberian r a c i a l type, which i s s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the Kazakhs, i s f r o m i t s origin
the r e s u l t of mestization. It was f o r m e d by the mingling of Mongoloid and Europeoid
r a c e s in the c o u r s e of many c e n t u r i e s . As a rule, mixed types occupy, i n r e g a r d to
t h e i r physical c h a r a c t e r s , a n intermediate position between the original r a c e s which
produced the m i x t u r e . This i s indeed the position which the Kazakhs occupy.
As may be s e e n f r o m tables 4- 13, c h a p t e r 11, the Kazakhs occupy, according to
a l l the basic racial-diagnostic t r a i t s , a n intermediate position betwe en the m o r e
Mongoloid Kirghiz and the m o r e Europeoid Uzbeks. Palaeoanthropologica1 data r e vealed that historically the population of Kazakhstan was actually f o r m e d by two
r a c i a l components: the ancient indigenous Europeoid; and the l a t e r i m m i g r a n t Mongoloid. In IArkho's opinion, the s a m e South Siberian r a c i a l type a l s o predominates
among the Kirghiz.
Recent anthropological investigations by Ginzburg [12] showed that the Europeoid
r a c i a l type was a l s o widespread among the ancient inhabitants of the Tien Shan, although apparently not n e a r l y i n the s a m e d e g r e e a s on the steppes of Kazakhstan. In
any c a s e , i t i s s e e n f r o m tables 4-13 that the Kirghiz a r e considerably m o r e Mongoloid than the Kazakhs.
In o r d e r to establish a m o r e p r e c i s e systematic position of the South Siberian
I
SOUTH SIBERLAN MONGOLOLD RACE
29
race, i t was n e c e s s a r y t o have extensive c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l on other Mongoloid
races. Such d a t a w e r e not available t o IArkho.
By the p r e s e n t t i m e Moscow anthropologists have conducted extensive investigations of S i b e r i a n peoples, which speak languages of v a r i o u s linguistic f a m i l i e s - Finno-Ugric, Nentsi ("Samoyed"), P a l a e o a s i a t i c , Tungus-Manchurian, Mongolic
and Turkic.
We do not know of any nationalities t h a t a r e " p u r e n i n a r a c i a l s e n s e . All nations
were formed f r o m v a r i o u s human r a c e s . The previously mentioned S i b e r i a n peoples,
as well a s those of C e n t r a l A s i a , w e r e f o r m e d h i s t o r i c a l l y by the mingling of E u ropeoid and Mongoloid r a c e s . Nevertheles s, the Mongoloid element c l e a r l y p r e dominates in a l l peoples of S i b e r i a . I t i s t r u e t h a t the a d m i x t u r e of Europeoid r a c e s
is particularly s t r o n g among Finno-Ugric peoples of n o r t h w e s t e r n S i b e r i a , i. e . ,
among the Mansi (Voguls), Khante (Ostyaks), and Nentsi (Samoyeds). Yet i t , i s unlikely that t h e s e s m a l l nationalities participated t o any noticeable extent in the ethnogenesis of the nations of C e n t r a l A s i a . F o r this r e a s o n , we d o not include t h e m
in the following c o m p a r a t i v e t a b l e s . F o r the s a m e r e a s o n we exclude t h e s m a l l n a tionalities of the Manchurian b r a n c h of the Tungus-Manchurian language family, the
Oroki, Negidali (Negidals), Ulchi, Nanais (Goldi o r Golds), and the s o u t h e a s t e r n
Palaeoasiatic nationalities, the Ainu and t h e Nivkhi (Gilyaks), who w e r e investigated
by Levin in the A m u r lowlands and on Sakhalin Island [22].
The Turkic-speaking t r i b e s of t h e Sayan-Altai highlands, whom IArkho investigated in detail, differ in t h e i r r a c i a l composition. F r o m among t h e s e t r i b e s , we
include only d a t a on t h e Tuvans (Tuvinians), whom IArkho [56, p. 1251, and l a t e r
Debets [14, p. 711, r e g a r d e d a s the m o s t typical r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the Inner Asiatic
Mongoloid r a c e . In addition t o the Tuvans we included in the c o m p a r a t i v e t a b l e s
other nationalities of a m a r k e d Mongoloid type. Among them a r e the Chukchi, and
the f a r n o r t h e a s t e r n g r o u p s of L a m u t s and B u r y a t s , the Evenki (Tungus) of the
Podkamennaya Tunguska R i v e r investigated by Debets [14], the Evenki of the n o r t h ern Baikal region investigated by Roginskii [42], and the Yakuts of c e n t r a l Yakutia
studied by Levin [21].
Mongoloid r a c e s of the second o r d e r , whose c e n t e r s of d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e located
beyond the l i m i t s of C e n t r a l A s i a , have not yet been adequately studied. The m o s t
extensive investigation in t h i s field belongs t o Debets [14]. By combining the c h a r a c ters obtained f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s on living s u b j e c t s and those obtained f r o m c r a n i o logical studies, and then "comparing the thus obtained combinations with linguistic
and historical-ethnographic d a t a , " Debets i s o l a t e d four Mongoloid groups "united
by genetical kinshipn :
.
1. Arctic (Chukchi, E s k i m o s , Aleuts, Koryaks and Itelmen [ ~ a m c h a d a l s ] )
2 . Baikalian (Evenki, L a m u t s and a n u m b e r of ethnic g r o u p s living on the
lower Amur and on Sakhalin I s l a n d ) .
3. Inner Asiatic (Tuvans, B u r y a t s and Yakuts).
4. Uralian (Finno-Ug r i a n nationalities of n o r t h w e s t e r n S i b e r i a , and s o m e
Turki of the Sayan-Altai highlands).
Debets c o n s i d e r s the A r c t i c group a s the P a c i f i c b r a n c h of the G r e a t Mongoloid
Race, and the Baikalian and I n n e r Asiatic a s the "Continentaln branch.
A s in other t a b l e s , M r e p r e s e n t s g e n e r a l (weighted) m e a n s and magnitudes, M min.
and M max. r e p r e s e n t m i n i m a l and m a x i m a l m e a n s f o r s e p a r a t e g r o u p s , N r e p r e sents the number of individuals investigated f o r a given c h a r a c t e r .
The r e s u l t s of a c o m p a r i s o n of the Kirghiz and Kazakhs with the m o s t typical
Mongoloids of Inner and N o r t h e a s t e r n Asia on the one hand, and with the Europeoids
on the other, a r e shown in table 19.
30
PEOPLES O F CENTRAL ASIA
Judging f r o m such important racial-diagnostic c h a r a c t e r s a s the Mongoloid fold
(No. 1, table 19), b e a r d growth (No. 2), horizontal profile of the middle face o r
d e g r e e of prognathism (No. 3). and morphological facial height (No. 5), the Kirghi
and Kazakhs a r e m u c h c l o s e r t o the peoples with a m a r k e d Mongoloid type than to
the Europeoids of C e n t r a l Asia. At the s a m e time, a s mentioned previously, the
Kirghiz a r e m o r e Mongoloid than the Kazakhs. According t o another important racia1 c h a r a c t e r , the bizygomatic breadth (No. 4), the Kirghiz and the Kazakhs do no
differ f r o m the Inner ~ s i a t i cgroup of nationalities. On the other hand, i n head
breadth and head length (Nos. 6, 7) the Kirghiz and Kazakhs differ f r o m those of
other nationalities with pronounced Mongoloid f e a t u r e s . The c r a n i u m i s considerab
wider and s h o r t e r , and the cephalic index i s correspondingly much higher. According t o the cephalic index (84. 9-85. O), the Kirghiz and Kazakhs stand on the border-,
line of ultrabrachycephaly, while the g r e a t majority of other Mongoloid nations borJ
d e r on mesocephaly (78-82). T h e r e is one exception: a s m a l l group of Evenki
[ ~ v e n k s of
] the Podkamennaya Tunguska River with a cephalic index of 84.0.
IArkho regarded the following c h a r a c t e r s a s differentiating the South Siberian
1
and the Inner Asiatic r a c e s :
i1
1
i
~
Comparative Table of Descriptive C h a r a c t e r s
Character
Nose
Mongoloid fold
Forehead
Supraorbital c r e s t
Cephalic index
Inner Asiatic Type
Slightly protruding
Frequent
Slightly slanted
P o o r l y developed
Mesocephalic
South Siberian Type
Medium protruding
Rare
Very slanted
Strongly developed
Brachycephalic
;
1
1
I
Debets noted c o r r e c t l y that it i s difficult t o differentiate between Inner Asiatic
and South Siberian types according t o the above c h a r a c t e r s . One c a n only s t a t e that /
the Kirghiz and Kazakhs contain a g r e a t e r admixture of Europeoid components particularly among the Kazakhs a s compared with nationalities of Inner and Northeaste
Asia.
Let u s consider the c h a r a c t e r s which, in IArkho's opinion, differentiate the Inn e r Asiatic f r o m the South Siberian r a c e . The l a t t e r is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a r a t h e r
prominent nose; the d e g r e e of n a s a l protrusion i s determined by the height and the
t r a n s v e r s e profile of the n a s a l bridge. As may be s e e n in table 19 (No. 9 ) . the tren
in the variations of the height of the nasal bridge o r nasal profile corresponds fully
t o the trend of other c h a r a c t e r s differentiating Mongoloids f r o m Europeoids. The
highest nasal bridge i s observed a l s o among the markedly pronounced Europeoids,
the Tadzhiks. The nasal bridge i s low and below average among the Mongoloids of
Inner and Northeastern Asia. In relation t o this c h a r a c t e r , the Kirghiz and the Kazakhs occupy a position intermediate between typical Europeoids and typical Mongoloids.
The n a s a l profile i s graded on the b a s i s of a t h r e e - g r a d e scale grouped a s follows: 1, flat o r flattened; 2, medium; and 3, prominent. Judging f r o m Debets' observations, the t r a n s v e r s e nasal profile i s m o r e prominent among the Kazakhs and
Kirghiz than among Siberian Mongoloids (NO. 10). Unfortunately, the determination
of this morphological c h a r a c t e r was kvidently subjective. In Debets' observations,
the m e a n g r a d e s of this feature among the Kirghiz (2. 18) and Kazakhs ( 2 . 5 0 ) a r e
much higher than in o u r observations f o r the Kirghiz (1.40) and the Kazakhs (1.46).
and those of Debets a g r e e ~ n l yi n one point--that the g r a d e s of
Our
this morphological c h a r a c t e r a r e higher among the Kazakhs than among the Kirghiz,
1
1
SOUTH SIBERIAN MONGOLOID RACE
31
thus indicating the g r e a t e r a d m i x t u r e of t h e Europeoid component among the Kazakhs.
On the other hand. o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s r e v e a l e d t h a t the g r a d e s a r e higher among the
very pronounced E u r o p e o i d s - -the Tadzhiks - -than among Uzbeks who a r e known, i n
general, to have a g r e a t e r a d m i x t u r e of Mongoloid t r a i t s . A l l this c o n f i r m s t h e f a c t
that higher g r a d e s depend upon a n i n c r e a s e d Europeoid component.
According t o IArkho, t h e Mongoloid fold (No. 1) i s frequently o b s e r v e d among
the representatives of the I n n e r A s i a t i c r a c e , and s e l d o m among those of t h e South
Siberian r a c e .
