IM PACT OF CARTO GRAPH Y
ON INTE R NA TIO NA L RELATIONS
by Robert J. B e a t o n
Director, Nautical Chart Division, U . S . Naval Oceanographic Office
P a p e r p r e s en t e d at the 26th A n n u a l M e e t i n g o f the A m e r i c a n C o n g r e s s
o n S u r v e y i n g an d M a p p i n g , 6-11 M a r c h 1966, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .
N o t e o n the A u t h o r . — M r. R o b e r t J. B e a t o n r e c e iv e d a B . S. d e g r e e in F o r e s t
B i o l o g y fr o m th e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a in e , c la s s o f 1942, a n d a t t e n d e d G e o r g e W a s h i n g ­
to n U n i v e r s i t y 1956-58, m a j o r i n g in E n g i n e e r i n g A d m i n is t r a t io n . F r o m 1942 to
1946, M r . B e a t o n s e r v e d in the C a r i b b e a n a n d P a c i f i c a r e a s o n b o a r d th e U .S . N a v y
s u r v e y s h ip U.S.S. B o w d i t c h a s O f f i c e r - i n - c h a r g e o f the O c e a n a n d L a k e s D i v i s i o n .
A t p r e s e n t he h o ld s th e r a n k o f C o m m a n d e r in the N a v a l R e s e r v e . M r. B e a t o n
w a s fi r s t e m p lo y e d at th e U .S . N a v y H y d r o g r a p h i c O ffi c e ( n o w O c e a n o g r a p h i c
O f f i c e ) in 1942, a n d th e n a ft e r m ilit a r y f u r lo u g h , r e s u m e d h is d u tie s in 1946.
H e is n o w th e D i r e c t o r o f th e N a u t i c a l C h a r t D i v is io n a n d h a s b e e n a fr e q u e n t
r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f the N a v y D e p a r t m e n t at v a r io u s in t e r n a t io n a l c h a r t i n g c o n f e r ­
e n c e s . H e is an a c t iv e m e m b e r o f th e A m e r i c a n C o n g r e s s o n S u r v e y i n g a n d
M a p p in g , a n d h a s s e r v e d as P r o g r a m C h a ir m a n f o r the C a r t o g r a p h y D i v i s i o n ;
A s s is t a n t A C S M D e le g a t e to the I n t e r n a t io n a l C a r t o g r a p h ic A s s o c ia t io n M e e t in g
in P a r i s , 1961; C h a ir m a n o f the T e c h n i c a l D i v is io n on C a r t o g r a p h y (2 t e r m s ) ;
a n d a s a m e m b e r o f the A C S M U r b a n P l a n n i n g C o m m itte e . A t th e p r e s e n t tim e
h e is a D i r e c t o r o f th e N a t i o n a l C a p i t a l A r e a S e c tio n , A C S M .
M r . B e a t o n h a s a u t h o r e d o r c o -a u t h o r e d p r e v i o u s p a p e r s on c h a r t e v a lu a t io n
t e c h n iq u e s (C a n T h e M a r i n e r T r u s t H is C h a r t ?), Int. H y d r . R e v . , V o l. X X X V I I I ,
N o . 2, J u ly 1961; a n d a d v a n c e d c a r t o g r a p h i c o p e r a t io n s (A u t o m a t io n o f O c e a n
C h a r t i n g ), In t . H y d r . R e v . , V o l. X L I , N o . 1, J a n u a r y 1964.
Abstract
The factors affecting international cooperation in cartography and the
role o f the cartographer are discussed. Because the problems of charting
involve the sea and shore, which encompass much o f the earth’s surface,
and because they possess characteristics common to the m aritim e world,
nautical cartography has been chosen to illustrate numerous areas of
activity that require international cooperation. Organizations that are
typically international in scope are identified; also, examples o f cartogra­
phy that are applied to products designed and produced for international
uses are described. O f particular concern are the legal implications associat­
ed w ith charting coastal areas and the high seas. The paramount conclusion
is that cartographers should be skilled in 1 ) maintaining high accuracy
standards, 2 ) keeping the navigator fu lly inform ed o f changes vital to
safety, and 3) assisting m ilitary plans and operations experts, navigators,
m aritim e lawyers, diplomats, etc., with the assembly and presentation of
inform ation.