At the s a m e t i m e , a c c o r d i n g t o Debets' o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e Mongoloid fold among
the Kirghiz, whom IArkho r e g a r d e d a s the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e South S i b e r i a n
race, i s not l e s s f r e q u e n t than i n a n u m b e r of Mongoloid nationalities of I n n e r and
Northeastern A s i a , the B u r y a t s , Evenki (Evenks) of t h e Podkamennaya Tunguska
River and Chukchi. Among the Kazakhs, t h e o c c u r r e n c e i s reduced by half, i n d i c a t ing again a g r e a t e r Europeoid a d m i x t u r e . T h i s i s a l s o confirmed by o b s e r v a t i o n s
of the same c h a r a c t e r among the Uzbeks and Tadzhiks. The v e r y pronounced E u ropeoids, the Tadzhiks, exhibit a n insignificant percentage of o c c u r r e n c e of the
Mongoloid fold, while among t h e Mongoloid Uzbeks t h e p e r c e n t a g e i s c o n s i d e r a b l y
higher.
In regard t o the s u p r a o r b i t a l c r e s t (No. l l ) , i t i s a l s o difficult to differentiate
between the South S i b e r i a n r a c e and the I n n e r Asiatic. Among the Kirghiz and Kazakhs, the eyebrow r i d g e i s not m o r e pronounced than among s u c h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
of the Inner Asiatic r a c e a s the T u v a n s , investigated by IArkho, and considerably
less than among the Yakuts whom Levin studied. I t is difficult to eliminate the s u b jectivity of v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s f r o m the d a t a given i n table 19. T h u s , one would
think that in Debets' o b s e r v a t i o n the d e c r e a s e of t h e g e n e r a l g r a d e of t h i s c h a r a c t e r
among the Kazakhs depends upon the g r e a t e r a d m i x t u r e of t h e Europeoid component.
However, this i s contradicted by o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s among the Uzbeks and Tadzhiks.
Among the pronounced E u r o p e o i d s , t h e Tadzhiks, a s compared with the Mongoloid
Uzbeks, the g r a d e s d o not d e c r e a s e but i n c r e a s e .
According to new data, not available t o IArkho, the diagnostic significance of the
degree of the slope of the f o r e h e a d (No. 12) i s not c l e a r . A m a r k e d slope i s indicated
by grade 1, a m e d i u m one by 2, and a s m a l l one by 3. In o t h e r words, the g r e a t e r
the slope, the lower the a v e r a g e g r a d e ; the l e s s the slope, the higher the g r a d e .
According to IArkho's s c h e m e , the South S i b e r i a n r a c e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a m a r k edly sloping f o r e h e a d . At t h e s a m e t i m e , Debets' o b s e r v a t i o n s indicate a m e d i u m
slope among the Kazakhs and the Kirghiz, with a c l e a r tendency toward a lower d e gree. F u r t h e r m o r e , o b s e r v a t i o n s of v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s a r e contradictory. T h e
Kazakhs, examined by Debets. exhibit a lower a v e r a g e than h i s s e r i e s of K i r g h i z .
This could be explained by the g r e a t e r a d m i x t u r e of the Europeoid component among
the Kazakhs. However, t h i s supposition i s contradicted by the d a t a collected by o u r
co-workers among the Uzbeks and Tadzhiks. The markedly Europeoid Tadzhiks
show a mean g r a d e t h a t i s not lower but higher than t h a t of the Mongolized Uzbeks.
The data obtained by v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the Inner Asiatic
type are also c o n t r a d i c t o r y . Amoqg the Yakuts (Levin) the a v e r a g e g r a d e i s considerably lower than among the B u r y a t s (Debets) and among the Tuvans (IArkho).
The s t a t u r e (No. 13) and the eye c o l o r (No. 14) a r e a l s o not dependable f o r the
differentiation of the r a c e s of Central, Inner and N o r t h e a s t e r n Asia. The Kirghiz
and the Kazakhs show a tendency toward a higher s t a t u r e a s c o m p a r e d with o t h e r
Mongoloid peoples. I t i s possible that this may be a s c r i b e d t o a g r e a t e r admixture
of Central Asiatic E u r o p e o i d s . However, t h i s question r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r investigation, since d i f f e r e n c e s in this c h a r a c t e r between Tadzhiks and Uzbeks a r e not p r e s ent, and the differences between the Mongoloid Kazakhs and Kirghiz and the Europe oid Tadzhiks a r e v e r y insignificant. Among t h e nationalities of Central Asia, the
32
PEOPLES O F CENTRAL ASIA
I
g r e a t e s t d e g r e e of depigmentation of the i r i s i s noted among the Kirghiz. The Kazakhs a r e close to the Tadzhiks and among the Mongoloids of Inner and Northeastern
Asia, t h i s c h a r a c t e r v a r i e s g r e a t l y , f r o m 1 . 0 6 among the coastal Chukchi to 1.44
among the L a m u t s .
The m o s t r e a l i s t i c distinction between the Mongoloids of Central Asia and those
of Inner and N o r t h e a s t e r n Asia r e m a i n s the cephalic index and the head diameters
which produce this index.
The above -mentioned c o m p a r i s o n s of Mongoloids of C e n t r a l Asia with Mongoloids
of Inner and Northeastern Asia show that i t i s not y e t possible to d e t e r m i n e which
Mongoloid r a c e s of the second o r d e r entered into the composition of the Kazakhs
and Kirghiz. The classification of Mongoloid r a c e s of the second o r d e r , t h e i r morphological c h a r a c t e r s , the exact determination of the places of t h e i r formation, of
t h e i r initial and p r e s e n t a r e a s of distribution, and the p r o c e s s e s of t h e i r migrations,
and mestizations have not y e t been studied adequately.
As already mentioned, palaeoanthropological data indicate that in Kirghizia and
Kazakhstan the Europeoid type preceded the Mongoloid. In t h e c o u r s e of centuries,
s u c c e s s i v e s t r a t a of v a r i o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the Mongoloid Race r e s u l t e d i n Mongolization of the original type of the ancient inhabitants of t h e s e countries. The only
incontestable f a c t i s that among the p r e s e n t Kirghiz and Kazakhs, Mongoloid charact e r s a r e c l e a r l y dominant. This i s a l s o confirmed by the g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n of the
appearance of the Kirghiz and Kazakhs. T h e i r Mongoloid f e a t u r e s a r e evident to
everyone who h a s had an opportunity to observe the nations of Central Asia.
F o r this r e a s o n , the inclusion of the Kirghiz and Kazakhs among the peoples
which belong to the G r e a t Mongoloid Race i s fully justified.
The founder of the f i r s t scientific classification of human r a c e s , the R u s s i a n anthropologist Iosif Egorovich Deniker, who lived and worked in F r a n c e , noted more
than half a century ago the difference between the Kirghiz and ~ a z a k h sand other
Mongoloid peoples. Deniker called t h e i r specific type the "Turanian r a c e " [78, p.
3671.
IArkho furnished a much m o r e complete description of this type, and called it the
"South Siberian r a c e , " which he included a s a r a c e of the second o r d e r in the scope
of the G r e a t Mongoloid R a c e . Inasmuch a s the n o r t h e r n boundary of Kazakhstan runs
along the upper c o u r s e s of such Siberian r i v e r s a s the Tobol, Ishim, I r t y s h and the
t r i b u t a r i e s of the Upper Ob, the t e r m suggested by IArkho i s much m o r e suitable
than the geographically vague t e r m given by Deniker. In our opinion, an attempt to
establish among the population of Central Asia s o m e other Mongoloid r a c e s of the
second o r d e r , in addition t o the South Siberian r a c e , i s hardly r e l i a b l e .
The South Siberian Mongoloid r a c e p o s s e s s e s the following c h a r a c t e r s : straight,
stiff, black h a i r ; d a r k e y e s with a considerable admixture of mixed color (grade
1. 29 - 1. 40); t e r t i a r y h a i r cover ( b e a r d ) poorly developed (1. 7 3 - 1. 97); flat, horizontal facial profile ( 1 . 2 2 - 1. 33); morphological f a c i a l height (130 - 132) and very
wide bizygomatic breadth (148 - 149); head of medium length (187 - 188) but v e r y
wide (159 - 160); v e r y pronounced brachycephaly (84 - 85); medium s t a t u r e (1650);
height of nasal bridge below medium (1. 63 - 1. 79); position of alae f l a t (2. 28 - 2.40);
and frequent incidence of the Mongoloid fold (22. 5 - 54. 1 p e r cent).
As pointed out by IArkho, f u r t h e r investigation i s needed on the question a s to
what extent such c h a r a c t e r s a s a strongly developed supraorbital c r e s t and markedly
sloping forehead a r e specific.
The r e c e n t extensive and quite fruitful investigations conducted in Kirghizia and
Kazakhstan under the l e a d e r s h i p of Debets revealed without doubt that a s t r o n g e r
Mongoloid component entered into the composition of the Kirghiz than of the Kazakhs.
As i t h a s been a l r e a d y pointed out on the b a s i s of a l l c h a r a c t e r s , the Kirghiz a r e
m o r e Mongoloid than the Kazakhs.
1
SOUTH SIBERIAN MONGOLOID RACE
33
In consonance with this, the South Siberian r a c i a l type may be subdivided into
(a) the m o r e Mongoloid southeastern, with i t s center of distribution
in the Tien Shan Mountains ; and (b) l e s s Mongoloid. northwestern, whose a r e a of
distribution occupies the whole broad steppe belt of Central Asia, and extends continuously into the steppes of the Western Siberian lowlands.
During the Middle Ages, the e n t i r e t e r r i t o r y occupied a t present by the South
Siberian r a c e with i t s two v a r i a n t s , a northwestern and a southeastern, was called
'the Dasht-i-Kipchak and Mogulistan. These n a m e s became established during the
era of domination of the Kipchaks (Polovtsi of the Russian chroniclers) and the Mangolian t r i b e s . Semenov includes in the Dasht-i-Kipchak the steppes which extend
west of the longitude on which Lake Balkhash i s located, and in Mogulis tan, the r e gion that l i e s e a s t of the lake. The l a t t e r name reflects to some degree the g r e a t e r
distribution of Mongoloid t r a i t s i n the southeastern a r e a , and the designation Mogulistan- -the country of the Mongols - -is apparently not accidental.
two subtypes:
IV. EUROPEOID RACES O F CENTRAL ASIA AND O F ADJACENT
COUNTRIES O F IRAN AND THE NEAR EAST
1. Brachycephalic Race of C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial Region
The r a c i a l composition of the population changes radically south of the Syr Darya, in what i s now Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan. The tables i n chapter I1 show that
the Uzbeks and Tadzhiks, a s compared with the Kirghiz and Kazakhs, exhibit a
lower percentage of o c c u r r e n c e of the Mongoloid fold, m o r e abundant f a c i a l hair,
a l e s s flattened horizontal f a c i a l profile, a higher n a s a l root, l e s s sloping alae,
the eyeballs s e t d e e p e r in the orbital cavities, and s m a l l e r longitudinal and t r a n s v e r s e d i a m e t e r s of head and f a c e . The racial-diagnostic significance of these
c h a r a c t e r s h a s been pointed out i n chapter 11. Judging f r o m the geographic distribution of these c h a r a c t e r s , the predominant component in Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistaa,
in c o n t r a s t t o Kirghizia and Kazakhstan, i s not the Mongoloid but the Europeoid component. As shown in tables 4-12, and table 19, the Uzbeks have a considerably
g r e a t e r admixture of Mongoloid t r a i t s than the Tadzhiks; however, t h e r e a l s o prevails i n t h e i r composition the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Europeoid type. This Europeoid type, m o s t c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d among the Tadzhiks, exhibits the following: dark
eyes with a considerable element of mixed (1. 28); black h a i r ; b e a r d medium and
heavier than medium ( 3 . 15); horizontal facial profile not flattened (2. 20); face of
medium breadth (141) and height (125); head f a i r l y broad (153) and s h o r t (183);
height of n a s a l bridge above medium (2. 30); a slightly inclined position of the alae
(1.83); and the eyeballs s e t f a i r l y deep in the o r b i t a l cavities (1. 74). The Tadzhiks
a r e a t the maximum range of brachycephaly (84. 5), typically leptoprosopic (88.6),
leptorrhine (73. 9). and a r e of average s t a t u r e (1660).
The s a m e complex prevails among the Uzbeks although, a s previously noted,
with a g r e a t e r admixture of Mongoloid t r a i t s .
The Europeoid type which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the Uzbeks and Tadzhiks i s shown
in photographs Nos. 3 and 4.
Because of the v e r y widespread distribution of this type on the plains between
the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya, and equally in the upper c o u r s e s of
these r i v e r s , in the P a m i r - A l a i mountain region, this type i s designated a s the
"Central Asiatic Interfluvial r a c e . "
IArkho isolated on the b a s i s of h i s own extensive investigations the s a m e Europe.
oid type in Uzbekistan, but called it the " P a m i r - F e r g h a n a r a c e . "
In o u r opinion, this i s a l e s s suitable t e r m because i t includes only a n insignificant p a r t of the actual c e n t e r of distribution of the given type, i. e . , the Ferghana
Valley and the lands adjacent to the P a m i r range. Subsequent extensive investigations conducted in various towns and settlements of d i v e r s e a r e a s and regions of
Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan showed that the basic complex of c h a r a c t e r s f o r the
given r a c i a l type i s widely distributed throughout the entire Central Asiatic Interfluvial Region, on the headwaters of the Amu D a r y a and S y r Darya in the P a m i r Altai Mountains, a s well a s on the plains between the middle and lower c o u r s e s of
those r i v e r s . Both t e r m s , the " P a m i r - F e r g h a n a r a c e " and the "Central Asiatic
Interfluvial r a c e , " a r e accepted in Soviet Anthropology and a r e used a s synonyms.
Within the Central Asiatic Interfluvial r a c e , t h e r e may be distinguished t h r e e
variants of subtypes :
EUROPEOID RACES O F CENTRAL ASIA AND NEAR EAST
35
1. Mountain v a r i a n t , to which belong the highland Tadzhiks, who a r e the
I most typical and m a r k e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial
I
I
'
'
race.
2. P a m i r Region v a r i a n t , which includes the s m a l l Iranian-speaking t r i b e s
of the southwestern P a m i r a r e a s : Rushan, Shugnan and Vakhan. This subtype
is closely related t o that of the highland Tadzhiks, but i s distinguished f r o m
it by s o m e c h a r a c t e r s which r e s e m b l e those of the so-called Anterior Asian
race. We shall d i s c u s s t h e s e differences l a t e r .
3 . Plains variant, widely distributed among the Uzbeks i n a l l Uzbekistan,
from Khwarizm in the west to the F e r g h a n a Valley in the e a s t , f r o m the T a s h kent Oblast in the north to the Surkhan Darya O b l a s t i n the south. This v a r i a n t
is also close, to the highland subtype, but i s distinguished f r o m i t by a considerable admixture of Mongoloid t r a i t s . T h e s e , a s we s h a l l s e e , reflect d i f f e r ences in ethnogenetic p r o c e s s e s that took place on the plains and i n the mountains.
The present a r e a of distribution of the C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial r a c e , however,
is by no means r e s t r i c t e d t o the l i m i t s of Tadzhikistan and Uzbekistan. Examinations we made among the Uigurs who m i g r a t e d t o C e n t r a l Asia f r o m Sinkiang showed
that this s a m e r a c e i s a l s o the basic r a c i a l type of the Uigurs. T h e s e , who constitute 80. 0 p e r cent of the original inhabitants of Sinkiang, do not differ i n any a n t h r o pometric c h a r a c t e r s f r o m the Uzbeks [36]. In other words, they belong to the third
subtype of the C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial r a c e , to that of the plains.
The late D . D . Bukinich studied the Tadzhiks, who live in n o r t h e r n Afghanistan
on both sides of the Hindu Kush and constitute a v e r y considerable p a r t of the h e t e r o geneous population of that country. T h e r e a r e about 2. 1 million Tadzhiks i n Afghanistan--about 20. 0 p e r cent of the total population. Bukinich's investigations showed
that the Afghan Tadzhiks do not differ i n any of the main c h a r a c t e r s f r o m the T a d zhiks of the southern p a r t s of Tadzhikistan [35, pp. 51-53]. In other words, they
belong to the f i r s t , o r mountain subtype, of the C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial r a c e .
A s an illustration of the s i m i l a r i t y between the Uigurs and the Uzbeks, and that
between the Tadzhiks of southern Tadzhikistan and the Tadzhiks of n o r t h e r n Afghanistan, we offer comparative anthropological t a b l e s . In tables 20-21 a r e given data
obtained for various t e r r i t o r i a l g r o u p s , in tables 22-23 the g e n e r a l , minimum and
maximum means and magnitudes of combined groups investigated in the s a m e general areas. Unfortunately, Bukinich succeeded in recording only four qualitative
and two quantitative c h a r a c t e r s , the head length and breadth. The Tadzhiks of Afghanistan differ markedly f r o m the Mongoloid Kirghiz of the Semirechye region
(tables 22-23) by the absence of the Mongoloid fold, a heavier than a v e r a g e b e a r d ,
a somewhat above a v e r a g e height of the n a s a l bridge, and by the basic head d i ameters. In general, they a p p e a r to be typical r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the Europeoid
race of the Central Asiatic Interfluvial Region. The Tadzhiks of southern Tadzhikistandiffer even m o r e sharply f r o m the Kirghiz. It m u s t be noted that historically
northern Afghanistan and southern Tadzhikistan w e r e once combined in ancient
Bactria .
On the other hand, the Uigurs of the Semirechye region, and p a r t i c u l a r l y the
Uigurs of the Ferghana Valley, do not differ in any way f r o m the Ferghana Uzbeks
among whom live the Ferghana Uigurs. Like the Uzbeks, the Uigurs a r e related to
the same Europeoid r a c e of the C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial Regior-, but with a noticeable admixture of Mongoloid t r a i t s . Nevertheless, a s to the d e g r e e of Mongoloid
features, both the Uigurs and the Uzbeks differ c l e a r l y f r o m the typically Mongoloid
Kirghiz. The a s yet scanty palaeoanthropological d a t a , and those of history and
llnguistics, show that the Uigurs absorbed the f e a t u r e s of the Europeoid r a c e of
36
PEOPLES O F CENTRAL ASIA
the Central Asiatic Interfluvial Region not on the t e r r i t o r y of C e n t r a l A s i a , but in
Sinkiang. One of o u r previously published works [36] was devoted especially t o this
question. Thus, the ancient a r e a of distribution of the brachycephalic Europeoid
r a c e was not on the C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial Region (Mezhdureche) but a l s o
Sinkiang o r a t l e a s t i t s southern half, the Kashgar region. In Kashgaria a s well a s
in the C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial Region, the admixture of Mongoloid elements
was provided by successive s t r a t a of Mongoloid t r i b e s [36].
!
On the b a s i s of comparative anthropological investigations, h i s t o r i c a l r e p o r t s
concerning the types of ancient populations, and h i s t o r i c a l information on the succ e s s i v e settling of C e n t r a l Asia by various nations, we have long held that the
I
C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial r a c e i s autochthonous, and that i t was h e r e within
C e n t r a l Asia.
This point of view was fully confirmed by the l a t e s t palaeoanthropological investi:I
gations conducted i n Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan by Ginzburg [5, 7, 91 and by ~ezenA
kova [17] of the State University of C e n t r a l Asia (SAGU).
The oldest s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s of the C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial r a c e , found with- (
i n the l i m i t s of Sogdiana and B a c t r i a , date f r o m the third millennium B. C. [17].
It i s thus evident that this r a c e f o r m e d a p a r t of the oldest civilized peoples of
C e n t r a l Asia, the Sogdians and B a c t r i a n s . Inasmuch a s the s a m e r a c i a l type clearly
predominates i n the m o d e r n population of Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan, we have
e v e r y r e a s o n to consider the Uzbeks and Tadzhiks a s the descendants of the abovementioned oldest civilized peoples of Central Asia.
.
~
I
i
2. Europeoid Dolichocephalic T r a n s c a s p i a n Race
South of the Amu Darya, on the steppes of T r a n s c a s p i a , the r a c i a l composition
changes.
As we have s e e n , the brachycephalic Europeoid r a c e predominates on the plains 1
of the Central Asiatic Interfluvial Region, now inhabited by t h e Uzbeks. On the
T r a n s c a s p i a n s t e p p e s , where the Turkomans live, the Europeoid Race a l s o clearly
predominates. The T u r k o m a n s , however, differ markedly f r o m t h e C e n t r a l Asiatic
Interfluvial r a c e a s t o head length and breadth and the cephalic index.
The C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial r a c e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a m a r k e d brachycephaly
while the T r a n s c a s p i a n r a c e i s c l e a r l y dolicho-mesocephalic. In addition, the
Turkomans a r e t a l l e r and m o r e leptoprosopic than the Uzbeks. The l a t t e r i s evident in comparing total f a c i a l height and f a c i a l index.
Both Europeoid r a c e s of C e n t r a l Asia w e r e Mongolized; t h e r e i s no difference
between them i n the d e g r e e of Mongolization. According to a l l the c h a r a c t e r s that
distinguish Europeoids f r o m Mongoloids, the Turkomans and Uzbeks a r e completely
similar .
We r e f e r t o the s i m i l a r i t i e s and differences indicated i n chapter 11, In tables
24-25 we give the m e a n s (M) and the number of subjects ( N ) studied for the m o s t
significant c h a r a c t e r s that distinguish the Mongoloids and the Europeoids and indicate the s a m e d e g r e e of Mongolization of both the Europeoids of the C e n t r a l Asiatic
Interfluvial Region and those of T r a n s c a s p i a , and a l s o the c h a r a c t e r s that show the I
difference between them.
a
In t h e i r dolichocephaly, the Turkomans differ s h a r p l y not only f r o m the Uzbeks
but a l s o f r o m a l l other nationalities of C e n t r a l Asia (tables 13- 15):
As shown in table 26, the dolicho-mesocephalic with a long and n a r r o w head i s 1
1
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r a l l Turkoman t r i b e s i n each a r e a . The question a r i s e s a s t o
whether o r not we c a n consider the dolichocephaly, which i s s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r
the Turkomans and which distinguishes them sharply f r o m a l l other nationalities
of C e n t r a l Asia, to be a r a c i a l , inborn f e a t u r e . I s i t not a n a r t i f i c i a l dolichocephaly
I
~
I
EUROPEOID RACES O F C E N T R A L ASIA AND NEAR EAST
37
produced by a r t i f i c i a l c r a n i a l d e f o r m a t i o n p r a c t i s e d by s o m e T u r k o m a n t r i b e s ?
This q u e s t i o n w a s r a i s e d i n a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e by u s , and l a t e r by L e v i n
[LO]. I n a s m u c h a s t h i s q u e s t i o n i s of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e s y s t e m a t i c s of
Central A s i a t i c r a c e s a s w e l l a s f o r t h e p r o b l e m of the e t h n o g e n e s i s of the T u r k o mans, we s h a l l d i s c u s s it i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l .