Introduction
At the United Nations it has been said that cartography, being technical
and practical rather than political, is a field of endeavor eminently suited
to international cooperation. This is believable judging by the number of
international organizational meetings in which cartography plays a direct
or supporting role. This is not to say, however, that cartographic results
— including cartographic errors — have not been involved in political
decisions. Witness, the m ajor accomplishment by the Am erican commis­
sioners in 1782 at the signing of the peace treaty with the British, which
by a cartographic accident resulted in enlarging the Old Northwest to
include what became the state of Minnesota and reserved for posterity the
then unknown Mesabi Iron Range.
More than most Americans realize, twentieth century cartography is
now being applied to many o f the problems that confront government and
inter-governmental organizations to increase the speed and effectiveness of
economic and social development. As pointed out in the United Nations
Economic and Social Council’s Resolution 131(VI), “ ... accurate maps are
a prerequisite to the proper development o f the world resources ... such
maps facilitate international trade, promote safety of navigation ... and
provide measures for peaceful adjustment and for the application of
security measures ” . It seems inevitable that, during 1966 and perhaps for
the next decade, charts and maps w ill form such of the backup inform ation
for the series o f many programs throughout the w orld in connection with
IC Y (International Cooperation Y ear), a world-wide project o f the United
Nations. The United States, led by President J o h n s o n , is intensely concern­
ed with international cooperation within the fram ework o f the ICY object­
ives, with representation by more than 500 civic organizations, ninety
corporations, eighty-nine educational institutions, and twenty-two federal
agencies.
T IM E magazine aptly describes maps as things that keep one from
getting lost, that add an extra dimension to the story, locate economic
wealth, mark a new frontier, pinpoint explosions in a crisis, trace the path
of a satellite, a ship, or an expedition. This suggests (as Professor R o b i n s o n
has stated) that almost any kind of inform ation is mappable, ranging from
the survey, topographic mapping, and nautical charting efforts o f the
national survey and m ilitary organizations to the applied and interpretative
cartographic products compiled by the meteorologists, urban planners,
geographers, historians, economists and others to communicate ideas. The
climatic map, the synoptic chart, the agricultural map, the traffic flow map,
the political map, and m any others are all products that belong to this last
group. Cartography, then, may be considered as the science of preparing
all types o f maps and charts, and includes every operation from original
survey to final printing o f maps.
T w o years ago at the annual ACSM meeting a thorough report on the
progress of international cartography was presented by the form er President
o f the Am erican Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Vice Adm iral H.
A rn old K a r o , who is now Deputy Director o f the Environm ental Science
Services Adm inistration (E SSA). He traced the development o f all the
leading international organizations dealing w ith various phases o f carto­
graphy, especially since W o rld W a r II, and summarized the status o f basic
geodetic control, mapping, and charting in broad areas o f the world. He
concluded that international cooperation in mapping involved 1 ) mutual
acceptance o f responsibility in the accomplishment o f international m apping
projects, 2 ) bilateral agreements for regional mapping w ithout regard to
national boundaries, 3) interchange of inform ation on the developm ent o f
methods and techniques, and 4) technical assistance which may be provided
from international funds or by bilateral agreement between nations. W ith
no intention of covering the same ground that A dm iral K a r o developed in
his paper, the w riter w ill attempt to discuss some interesting — and to a
certain extent unresolved — factors affecting international cooperation in
cartography and the role of the cartographer.
Because the problems of charting involve the sea and shore, w hich
encompass much of the earth’s surface, and because they possess charac­
teristics common to the m aritim e world, the w riter has selected nautical
charting as a subject deserving of international attention. F or purposes o f
this paper, the subject has been broken down into eight categories, each of
which is capable of exerting considerable influence on the international
scene.