In one of m y e a r l i e s t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l w o r k s [25], I noted t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e
at my r e q u e s t i n 1926 among the E r s a r i t r i b e of t h e Kelife r e g i o n by two s t u d e n t s ,
Maslova and F o k i n a , of the S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y of C e n t r a l A s i a (SAGU) r e v e a l e d t h a t
the T u r k o m a n s of t h i s t r i b e a l w a y s bind t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s h e a d s tightly with a k e r chief, f o r t h e p u r p o s e , a s t h e y s a i d , of achieving a m o r e elongated f o r m of the
head.
L a t e r , i n 1929, I had the opportunity t o o b s e r v e t h i s c u s t o m m y s e l f i n a n o t h e r
area--among t h e T e k e t r i b e of t h e M a r y [ ~ e r v r]e g i o n . T h e s a m e c u s t o m w a s a l s o
observed by L e v i n i n 1942 among t h e T e k e t r i b e i n Ashkhabad and i n 1951 by Nadzhimov among t h e E r s a r i i n t h e v i c i n i t y of T e r m e z .
In a l l c a s e s t h e bandage w a s a p p l i e d i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r : t h e c e n t e r of the d i agonally folded k e r c h i e f w a s p l a c e d on t h e f o r e h e a d , a n d the tightly d r a w n knot b e low the m o s t pronounced point of the o c c i p u t (opisthoc r a n i o n ) .
It s e e m s t o u s t h a t s u c h bandaging m a y r e s u l t i n a n elongation of t h e c r a n i u m ,
at the expense of t h e unbandaged p a r t of t h e o c c i p u t which, without t h e p r e s s u r e ,
remains f r e e t o p r o t r u d e . Among a d u l t T u r k o m a n s t h i s f e a t u r e i s v e r y e v i d e n t .
Such a r t i f i c i a l c r a n i a l d e f o r m a t i o n i s a l s o i n d i c a t e d by the m a r k e d l y sloping f o r e heads that o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y a m o n g t h e T u r k o m a n s .
When questioned a b o u t t h e r e a s o n f o r s u c h a c u s t o m , t h e T u r k o m a n s gave m e a
fully definite a n s w e r . T h e y s a i d t h a t t h e T u r k o m a n s h a v e , i n g e n e r a l , a n elongated
shape of the head, and t h a t they t r y t o e m p h a s i z e t h i s f e a t u r e i n o r d e r t h a t t h e y
would not be confused with o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s . T h e l o n g e r t h e h e a d , t h e " p u r e r "
the Turkoman a n d the c l e a r e r h i s r e l a t i o n "by bloodn to the T u r k o m a n p e o p l e .
The elongated f o r m of t h e h e a d i s a c t u a l l y s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the T u r k o m a n s
and distinguishes t h e m t o s u c h a n e x t e n t f r o m a l l t h e b r a c h y c e p h a l i c n a t i o n a l i t i e s
of Central A s i a , t h a t i t will a t t r a c t the a t t e n t i o n of e v e r y o b s e r v e r . As e a r l y a s a
thousand y e a r s ago, t h e population of P e r s i a a n d M a w e r a n n a h r r e c o g n i z e d the a n cestors of the T u r k o m a n s , t h e G h u z e s , by the elongated s h a p e of t h e i r h e a d s , and
sold them i n t o s l a v e r y on t h e b a s i s of t h i s c h a r a c t e r [24].
In 1923, a t a t i m e when no a n t h r o p o m e t r i c d a t a w e r e a v a i l a b l e on the T u r k o m a n s ,
this fact s e r v e d u s a s a key f o r t h e p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e i r e t h n o g e n e s i s . W e
shall dwell on t h i s q u e s t i o n f u r t h e r i n a c h a p t e r devoted t o t h e e t h n o g e n e s i s of t h e
Turkoman people. A s i g n i f i c a n t m o d e r n - d a y e v e n t w a s r e p o r t e d by a p e r s o n who
witnessed t h e s i e g e of Khiva by the B a s m a c h [ i n s u r g e n t s ] d u r i n g the w i n t e r of 1923.
Participating with the B a s m a c h i n the s i e g e of Khiva w e r e Uzbeks who had joined
the Turkoman-Y o m u d s . When the B a s m a c h w e r e t a k e n p r i s o n e r , t h o s e with elong ated heads w e r e , without f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n , c o n s i d e r e d T u r k o m a n - Y o m u d s , and
those with s h o r t h e a d s w e r e l i s t e d a s U z b e k s .
In g e n e r a l , the c u s t o m of e m p h a s i z i n g s o m e r a c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s quite w i d e s p r e a d .
Darwin, a l s o , mentioned s o m e f a c t s i n t h i s connection [77].
In 1942, h o w e v e r , the T u r k o m a n s explained t h i s c u s t o m t o Levin f r o m a n o t h e r
viewpoint--that of health; they s a i d t h a t the i n f a n t s ' h e a d s had t o be p r o t e c t e d f r o m
a chill. Yet ethnography r e c o r d s m a n y c u s t o m s whose o r i g i n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e have
become l o s t . In o u r epoch of r a d i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a l l c u s t o m s , s u c h a l o s s of
'ethnographic m e m o r y n o c c u r s v e r y r a p i d l y .
We believe t h a t the dolichocephaly of t h e T u r k o m a n s i s a r a c i a l o r i n b o r n c h a r a c teristic, and t h a t the bandaging of t h e h e a d s of newborn infants i s t h e i r a t t e m p t t o
underline o r e m p h a s i z e t h i s f e a t u r e a s proof of t h e i r "blood" r e l a t i o n s h i p with the
P E O P L E S O F CENTRAL ASIA
T u r k o m a n p e o p l e . T h i s conviction i s b a s e d o n t h e following c o n s i d e r a t i o n s :
1. T h e c u s t o m of bandaging t h e h e a d s of n e w b o r n infants i s not p r a c t i s e d
I
by a l l T u r k o m a n s , a n d i n s o m e t r i b e s i t i s not employed a t a l l (Oshanin, 1929);
n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y a r e a l w a y s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a pronounced dolichocephaly.
( a ) During h i s expedition t o K h w a r i z m i n 1936, IArkho i n s t r u c t e d h i s
a s s o c i a t e s , L i b m a n and I o m u d s k a i a , t o i n v e s t i g a t e c a r e f u l l y t h e q u e s t i o n
of w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e dolichocephaly of t h e T u r k o m a n s of t h e Khiva O a s i s
r e s u l t e d f r o m a r t i f i c i a l c r a n i a l d e f o r m a t i o n . T h i s study r e v e a l e d that:
" T h e f e l t c a p p l a c e d on the h e a d s of n u r s i n g b a b i e s c a n n o t m e c h a n i c a l l y
p r o d u c e dolichocephalic c h a n g e s of the c r a n i u m ; a s p e c i f i c a l l y elongated
f o r m of head w a s noted among c h i l d r e n a s w e l l a s among a d u l t s " [52, p.
821.
Unfortunately, IArkho did not r e p o r t what t h i s " c a p " looked l i k e o r
how i t w a s u s e d . I n a n y c a s e , i t i s not t h e diagonally folded k e r c h i e f ,
tightly bound u n d e r t h e o c c i p u t , but a kind of f l a t , f e l t c a p which c a n n o t
m e c h a n i c a l l y p r o d u c e elongation of t h e s k u l l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , T u r k o m a n s
whom IArkho i n v e s t i g a t e d w e r e n o t b r a c h y c e p h a l i c , b u t m a r k e d l y dolichocephalic ( Y o m u t i [Y omud] t r i b e , 75. 1) o r m e s o c e p h a l i c ( C h a u d y r s , 7 7 . 2 ) .
(b) In 1929 we e n c o u n t e r e d the c u s t o m of bandaging t h e h e a d s of infants
among t h e Iomuds of K a r a K u m i n t h e vicinity of Kazandzhik. H o w e v e r ,
t h e Yomuds n e i t h e r folded the k e r c h i e f diagonally n o r t i e d i t tightly below
the m o s t pronounced o c c i p i t a l point ( o p i s t h o c r a n i o n ) . T h e y p l a c e d a k e r chief on t h e i n f a n t ' s h e a d without tying i t tightly, a n d t h i s c e r t a i n l y c a n not c a u s e a n i n c r e a s e in head b r e a d t h . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the Y omuds of
Kazandzhik p o s s e s s a l a r g e head length (194) a n d a s m a l l h e a d b r e a d t h
(149), with a cephalic index of 7 6 . 0.
( c ) T h e Goklen t r i b e of t h e K a r a - K a l a r e g i o n a l s o s t u d i e d i n 1929, do
not, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r own s t a t e m e n t , bandage the h e a d s of newborn
i n f a n t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , they a r e t y p i c a l d o l i c h o c e p h a l s (GOL 19 3, G B
147, CI 7 5 . 8 ) .
2. IArkho pointed out t h a t a r t i f i c i a l elongation of t h e head would d i s t u r b the
c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e head l e n g t h and b r e a d t h . He s t r e s s e d t h e f a c t t h a t among
the T u r k o m a n s he could not o b s e r v e any d i s t o r t i o n of the c o r r e l a t i o n . T h e c o efficient of c o r r e l a t i o n r e m a i n e d p o s i t i v e ( Y o m u d s ,
0. 360). A s i m i l a r r e s u l t
was o b s e r v e d on the T e k e T u r k o m a n s , who bandaged the h e a d s of t h e i r infants
in the m a n n e r m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . H e r e the coefficient of c o r r e l a t i o n w a s 0. 327;
among the I o m u d s , who bandage t h e h e a d s of i n f a n t s lightly, i t i s 0. 454 and
among the Goklen, who do not u s e b a n d a g e s a t a l l , i t i s 0 . 4 4 0 .
3 . T h e d a t a i n t a b l e 22 show t h a t the c e p h a l i c index and c o r r e s p o n d i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s v a r y within n a r r o w l i m i t s among t h e v a r i o u s l o c a l g r o u p s of t h e Turkom a n s . I t i s unlikely t h a t t h e above c h a r a c t e r s , which a r e p o s s e s s e d by the m o s t
d i f f e r e n t t r i b a l g r o u p s of t h e T u r k o m a n s - - c h a r a c t e r s t h a t r e p e a t t h e m s e l v e s in
d i f f e r e n t l o c a l i t i e s of the e x t e n s i v e t e r r i t o r y of p r e s e n t - d a y T u r k m e n i a - - w e r e
produced by a r t i f i c i a l dolichocephaly. F u r t h e r m o r e , T u r k m e n i a i s m e r e l y a
p a r t of the v a s t a r e a inhabited by dolichocephalic E u r o p e o i d s , which e x t e n d s
f a r to the e a s t t h r o u g h Afghanistan into n o r t h e r n India.
4. P a l a e o a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d a t a obtained i n r e c e n t y e a r s by the S o u t h e r n Turkm e n i a A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Expedition, u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p of M a s s o n , i n d i c a t e
t h a t the a n c i e n t population of T u r k m e n i a belonged undoubtedly t o the d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c E u r o p e o i d t y p e . T h e s e d a t a a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o the s e c o n d m i l l e n n i u m
B. C . T h e r e i s no s i g n of any a r t i f i c i a l c r a n i a l d e f o r m a t i o n of e i t h e r c h i l d r e n
o r a d u l t s [34].
*
*
*
EUROPEOID RACES O F C E N T R A L ASIA AND NEAR EAST
39
For a l l t h e s e r e a s o n s , t h e n , t h e r e i s n o doubt t h a t the dolichocephaly, which i s
isocharacteristic of t h e T u r k o m a n s , i s a r a c i a l c h a r a c t e r a n d not the r e s u l t of a r tificial c r a n i a l d e f o r m a t i o n . T h e c u s t o m a m o n g s o m e T u r k o m a n s of bandaging t h e
heads of n e w b o r n infants i s a n a t t e m p t t o s t r e s s t h i s r a c i a l p e c u l i a r i t y .
The s c a n t y b u t i n t e r e s t i n g a n d s i g n i f i c a n t m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d by L e v i n i n A s h khabad among T e k e c h i l d r e n i n d i c a t e s t h a t bandaging a s d e s c r i b e d above m a y
cause an i n c r e a s e i n the h e a d length a n d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e d u c t i o n i n t h e c e p h a l i c
index [20]. On the o t h e r hand, t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the T e k e of M a r y
[Merv], whom we s t u d i e d , and who bandage t h e h e a d s of i n f a n t s and the K a r a - K a l a
Coklen, who d o n o t o b s e r v e t h i s c u s t o m . Both a r e m a r k e d l y dolichocephalic ( T e k e ,
74.4; Goklen, 75. 8 ) .
Photographs 5 and 6 show t h e type of t h e d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c E u r o p e o i d R a c e which
clearly p r e d o m i n a t e s a m o n g t h e T u r k o m a n s .
This r a c i a l type w a s identified by IArkho [52] and by u s [ 3 5 ] a m o n g v a r i o u s
Turkoman t r i b e s . O u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s we r e m a d e independently of e a c h o t h e r a m o n g
many t r i b e s , i n d i f f e r e n t y e a r s a n d i n d i f f e r e n t o b l a s t s and r a i o n s of T u r k m e n i a .
This confirms the v a l i d i t y of t h e r a c i a l type which we i s o l a t e d .
However, the q u e s t i o n of i t s s y s t e m a t i c p o s i t i o n among o t h e r E u r o p e o i d t y p e s
cannot yet be c o n s i d e r e d s o l v e d .
Among Soviet a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s i t i s c u s t o m a r y t o u s e t h e t e r m " M e d i t e r r a n e a n
Race" in a b r o a d s e n s e . I t i n c l u d e s d i v e r s e l o c a l v a r i a n t s of the E u r o p e o i d d o l i c h o cephalic, b r u n e t type which i s s p r e a d o v e r the v a s t a r e a f r o m the i s l a n d s and p e n i n sulas of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n i n the w e s t t o t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of India i n the e a s t , i n cluding a l l n o r t h e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n p a r t s of A f r i c a , A r a b i a , p a r t of I r a n , the T r a n s caspian s t e p p e s a n d c e n t r a l Afghanistan.
Geographically, t h e " M e d i t e r r a n e a n R a c e " m a y be subdivided into s e v e r a l l o c a l
!ypes or r a c e s of the t h i r d o r d e r , which include:
1. I b e r i a n - I n s u l a r r a c e , d e s c r i b e d by D e n i k e r m o r e t h a n half a c e n t u r y
ago. This s h o r t , d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c , b r u n e t r a c e h a s a s i t s c e n t e r of d i s t r i b u tion the P y r e n e a n P e n i n s u l a , the s o u t h e r n half of the Apennine P e n i n s u l a a n d
the islands of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n .
2 . North A f r i c a n r a c e , t a l l , d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c and b r u n e t . T h e t y p i c a l r e p r e sentatives a r e the R i f s of M o r o c c o , d e s c r i b e d by Coon [76].
3 . A r a b [ ~ r a b i a n ]r a c e , with a s t a t u r e below a v e r a g e , dolichocephalic and
brunet; w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g t h e A r a b s of t h e A r a b i a n P e n i n s u l a . T h i s type was
identified by E u g e n F i s c h e r a s the " E a s t e r n r a c e " [80, pp. 171-731.
4. Indo-Afghan r a c e , t a l l , d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c and b r u n e t ; identified and d e scribed by D e n i k e r . I t i s v e r y w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g the Indo-Aryan t r i b e s of
northern India and among the t r i b e s of c e n t r a l Afghanistan [79].
IArkho r e l a t e d the T u r k o m a n s t o the A r a b v a r i a n t of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n R a c e .
described by F i s c h e r a s the " E a s t e r n r a c e . "
In the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n l a t e r s u g g e s t e d by C h e b o k s a r o v [46, p . 315 e t s e q . 1, the
Europeoid type of the T u r k o m a n s i s p l a c e d i n the c l a s s of a l l d a r k , s o u t h e r n E u ropeoids, whom he c o m b i n e s a s a E u r o p e o i d r a c e of the second o r d e r u n d e r the
designation "Southern E u r o p e o i d " o r "Indo - M e d i t e r r a n e a n n r a c e .
This race i s divided by C h e b o k s a r o v i n t o t h r e e types: ( a ) w e s t e r n , M e d i t e r r a n e a n
Balkan, including peoples of s o u t h e r n E u r o p e a n d n o r t h e r n A f r i c a ; ( b ) c e n t r a l ,
.4nterior Asian, including p e o p l e s of A n t e r i o r A s i a a n d ( c ) e a s t e r n , I n d o - P a m i r , i n cluding peoples of C e n t r a l A s i a , I r a n . Afghanistan, a n d the n o r t h e r n p a r t of I n d i a .
Cheboksarov s t r e s s e s t h e point t h a t i n h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n he d o e s not t a k e into
consideration the c e p h a l i c index which, in h i s opinion, should be t a k e n into a c c o u n t
40
P E O P L E S O F CENTRAL ASIA
only i n m o r e d e t a i l e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of " l o c a l t y p e s , "
f o r m i n g a p a r t of the t h r e e g e o g r a p h i c a l g r o u p s which h e h a d identified. However,
dolichocephaly i s t h e b a s i c f e a t u r e of t h e " M e d i t e r r a n e a n R a c e i n a b r o a d s e n s e . "
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , i t d o e s n o t include s u c h w e l l - i n v e s t i g a t e d and long-known brachyc e p h a l i c E u r o p e o i d s a s the following: ( a ) A d r i a t i c o r D i n a r i c r a c e , which had its
c e n t e r i n the D i n a r i c A l p s , the e n t i r e e a s t e r n c o a s t of the A d r i a t i c S e a , and a cons i d e r a b l e p a r t of t h e Balkan P e n i n s u l a ; ( b ) A n t e r i o r A s i a n r a c e , which i s wides p r e a d i n the n o r t h e r n p a r t of A n t e r i o r Asia: i n A s i a M i n o r , T r a n s c a u c a s i a and
M e s o p o t a m i a , but n o t i n the A r a b i a n P e n i n s u l a ; and ( c ) C e n t r a l A s i a t i c Interfluvial
r a c e , which we h a v e a l r e a d y i s o l a t e d .
T h e s e t h r e e b r a c h y c e p h a l i c r a c e s , t o g e t h e r with t h e dolichocephalic r a c e s , are
included by C h e b o k s a r o v i n the c o m p o s i t i o n of the " I n d o - M e d i t e r r a n e a n r a c e n as
r a c e s of the s e c o n d o r d e r .
In o u r opinion, i t i s t o o e a r l y t o identify the c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e d r a c i a l t y p e s of
C e n t r a l A s i a with o t h e r well-known E u r o p e o i d a n d Mongoloid r a c e s , fragmenting
the l a t t e r into r a c e s of the s e c o n d and t h i r d d e g r e e and into " l o c a l t y p e s . "
We c o n s i d e r t h e f i n a l g o a l of e v e r y s c i e n t i f i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , n a m e l y , the establ i s h m e n t of g e n e t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g the v a r i o u s t e r r i t o r i a l t y p e s of Europeoids,
and equally of Mongoloids, t o be t h e w o r k of t h e f u t u r e . F i r s t l y , a d e q u a t e palaeo- '
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d a t a f o r the g e n e t i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s y s t e m a t i c c a t e g o r i e s smaller
t h a n the t h r e e b a s i c G r e a t R a c e s , t h e E u r o p e o i d , Mongoloid and N e g r o i d , a r e not '
y e t a v a i l a b l e . In c o m p a r i s o n s b a s e d on the a n t h r o p o m e t r y of the l i v i n g , difficulties
a r i s e f r o m t h e n e c e s s i t y of using d a t a c o l l e c t e d by d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s a t dif- I
f e r e n t t i m e s with d i f f e r e n t p r o g r a m s [ s y s t e m s of r e c o r d i n g data]. T h i s i s particul a r l y t r u e i n the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r s which, i n the classification
of r a c e s a r e indubitably not l e s s , but s o m e t i m e s even m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n metric
d a t a . If we e n c o u n t e r d i f f i c u l t i e s i n c o m p a r i n g d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r s r e c o r d e d by /
Soviet a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , t h e n only o u r m e t r i c d a t a a r e d i r e c t l y c o m p a r a b l e with thost,
of f o r e i g n p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s .
I t s e e m s t o u s t h a t i n t h e p r e s e n t s t a g e of o u r knowledge, i t i s sufficient t o limit'
o u r s e l v e s t o s u b s t a n t i v e f a c t s : t h e p r e s e n c e of s e v e r a l distinguishing c h a r a c t e r s ,
in p a r t i c u l a r , the c e p h a l i c index and head m e a s u r e m e n t s ; and the p r e s e n c e of a
definite a r e a o r c e n t e r of d i s t r i b u t i o n w h e r e t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d in
c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o neighboring a r e a s t h a t a r e the c e n t e r s of d i s t r i b u t i o n of other
c h a r a c t e r s . If one t a k e s , i n a d d i t i o n , p a l a e o a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d a t a t h a t b e a r witness
t o t h e r e m o t e antiquity of a given c o m p l e x of c h a r a c t e r s on a given t e r r i t o r y , which
i s a d i r e c t proof of g e n e t i c s u c c e s s i o n , t h e n we have e v e r y r e a s o n to s p e a k of a
r a c i a l type, c a l l i n g i t a m i n o r r a c e o r a r a c e of the s e c o n d o r d e r , a s being a component p a r t of the E u r o p e o i d o r G r e a t Mongoloid r a c e s . T h i s i s a c t u a l l y the c a s e
with the b r a c h y c e p h a l i c r a c e of t h e C e n t r a l A s i a t i c I n t e r f l u v i a l Region, which can
be t r a c e d i n i t s c e n t e r of d i s t r i b u t i o n b a c k t o t h e t h i r d m i l l e n n i u m B. C . I t i s also
the c a s e with dolichocephalic E u r o p e o i d type, wide s p r e a d throughout T u r k m e n i a ,
w h e r e i t c a n be t r a c e d b a c k t o the s e c o n d m i l l e n n i u m B. C. We s u g g e s t e d calling
t h i s the T r a n s c a s p i a n r a c e , a f t e r i t s c e n t e r of d i s t r i b u t i o n .
In r e g a r d t o the g e n e t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p of the T r a n s c a s p i a n r a c e with o t h e r dolichoc e p h a l i c E u r o p e o i d r a c e s , i t s e e m s t o u s t h a t the p o s s i b i l i t y of r e l a t i n g i t t o the
g e o g r a p h i c a l l y d i s t a n t " E a s t e r n r a c e " of F i s c h e r , with which I A r k h o identified it,
h a s no b a s i s . According to F i s c h e r , t h e c e n t e r of d i s t r i b u t i o n of h i s " E a s t e r n race"
was the A r a b i a n P e n i n s u l a .