Cartography as a Tool
The paramount thought that the cartographer should keep in m ind at
international cartographic or related conferences is that his product (maps,
charts, supporting publications, etc.) — not him self — provide the principal
instruments or tools fo r negotiation. The m ilitary or urban area planner,
the marine navigator, the m aritim e lawyer, and the diplom at all need
expert cartographic advice at some stage o f discussion, but the cartographer
should not assume the role of any o f these professions unless specifically
qualified. Dr. B o y l e at the Experim ental Cartography Symposium at
London in 1964, in speaking of automated cartography, expressed the point
very succinctly when he said, “ W e are concerned w ith tryin g to give people
results, not in deciding what results they want ” .
Many conferences are strictly cartographic in nature, whereas others
require graphic support or other kinds o f mapping, charting, or geodetic
assistance in order to illustrate significant data or events. F or the latter
type of meeting, the prudent m em ber should provide him self, o f course,
w ith cartographic advice before or during the session. F o r example, the
Americans in 1782 came to the conference table using a 1755 map
( M i t c h e l l ’ s ) and without realizing what they had accomplished enlarged
the boundary of the Old Northwest as already noted. The line was described
as running from the most northwestern point o f the Lak e o f the W oods
due wset to the Mississippi. No such line would strike that great river for,
as later exploration revealed, the source of the Mississippi lay 151 miles to
the south o f the Lake of the W oods. The Britisher V a u g h a n alerted his
colleague S h e l b u r n e to this probable map defect and suggested substituting
in the treaty words which described the “ shortest course from Lake o f the
W oods fo r reaching ” or a “ due south course to ” the Mississippi. F or some
reason the article was not changed in the definitive peace treaty unless it
was because the British expected to secure free access to Am erican markets
in the W est.
Cartographers must also be skilled at assisting in drafting and re­
drafting proposals and counterproposals dealing w ith policies and issues
based on or utilizing cartographic materials and principles. A t times, such
as in United Nations cartographic resolutions or N A T O chart standard­
ization agreements, it m ay be necessary to dismem ber the draft almost
com pletely and then salvage the most essential fragments, and build a new
structure. Blueprints for w ell conceived, practical charting policies and
program s fo r the future comprise essential outputs of the senior cartogra­
pher representing his agency and the United States. In addition to sound
design which holds the nuts and bolts together, energy and knowledge must
be applied intelligently in follow-up actions to overcome natural inertia
w hich sometimes sets in after conferences, w ith their noble sounding
resolutions, are ended.
Perhaps the greatest challenge to cartographers on the international
scene is the ever-widening use of graphics as a communications tool and
the impact o f the technical revolution in cartography. Geodetic control and
photo maps by satellites, computer-programmed automatic cartographic
instruments, non-cartographic formated inform ation on magnetic tape for
rapid retrieval, etc., are all within the state-of-the-art although costs are
presently form idable. The tasks involve striving to reduce costs to place
such systems and the benefits within reach o f technically less advanced
nations.
Bilateral Agreements
The reasons for m aking bilateral cartographic arrangements with
another country are m anifold : (1 ) Organize or im prove survey and chart
production capacity o f agencies within the native governm ent; (2) Obtain
required charting data as soon as practicable for m ariners’ use; and (3)
Ensure a continuous exchange of cartographic technical knowledge, enhanc­
ed by personal contacts with local professional personnel. The U.S. Naval
Oceanographic Office, for example, has made hydrographic surveys o f many
foreign ports and coastlines, w ith the result that copies of the detailed
surveys are delivered to the host government, vastly im proved charts are
produced fo r all mariners, and valuable on-board training is provided to
foreign student surveyors.
Bilateral chart reproduction exchange agreements have also been made
by the United States w ith a number of International Hydrographic Bureau
States Members from Asia, the Americas, and Europe. These agreements
are reciprocal in nature and allow m odification, reproduction, and sale of
United States charts. Analyses o f the distribution of foreign chart sales
agents, chart price comparisons, m ilitary priority, and studies o f the
frequency o f port calls by United States ships are made by cartographers
before submitting proposals. The prelim inary views o f each foreign hydrographic office are also determined relative to their interest in m aking charts
available sooner to all mariners by reproducing each other’s charts. A ll
such arrangements, which are cleared by the Department o f State, require
mature cartographic judgm ent in preparing and im plem enting survey and
chart reproduction operations in accordance with specific agreements.