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of the T r a n s c a s p i a n r a c e with t h e a d j a c e n t Indo-Afghan r a c e in
the e a s t i s m o r e p r o b a b l e . T h e d e s i g n a t i o n of t h e l a t t e r w a s widely a c c e p t e d long
ago a s t h a t of the e a s t e r n m o s t g r o u p of E u r o p e o i d d o l i c h o c e p h a l s who inhabit Afghanistan and n o r t h e r n India.
I
1
EUROPEOID RACES O F CENTRAL ASIA AND NEAR EAST
As shown i n table 27, the cephalic index a n d the head d i m e n s i o n s v a r y within
very n a r r o w l i m i t s on the v a s t t e r r i t o r y f r o m t h e C a s p i a n Sea t o the n o r t h e a s t e r n
prt of India. V a r i o u s a u t h o r s contributed the a n t h r o p o m e t r i c d a t a f o r India. T h e
figures f o r w e s t e r n , c e n t r a l a n d e a s t e r n Afghanistan w e r e obtained by Bukinich
[35, pp. 51-53]. Unfortunately, b e c a u s e of l a c k of d a t a collected i n a c c o r d a n c e
with " p r o g r a m s of the s a m e type" [ c o m p a r a b l e methodology], i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o
compare the dolichocephalic peoples of Afghanis tan and India a c c o r d i n g to o t h e r
characters. However, t h e i r p l a c e i n the G r e a t Europeoid R a c e i s beyond doubt and
itis generally acknowledged. We f e e l that it i s quite probable t h a t f u r t h e r i n v e s t i gations, which will be conducted i n a c c o r d a n c e with the unified method, adapted by
Soviet Anthropology, will p e r m i t the identification of the T r a n s c a s p i a n with the
Indo-Afghan r a c e .
Even on the b a s i s of d a t a a v a i l a b l e , the p r e s e n c e of a v a s t s t r a t u m of dolichocephalic E u r o p e o i d s , extending f r o m the s h o r e s of the C a s p i a n S e a t o n o r t h e a s t e r n
India, i s indisputable. T h i s s t r a t u m i s a s s o c i a t e d with the c o u n t r i e s situated south
of the Amu D a r y a and Hindu Kush, while n o r t h of i t , f r o m the s h o r e s of the A r a l
Sea to the r e g i o n of Sinkiang, extends the s t r a t u m of brachycephalic E u r o p e o i d s ,
whom we have identified a s the C e n t r a l A s i a t i c Interfluvial r a c e .
The h i s t o r i c a l connection of Afghanistan with a l l C e n t r a l A s i a , and p a r t i c u l a r l y
Turkmenia, i s a l s o well-known.
Linguistically, the a n c i e n t t r i b e s i n m o d e r n T u r k m e n i a w e r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o
the tribes of Afghanistan and n o r t h e r n India. In the opinion of t h e m a j o r i t y of
scholars, the a n c i e n t t r i b e s of the T r a n s c a s p i a n region, frequently r e f e r r e d t o a s
the Scytho-Sarmatian t r i b e s , spoke languages of the I r a n i a n b r a n c h of the IndoEuropean linguistic f a m i l y . T h i s linguistic affinity was a l s o a t t r i b u t e d to t h e m i n
the page proofs of the " H i s t o r y of the USSR, " i s s u e d i n 1939 by the Academy of
Sciences a s a m a n u s c r i p t copy [67, pp. 182-851. F i n a l l y , the significant d i s c o v e r i e s
of the Masson A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Expeditions f u r n i s h e d r i c h linguistic m a t e r i a l testify ing that the P a r t h i a n s , who inhabited the s o u t h e r n p a r t of T u r k m e n i a , spoke a n
Iranian language [64 and 721. T h e m a j o r i t y of the peoples of Afghanistan a l s o s p e a k
Iranian [ ~ a r s i ] ,which i s now the official language.
The languages of n o r t h e r n India a r e grouped u n d e r the Indian b r a n c h of the IndoEuropean linguistic f a m i l y .
According to morphology a n d v o c a b u l a r y , the I r a n i a n and Indian languages a r e
combined in one g r o u p a s the s o - c a l l e d "Aryan languages. "
The s t r a t u m of dolichocephalic E u r o p e o i d s p r e s e r v e d the Indic languages i n the
east, and the I r a n i a n i n the c e n t e r . However, i n the west, i n T u r k m e n i a , t h i s o r i g inally Iranian- speaking s t r a t u m b e c a m e T u r k i z e d by s u c c e s s i v e a c c r e t i o n s of
'Turki t r i b e s . The t r i b e s a l s o brought with t h e m a n a d m i x t u r e of Mongoloid c h a r a c ters to the ancient dolichocephalic Europeoid population of the T r a n s c a s p i a n region.
On the b a s i s of palaeoanthropological d a t a a n d h i s t o r i c a l evidence, then, we consider the T r a n s c a s p i a n r a c e , which we identified a s l o c a l and autochthonous, to be
one that developed on the T r a n s c a s p i a n s t e p p e s .
Thus, f r o m the anthropological point of view, the T u r k o m a n s a p p e a r to be the
descendants of the S c y t h o - S a r m a t i a n t r i b e s of T r a n s c a s p i a . T h i s question will be
discussed in the c h a p t e r devoted to the ethnogenesis of the T u r k o m a n s .
In addition t o t h e two l o c a l Europeoid r a c e s , the brachycephalic of the C e n t r a l
.Asiatic Interfluvial Region and the dolichocephalic of T r a n s c a s p i a , Europeoid r a c e s
whose elements m i g r a t e d into C e n t r a l A s i a f r o m a d j a c e n t c o u n t r i e s participated in
the racial composition of the population of C e n t r a l Asia i n v a r i o u s d e g r e e s . P a r t i c u larly well known s i n c e ancient t i m e s a r e the c l o s e h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i o n s of the peoples
of Central Asia with those of I r a n and A n t e r i o r A s i a . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , we i n v e s t i gated groups which m i g r a t e d f r o m t h e s e two c o u n t r i e s into C e n t r a l A s i a .
42
P E O P L E S O F CENTRAL ASIA
T o t h e s e g r o u p s belong the P e r s i a n s , who r e c e n t l y m i g r a t e d f r o m Khurasan,
and A z e r b a i j a n i s f r o m I r a n i a n A z e r b a i j a n , among whom I collected s o m e prelimin a r y m a t e r i a l i n Ashkhabad a s w e l l a s on the Jews who live i n v a r i o u s towns of Ceni
A s i a . The J e w s , who m i g r a t e d about a thousand y e a r s ago, live s e p a r a t e l y and do
not m i x with the l o c a l M o s l e m s . The P e r s i a n s and A z e r b a i j a n i s exhibit a marked1
pronounced dolichocephalic Europeoid r a c i a l type, but one t h a t d i f f e r s f r o m the
T r a n s c a s p i a n . We have called t h i s type t h e K h u r a s a n r a c e , a f t e r i t s p r e s e n t cente
of d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e n o r t h e r n province of I r a n .
The C e n t r a l Asiatic J e w s exhibit a m a r k e d l y pronounced brachycephalic Europt
oid type, but n e v e r t h e l e s s one d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e brachycephalic Europeoids of the
C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial Region. T h i s type proved t o be identical with the Asia
A n t e r i o r r a c e which h a s long been known in Anthropology.
I
3 . Brachycephalic A n t e r i o r A s i a ( ~ r m e n o i dR
) ace
The c o u n t r i e s of the n o r t h e r n p a r t of A n t e r i o r A s i a , namely Asia Minor [ ~ n a tolia], T r a n s c a u c a s i a and Mesopotamia [Iraq] a r e the c e n t e r of d i s t r i b u t i o n of a
p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c Europeoid r a c i a l type which h a s long been designated in
Anthropology a s the A s i a A n t e r i o r r a c e . Inasmuch a s t h i s type i s v e r y markedly
pronounced among the A r m e n i a n s of T r a n s c a u c a s i a , the A n t e r i o r A s i a r a c e i s fre
quently called the Armenoid r a c e , which i s widely d i s t r i b u t e d not only among Arm e n i a n s , but a l s o among v a r i o u s nationalities and t r i b e s of A n t e r i o r Asia inhabiting the a r e a f r o m the Black Sea s h o r e s of Asia Minor t o the Z a g r o s Mountains bor
d e r i n g the I r a n i a n P l a t e a u . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , Bunak suggested calling t h i s r a c e the
P o n t i c - Z a g r o s s i a n . All t h e s e t e r m s , a c c e p t e d by Soviet physical anthropologists,
a r e u s e d a s synonyms.
On the other hand, the brachycephalic Europeoids of A n t e r i o r and C e n t r a l Asia
r e p r e s e n t m e r e l y the e a s t e r n l i n k s of t h a t brachycephalic Europeoid s t r a t u m , whit
extends u n i n t e r r u p t e d l y through E u r a s i a i n a latitudinal d i r e c t i o n and generally ap
p e a r s in the g r e a t e s t purity along the mountain folds of the Alps, C a r p a t h i a n s ,
D i n a r i c Alps, Balkan Mountains, and the tableland and mountain r a n g e s of Asia
Minor and A r m e n i a , t e r m i n a t i n g i n the P a m i r - A l a i Mountains. F u r t h e r m o r e , the
brachycephalic Europeoids a r e widely d i s t r i b u t e d t o the n o r t h and p a r t l y t o the
south of t h e s e mountain c o m p l e x e s and in C e n t r a l A s i a they inhabit the plains of
the C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial Region f a r to the west of the P a m i r - A l a i Mountain
South of t h e a r e a of t h e brachycephalic Europeoids extends the a r e a of the dolichocephalic Europeoids, which includes the peninsulas and i s l a n d s of the Mediterr a n e a n , the n o r t h e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n p a r t of A f r i c a , A r a b i a , p a r t of I r a n , central
Afghanistan and the n o r t h e r n p a r t of India. T h i s s t r a t u m of dolichocephalic Europeoids was r e f e r r e d to i n Soviet l i t e r a t u r e until r e c e n t l y a s the " M e d i t e r r a n e a n Race
in a b r o a d s e n s e . " In Cheboksarov's l a t e s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , both of t h e s e elements,
the dolichocephalic and brachycephalic Europeoids, a r e combined under the t e r m
Southern Europeoid o r I n d o - M e d i t e r r a n e a n r a c e .
However, in W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n anthropological l i t e r a t u r e , the cephalic index
continues t o be r e g a r d e d a s one of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t anthropological c r i t e r i a , and,
i s always taken into account in the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of human r a c e s . Insofar a s we 1
Soviet anthropologists have to c o m p a r e o u r m a t e r i a l s with those of f o r e i g n writera,
the s a m e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s which have long been adopted by f o r e i g n anthropologists 1
1
m u s t be taken into account t o s o m e extent.
In p a r t i c u l a r , i t h a s long been the c u s t o m t o subdivide the brachycephalic Eu- I
ropeoids of E u r a s i a into a n u m b e r of Europeoid r a c e s , which w e r e named accord'
ing to t h e i r c e n t e r s of distribution: Alpine r a c e , with i t s c e n t e r in the mountain
s y s t e m of the Alps; D i n a r i c o r Adriatic r a c e , with i t s c e n t e r i n the D i n a r i c Alps
EUROPEOID RACES O F CENTRAL ASIA AND NEAR EAST
along the e a s t e r n s h o r e s of the A d r i a t i c Sea; and the A s i a A n t e r i o r r a c e , with i t s
center i n the n o r t h e r n p a r t of A n t e r i o r A s i a . I n a s m u c h a s t h e D i n a r i c r a c e exhibits
a definite s i m i l a r i t y t o the A s i a A n t e r i o r r a c e , s o m e anthropologists c o n s i d e r i t
the w e s t e r n b r a n c h of the A s i a A n t e r i o r r a c e . T h e question n a t u r a l l y a r o s e , whether
the C e n t r a l A s i a t i c I n t e r f l u v i a l r a c e i s o l a t e d by Oshanin i s not m e r e l y the e x t r e m e
eastern b r a n c h of the s a m e A s i a A n t e r i o r r a c e .
For the solution of t h i s p r o b l e m it w a s n e c e s s a r y t o c o m p a r e the brachycephalic
Europeoids of C e n t r a l A s i a with t h o s e of t h e A n t e r i o r Asia.
The c l a s s i c a l type of the A n t e r i o r A s i a n ( A r m e n o i d ) r a c e i s c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d
in the J e w s of C e n t r a l A s i a , who live i n s e p a r a t e q u a r t e r s , which before the Revolution w e r e a type of ghetto ( m a h a l l a ) i n B u k h a r a , S a m a r k a n d , K e r m i n e . T a s h k e n t ,
Shakhrasiab [ S h a k h r i ~ ~ a b z a] n, d o t h e r towns of Uzbekistan. T h i s i s i m m e d i a t e l y
noticeable t o the o b s e r v e r upon e n t e r i n g the J e w i s h q u a r t e r s of those c i t i e s . Anthropologically, the C e n t r a l A s i a t i c Jews a p p e a r a s a s p l i n t e r of the b a s i c a n t h r o pological s t r a t u m of A n t e r i o r A s i a , which had been d r i v e n into the C e n t r a l Asiatic
Interfluvial Region by the J e w s who had s e t t l e d i n t h a t a r e a . T h e m i g r a t i o n of the
Jews into C e n t r a l A s i a began i n the tenth c e n t u r y a n d was probably supplemented
by subsequent new g r o u p s of i m m i g r a n t s . In s u c h c e n t e r s of M o s l e m f a n a t i c i s m a s
Bukhara. S a m a r k a n d and o t h e r c i t i e s of C e n t r a l A s i a , chance m e s t i z a t i o n could
only occur on a v e r y l i m i t e d s c a l e . T h e d e a d - e n d w a l l of national and religious t r a ditions and p r e j u d i c e s s e g r e g a t e d the Jews f r o m the local, autochthonous population
and thus c r e a t e d the i s o l a t i o n n e c e s s a r y f o r the p r e s e r v a t i o n of the type. W h e r e a s
our priority t a s k was e i t h e r t o identify the C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial r a c e with
the Anterior A s i a r a c e o r t o e x a m i n e e a c h a s a n independent r a c e , the J e w s of Central Asia a p p e a r e d t o u s a s e x c e l l e n t c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l .
In table 2 8 t h e r e a p p e a r d a t a collected only by the w r i t e r , during the s a m e p e r i o d
and at the s a m e populated p l a c e s . T h i s g u a r a n t e e s the c o m p a r a b i l i t y of the d e scriptive c h a r a c t e r s of the v a r i o u s g r o u p s . In 1926 I investigated the Tadzhiks and
the Jews of B u k h a r a . Next y e a r I studied the J e w s and Uzbeks i n Shakhrasiab. T h e
Tadzhiks of B u k h a r a and a l s o the Uzbeks of S h a k h r a s i a b a p p e a r a s t y p i c a l r e p r e sentatives of the Europeoid R a c e of the C e n t r a l Asiatic Interfluvial Region. T h e
presence of Mongoloid t r a i t s among the S h a k h r a s i a b Uzbeks c a n only b e c o n j e c t u r e d
rather than p r o v e d .
Highly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r the A n t e r i o r Asia type a r e the abundant h a i r growth
on face and body, a s h a r p l y p r o m i n e n t nose with a high n a s a l b r i d g e and a welldeveloped s u l c u s on the a l a e . Such a n a s a l f o r m , which r e s e m b l e s a c u r s i v e numeral 6, h a s long b e e n known among anthropologists a s " A r m e n o i d , " and i s e n countered frequently among A r m e n i a n s and o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the A n t e r i o r
Asia race.
The type of the A n t e r i o r A s i a ( A r m e n o i d ) i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n photographs of C e n tral Asiatic J e w s (photos. 7- 10).
From the c o m p a r i s o n of the individual c h a r a c t e r s given i n t a b l e 28, i t m a y be
seen that the Jews differ f r o m the Tadzhiks and Uzbeks i n the following: ( a ) m o r e
abundant b e a r d growth; (b) h o r i z o n t a l f a c i a l profile with s o m e d e g r e e of a l v e o l a r
prognathism; ( c ) h i g h e r n a s a l b a s e and n o s t r i l s ; ( d ) l e s s sloping a l a e ; and ( e ) m o r e
convex profile.
The sum of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s g i v e s the J e w s the a p p e a r a n c e of a pronounced
Anterior Asia Armenoid type. In r e g a r d t o the cephalic index and the d i a m e t e r s
which determine i t , t h e r e i s n o s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between J e w s , Tadzhiks and
Uzbeks.
On the other hand, one cannot f a i l to note that the d i f f e r e n c e s between the b r a c h y cephalic Europeoids of A n t e r i o r A s i a and t h o s e of C e n t r a l Asia exhibit a t r e n d i n
the same d i r e c t i o n a s the d i f f e r e n c e s between Europeoids and Mongoloids i n g e n e r a l .
44
PEOPLES O F CENTRAL ASIA
The p r e s e n c e of the Mongoloid fold d e c r e a s e s rapidly- -among the Jews I did not
observe a single c a s e . T h e r e is a n i n c r e a s e i n the t e r t i a r y h a i r cover, l e s s flatn e s s of the f a c e , higher n a s a l b a s e and n o s t r i l s , and the alae a r e l e s s sloping. A l l 1
t h e s e f a c t s f u r n i s h a b a s i s f o r supposing that the attenuation of the Armenoid feat u r e s among the Europeoids of C e n t r a l Asia is the r e s u l t of mestization with Mongoloids through many c e n t u r i e s . T h i s supposition i s a l s o supported by the presence1
of Armenoid f e a t u r e s , a s noted above, among the P a m i r t r i b e s and the Yagnobi,
,
who live i n isolation and have p r e s e r v e d t h e i r ancient Iranian languages.
4. Dolichocephalic Europeoid Khurasan Race
The h i s t o r i c a l relations of the population of C e n t r a l Asia with that of I r a n were
p a r t i c u l a r l y close and intensive. F o r this r e a s o n , we decided not to l i m i t our investigations of the Turkomans to the Turkoman t r i b e s [living i n the Turkoman SSR],
but a l s o to examine a s f a r a s possible groups that migrated recently f r o m Iranian
provinces [Ostans] adjacent to Turkmenia. In 1929, I succeeded i n recording i n
Ashkhabad, i n accordance with a detailed schedule, anthropometric data on the
P e r s i a n s , natives of the Meshed region, and of Azerbaijanis, of the vicinity of
T a b r i z . In table 2 8 a these groups, i m m i g r a n t s f r o m I r a n , a r e compared with the
Mongolized dolichocephalic Europeoids of C e n t r a l Asia, the Turkomans . In o r d e r
the b e t t e r to a s s u r e t h e comparability of qualitative c h a r a c t e r s , which play such an
important r o l e in the diagnosis of C e n t r a l Asiatic r a c e s , I have used the data on the
T e k e - T u r k o m a n s , which I collected in 1929 i n the city of Mary [ f o r m e r l y Merv] and
of the Goklen, whom I investigated i n the s a m e y e a r i n the S u m b a r a Valley on the
b o r d e r of I r a n . Thus, c o m p a r i s o n i s made on the b a s i s of anthropometric data, r e corded by the s a m e investigator i n the s a m e y e a r .
The r e s u l t s a r e a s follows (table 28a):
1. No admixture of Mongoloid c h a r a c t e r s was observed among the P e r s i a n s
of Meshed and the Azerbaijanis of T a b r i z . It i s t r u e that among the l a t t e r , a s
well a s among the typically Europeoid Tadzhiks of Bukhara, the s a m e insignificant percentage of the Mongoloid fold (2. 0 p e r cent among the Bukhara Tadzhiks, 1. 9 among Azerbaijanis) was observed, but this i s not accompanied by
corresponding changes i n other diagnostically r a c i a l c h a r a c t e r s . The Azer baijanis of T a b r i z a s well a s the P e r s i a n s of Meshed belong entirely with the
confines of the G r e a t Europeoid R a c e .
2. This Europeoid r a c e , a s well a s the T r a n s c a s p i a n r a c e , which I identified and which e n t e r s into the composition of the T u r k o m a n s , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by a markedly pronounced dolichocephaly. However, in s o m e important de s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r s , such a s m o r e abundant beard growth, higher n a s a l base
and absence of the Mongoloid fold, this Europeoid differs f r o m the T r a n s caspian r a c e . In g e n e r a l , i n t h e i r heavier beard growth and m o r e prominent
nose, the P e r s i a n s of Meshed and the Azerbaijanis of T a b r i z r e v e a l t h e i r
s i m i l a r i t y with the Anterior Asia o r Armenoid r a c e . This c o r r e s p o n d s t o the
g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n obtained by a t r a i n e d o b s e r v e r when hundreds of m e n ,
women and children of the given nationality p a s s before his. e y e s . We had no
difficulty in distinguishing these P e r s i a n s and Azerbaijanis f r o m the T u r k o m a n s by t h e i r g e n e r a l Armenoid type. Nevertheless, these Iranian e m i g r a n t s
differ g r e a t l y f r o m the A n t e r i o r Asia r a c e by t h e i r v e r y pronounced dolichocephaly. In short, they a p p e a r a s a f o r m of dolichocephalic Armenoids. A c cording to t h e i r c e n t e r of distribution, Khurasan i n n o r t h e r n I r a n , I once
called t h e i r type the "Khurasan r a c e . " On the other hand, onc cannot but
note that the differences which distinguish Turkomans f r o m the P e r s i a n s of
EUROPEOID RACES O F CENTRAL ASIA AND NEAR EAST
Meshed and the Azerbaijanis of T a b r i z a r e , in effect, attenuation of the
Armenoid f e a t u r e s of the f o r m e r . It is p ~ s s i b l ethat this attenuation i s
the r e s u l t of many c e n t u r i e s of mestization between Turkomans and Mongoloids. F o r the t i m e being, one thing i s indisputable: the type of the population of n o r t h e r n I r a n d i f f e r s somewhat f r o m that of the inhabitants of the
Transcaspian steppes. Both t h e s e types occupy different t e r r i t o r i e s , and
have different a r e a s of distribution. T h e r e f o r e , they may be considered a s
different r a c i a l types, without prejudice, a t p r e s e n t , to the question of t h e i r
genetic relationship. The type of the Khurasan r a c e i s shown i n photographs
11-14.
It i s quite possible that f u r t h e r anthropological investigations may r e v e a l other
racial a d m i x t u r e s among the indigenous population of Central Asia. However, a t
present, i t i s possible t o consider a s definitely established the five above-mentioned r a c i a l types in the composition of i t s population--one Mongoloid and four
Europeoid. Contemporary c e n t e r s of their distribution w e r e determined, a sufficiently full c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of t h e s e r a c e s was given, while anthropometric and
historical data s e r v e d to d e t e r m i n e m o r e p r e c i s e l y the time of t h e i r appearance
in Central Asia.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1. South Siberian Mongoloid type. Kaaakh f r o m Talass Valley.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 2. South Siberian Mongoloid type. Kazakh from Talass Valley.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 3. Europeoid brachycephalic type from Central Asiatic Interfluvial
Region. Tadzhik from Bukhara.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 4. Europeoid brachycephalic type from Central Asiatic Interfluvial
Region. Uzbek from Shakhrasiab.