Training Programs and Technical Assistance
Cartographic training centers exist in many areas of the w orld as a
result of the United Nations, regional organizations, and in various
countries like the German Federal Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and the
United States. Many foreign students, for example, are trained in surveying
and chart-making theories and techniques at either the U.S. Naval Oceano­
graphic Office or the Coast & Geodetic Survey for periods up to one year.
And, in Germany an excellent course entitled “ Photogram m etric W eek s ”
is conducted annually at München.
The technical assistance provided to developing areas norm ally entails
the loan o f technical personnel or equipment to perform the necessary
surveys and publish the final charts. From the U.S. Naval Oceanographic
Office, efforts at any given tim e m ay be devoted to supplying guidance on
harbor surveys in Latin Am erica or occasionally, to providing consulting
services to newly organized foreign hydrographic offices. Both the training
and technical assistance program s perm it the establishment of lasting
personal contacts which probably contribute more to good international
relationships than any other program.
International Organizations
There is a growing awareness o f the need for all countries to have
adequate and comparable data and o f the requirement to coordinate effort
by various organizations concerned w'ith map and chart making. The
demands for more data have become acute as a result of the emphasis
currently given by Governments to preinvestment and developm ent plans.
According to United Nations reports new techniques fo r exploration and
utilization of natural resources also require increasing and better cartogra­
phic data. Cartographers in various specialized fields have ample opportun­
ities to collaborate, stimulate, and coordinate mapping activities on a
regional and international scale in such organizations as :
International Hydrographic Bureau (IH B )
International Cartographic Association (IC A ) (A ffilia te o f
International Geographical Union (IG U ) (US member :
Am erican Congress on Surveying and M apping (ACSM )
International Civil Aviation Organization (IC A O )
International Society o f Photogram m etry (IS P )
(US member : Am erican Society o f Photogram m etry)
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG)
Federation Internationale des Geometres (F IG )
Pan Am erican Institute of Geography and H istory (P A IG H )
Inter Am erican Geodetic Survey (IAG S)
N A T O , CENTO, S E A TO Geographic Conferences
General Secretariat o f the Organization of Am erican States (O AS)
United Nations Cartographic Office
International Map o f the W o rld (IM W )
R egional Cartographic Conferences and Seminars
United Nations Intergovernm ental Oceanographic Commission
(IO C ).
International Hydrographic Bureau
Nautical cartography has exerted great influence on the international
level through the organization known as the International Hydrographic
Bureau (IH B ) at Monaco. This organization, which was established in 1921
and which comprises 40 Member States, adheres to the policy o f encourag­
ing international cooperation and coordination. The w ork of the Bureau is
continuously brought to the notice of States Members through reports,
circular letters, periodicals, and special technical publications. The latter
embrace works on Harm onic Constants for T id e Predictions, Glossary o f
Cartographic Term s, Manual o f Symbols and Abbreviations used by States
Members, Hydrographic Dictionary, General Bathym etric Chart o f the
Oceans, and Catalog o f W o rld Coastal Geographic Positions (fou r volum es).
In 1953, the IH B issued the 3rd edition o f a publication entitled “ Lim its
of Oceans and Seas ” which has been of considerable value to organizations
such as various Hydrographic Offices when com piling Sailing Directions
and Notice to Mariners. Career cartographers fin d the publications of this
organization an excellent outlet for expressing original w ork covering
various parts o f the spectrum of hydrographic surveying and nautical chart
activities.
International Application of Cartography
The shared mapping efforts in Antarctica provide a significant example
o f modern internationalized cartography. Each year since the launching
o f the International Geophysical Year (IG Y ) in 1957, nations have been
exchanging maps, charts, and other scientific data in a truly international
data collection and exchange program with all inform ation unclassified and
territorial claims absent. United States effort is carried out largely in support
o f scientific, logistic, and related resupply operations, a program officially
designated as Operation “ Deep F reeze” . In support o f “ Deep Freeze” , the
Naval Oceanographic Office produces revised charts annually including
charts showing the status o f the various bases occupied (or unoccupied)
by various nationalities.