ILLUSTRATIONS
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 6. Dolichocephalic Europeoid Transcaspian race. Turkoman of
.
G&em tribe.
.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 7. Europeoid brachycephalic Anterior Asia race. Jew from Samarkand.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 8. Europeoid h~aich~e~phalic
Anterior AsdCa race. Jew &om S a m a r -
Ira&.
ILLUSTRATIONS
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 11. DoIichocephalic Europeoid Khurasan race. Persian from Meshed
area.
Figure 12. Dolichocephalic Europeoid Kkdurasan race. Persian from Meshed
area.
Y
7
- -&fIC,
'a.-?
-
Figure 13. DoUchocephaSic Europeaid Khurasan race. Aeerbaijani from Tabr
area.
Figure 14. Dolicbocephalic Eur opeoid Khurasan race. Alie rbaijad from Tabriz
area.
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[ c o m p a r a t i v e anthropology of ethnic groups i m m i g r a t e d f r o m the Near E a s t J e w s and A r a b s , and of ethnic groups of Uzbekistan - Uzbeks and Tadzhiks].
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NOTES
Introduction
1. E p i g r a p h : "We know only one s c i e n c e , t h e s c i e n c e of H i s t o r y . Examining H i s t o r y f r o m two s i d e s , i t c a n be divided into N a t u r a l H i s t o r y and Human H i s t o r y . Howe v e r , both H i s t o r i e s a r e i n s e p a r a b l y connected; i n a s m u c h a s people e x i s t , N a t u r a l
H i s t o r y and H u m a n H i s t o r y a r e r e c i p r o c a l l y p r e d i c a t e d one upon t h e o t h e r . " K . Marx
and F. E n g e l s .
2 . " I r a n i a n l a n d s " i n the o r i g i n a l ; evidently r e f e r s t o t h o s e I r a n i a n - s p e a k i n g
a r e a s now u n d e r S o v i e t , Afghan, C h i n e s e , e t c . c o n t r o l , and not a p a r t of h i s t o r i c
P e r s i a ( E .V . P . )
3 . T h i s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e w a s found on Afontova Gora--Afontova Mountain o r
Mt. Afontova. In s u b s e q u e n t p a s s a g e s t h i s l o c a l i t y i s r e f e r r e d t o a s Afontova s i t e .
(E. V. P. )
4. I s e l e c t e d I n t e r f l u v i a l in p r e f e r e n c e t o I n t r a f l u v i a l o r I n t e r f l u m i n a l t o denote
t h e r e g i o n between the Oxus and J a x a r t e s , the Duab of C e n t r a l A s i a . ( H . F. )
5. Now F e r g h a n a o r F e r g a n a P r o v i n c e , n o r t h e a s t Uzbek SSR with c a p i t a l a t Kokand. ( H . F . )
6. In s o m e p l a c e s I h a v e u s e d the f o r m U s u n s , which i s R u s s i a n t r a n s c r i p t i o n of
well-known a n c i e n t C h i n e s e n a m e . H e r e we w i l l u s e only the m o r e c o r r e c t Wusuns.
S e e a l s o Footnote 1 3 . (H. F . )
7 . Al-Mukkadasi a c c o r d i n g t o E n c y c l o p e d i a B r i t a n n i c a ; he f l o u r i s h e d during the
y e a r s 967-985. ( H . F. )
8 . Medieval M o s l e m S t a t e , l a t e r e m p i r e ; not t o b e c-onfused with C h o r s m i a , a
p r o v i n c e of a n c i e n t P e r s i a i n c l a s s i c a l a u t h o r s , o r with K h w a r a z m , K h o r e s m ,
K h o r e z m , a c i t y , a l s o a r e g i o n d u r i n g R u s s i a n and Soviet r u l e only. ( E . V . P. )
9. Ghuzz ( p l . G h u z z e s ) a c c o r d i n g t o Encyclopedia B r i t a n n i c a , H i t t i , e t c . According t o W e b s t e r ' s " G e o g r a p h i c a l D i c t i o n a r y , the f o r m Ghuz i s u s e d . O t h e r s u s e
Oghuz. N b . Khuzi r e f e r s t o a d i f f e r e n t people i n s o u t h w e s t e r n I r a n . ( E . V . P . )
10. 1 n X e a r l i e r p a s s a g e O s h a n i n included iconographic d a t a which w e r e groupedunder
'anthropological d a t a , " h e n c e we followed t e x t e x a c t l y . ( E . V . P . )
11. Jou J a n ( R u s s . Zhuzhan) a f t e r Giles-Wade t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m W. M. McGovern.
Jwen Jwen i s u s e d by Encylopedia B r i t a n n i c a ( f o u r t e e n t h e d . , 8: 646a). S e e a l s o
"Ephthalite s . "
1 2 . J u c h i w a s one of the t h r e e s o n s of Genghiz Khan, whose d o m a i n w a s divided int o t h r e e u-lu s e s , the l a r g e s t and e a s t e r n m o s t being known a s ulus
- Juchi. ( E . V. P . )
13. Uishun i s evidently a r e c e n t s e l f - n a m e of a T u r k i t r i b e whom O s h a n i n identifies
with the Wusuns. Nb. Usun i s m e r e l v a R u s s i a n t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n of a n a n c i e n t Chinese
n a m e f o r which j u z t h e E n g l i s h f o r m Wusun should suffice. See a l s o Note 6.
14. I a m using t h i s p h r a s e h e r e and in the following p a r a g r a p h f o r a r a t h e r untransl a t a b l e d e s i g n a t i o n , l i t e r a l l y " n a t i o n a l union of Uzbeks. " H o w e v e r , "unified Uzbek
n a t i o n n i s m o r e a c c u r a t e t h a n a n o t h e r v e r s i o n " n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n of t h e Uzbeks. "
( E . V .P . )
15. I p r e f e r Yuz t o I U z . ( E . V . P . )
16. T u r k i z a t i o n h a s been u s e d in p r e f e r e n c e t o T u r k i c i z a t i o n ; s e e F o w l e r , "Modern
E n g l i s h u s a g e w u n d e r " T u r k . ( E . V . P. )
17. R e f e r e n c e h e r e i s evidently to the p r e - M o s l e m , c l a s s i c a l p e r i o d , w h e r e Chor a s m i a n would be chronologically p r o p e r . ( E . V . P. )
18. What follows i s a p p a r e n t l y p o s t - M a r r i a n (Stalin's) n o m e n c l a t u r e f o r language
c a t e g o r i e s which i s a p p a r e n t l y l a r g e l y u n r e l a t e d t o c o r r e c t W e s t e r n u s a g e . ( E . V. P . )
-
-
NOTES
69
Chapter I
. 1. U. S. B o a r d on G e o g r a p h i c N a m e s u s e s t h i s f o r m ; t h e L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s
p r e f e r s I A g n o b - D a r ' i a . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e no m a p s published in t h e L. C . t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n . ( E . V . P. )
2. Although t h i s m a p i s mentioned i n Oshanin's t e x t ( p . 39) i t w a s n o t included in
t h e p u b l i c a t i o n . ( H . F. )
3. I p r e f e r t h i s f o r m t o t h e a r c h a i c - s o u n d i n g e d i t o r i a l "we. " ( E . V. P. )
4 . In R u s s i a n t e x t NARKOMDRAV.
.
5. SAGU- -State U n i v e r s i t y of C e n t r a l A s i a .
6. AN Uz. SSR--Academy of S c i e n c e s of the ITzbek SSR.
C h a p t e r I1
1. D o e s not include i n o r d i n a t e l y high p e r c e n t a g e of e p i c a n t h u s i n c i d e n c e among
K i r g h i z , p o s s i b l y e r r o n e o u s l y r e c o r d e d by O s h a n i n i n I s s y k - k u l (86.070; N = 100,
1924) and i n t h e T a l a s s V a l l e y (85.0%; N = 100, 1929).
2. 3 5 . 4 7 0 i n c i d e n c e w a s noted by IArk!lo only a m o n g the Mangyt t r i b e of K h w a r i z m
(N = 80). Excluding t h i s g r o u p , m a x i m u m d o e s not e x c e e d 20.070 ( i n K e r m i n e , N =
95, O s h a n i n , 1926).
3. Does not include d a t a o n p r e - d r a f t g r o u p r e c o r d e d i n 1936 by D e b e t s .
4 . D o e s not include i n o r d i n a t e l y low g r a d e s noted by E l i s t r a t o v , Shmakov [2, 17;
2, 311, and Nadzhimov [2, 17: 2,461.
5. T h e d a t a f o r K i r g h i z and K a z a k h a r e f r o m t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s of N . I . Miklashevs k a i a , f o r the r e m a i n i n g p e o p l e s , a c c o r d i n g to O s h a n i n and o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s .
C h a p t e r I11 ( t a b l e 19)
1. T u n g u s k a i s n a m e of t h r e e t r i b u t a r i e s of t h e Yenisei; L o w e r Stony and Upper
P o d k a m e n n a y a T u n g u s k a (Stony) is 1, 000 m i l e s long and r i s e s i n s o u t h e a s t c o r n e r
of E v e n k i National D i s t r i c t and flows w e s t - n o r t h w e s t into the Y e n i s e i a t about 61" 30 '
N o r t h . ( W e b s t e r ' s " G e o g r a p h i c a l D i c t i o n a r y , " 1960).
2 . Aged 2 5 t .
3. 1 = w e a k ; 2 = m e d i u m : 3 = s t r o n g . T h e s e K a z a k h s and K i r g h i z w e r e o b s e r v e d by
D e b e t s . T h e d a t a on t h e U z b e k s and T a d z h i k s f r o m r a i o n s of S o u t h e r n T a d z h i k i s t a n
w e r e r e c o r d e d by m e m b e r s of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of Anthropology, S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y of
C e n t r a l A s i a (SAGU).
4 . 1 = strong: 2 = m e d i u m : 3 = w e a k . T h c n o t e s u n d e r No. 3 a l s o apply h e r e .
5 Data f o r Nos. 1 1 - 1 4 r e f e r to R e i n d e e r Chukchi ( K a m c h a t k a ) .
C h a p t e r IV
-
1. Under b e a r d g r o w t h note 2 . 2 8 a c c o r d i n g t o the t h r e e - g r a d e s y s t e m , i . e . , above
m e d i u m u s e d by Bukinich; a l l o t h e r g r o u p s w e r e r e c o r d e d on the f i v e - g r a d e s y s t e m .
2 . Aged L 5 t .
3. H o r i z o n t a l f a c i a l p r o f i l e .
4. P o s i t i o n of n a s a l l a t e r a l w a l l s .
5 . T r a n s v e r s e position of n a s a l r i d g e .
6. G e n e r a l p r o f i l e of n a s a l r i d g e .
7. O r b i t a l position of e y e b a l l s .
8 . Morphological f a c i a l height.
9 . B e a r d growth r e c o r d e d by Bukinich on t h r e e - g r a d e s y s t e m ; a l l o t h e r s on f i v e grade s y s t e n ~ .
1 0 . E x c e s s i v e l y l o w - g r a d e s w e r e obtained by E l i s t r a t o v , Shmakov and Nadzhimov
w e r e n o t included.
Note: Nos. 1 - 7 a r e i n t a b l e 20: No. 8 i n t a b l e 21; No. 9 i n t a b l e 22; and No. 10 in
table 24.