Selected im portant charting products, designed for international use,
are described b riefly in the follow in g paragraphs.
NEMEDRI Charts
Since W o rld W a r II, m ine-free swept areas fo r safe ship passage have
existed in the N orth Sea, Baltic, Mediterranean, and Black Seas. Danger
areas, routes, and instructions are described in the text of the N E M E D R I
publication and shown on various nations’ charts. (N E M E D R I is the
acronym for Northern Europe-Mediterranean Routing Instructions and is
published in London by the H ydrographic Department, M inistry o f Defence).
North Sea Fisheries Charts
An interesting example of international cartographic im pact on
economic development o f natural resources is the new series o f N orth Sea
Fisheries Charts. These charts, on a scale of 1/300 000, are designed to
show all essential detail boldly and simply, including Decca navigation
lattices, to meet the special needs o f fishermen. Publication is a join t
venture o f the hydrographic offices o f Great Britain, Denmark, The Federal
Republic of Germany, Netherlands, and Norway.
General Bathymetric Chart' of the Oceans (GEBCO)
Several States Members under the aegis of the International Hydrographic Bureau (IH B ) are engaged in com piling sounding track plotting
sheets at 1 / 1 m illion scale for various assigned blocs o f the w orld oceans.
Copies o f sheets are available at IHB, including some o f the bathym etric
chart series at 1/10 m illion scale. It is also planned that the nautical charts
o f the Indian Ocean (28 000 000 square miles covering 14 per cent o f the
earth’s surface) w ill be im proved through the efforts of participants in the
recent International Indian Ocean Expedition. Thousands o f m iles o f
sounding track and other data collected by forty-five ships from twentyfive nations are now being processed.
Legal Implications
Charts made by nautical cartographers often become the basis for
recognizing or disputing claims involving the lim its of the territorial sea,
contiguous zones, boundaries, danger and warning areas, etc. In addition,
the Federal T ort Claims A ct o f 1947 and the interpretations placed on it by
the courts in various m aritim e situations, emphasize the responsibility of
the cartographer fo r maintaining high accuracy standards and for keeping
the navigator fu lly inform ed of changes vital to safety. The act waives
sovereign im m unity o f the United States from suits in court and permits
claims for in ju ry “ caused by the negligent or w ron gfu l act or omission of
any employee o f the Government while acting w ithin the scope of his office
or employment, under circumstances where the United States, if a private
person, would be liable to the claimant for such damage, loss, injury, or
death in accordance w ith the law o f the place where the act or omission
occurred ” .
T h e w aiver o f im m unity called “ discretionary function exception”
provides that the T o rt Claims Act does not apply in cases o f negligence
when a claim is based upon the exercise or perform ance or the failure to
exercice or perform a discretionary function or duty on the part o f a federal
agency. No yardstick exists for determining what a discretionary function
is; consequently, the delicate line of im munity from liability is difficult to
draw in the com plex scale o f governmental operations. The discretionary
function exception appears to depend on the fact that one who undertakes
to warn the public o f danger and thereby induces reliance must perform
his ‘good Samaritan’ task carefully. For example, the Coast Guard did not
have to undertake the lighthouse service. Once started, however, the Coast
Guard is further obligated to use due care when m aintaining specific light
aids and to give warning when they are not functioning.
F or federal charting agencies, recent Supreme Court decisions raise
some interesting questions. The trend seems to be to hold government
agencies, particularly those that deal with the safeguard and control o f
marine and air commerce, to a stricter accountability fo r acts o f negligence
that result in in ju ry to the public. Therefore, cartographers who are
involved in the publication o f nautical charts and related data — from
survey to the final printing — where matters o f judgm ent and discretion
arise, must be aware o f these new responsibilities both in the exercise of
greater care on the operational level and in the matter of tim ely warning
the public o f potential dangers.
United Nations Conferences on the L a w of the Sea
Since 1947, when the International Law Commission (IL C ) was
established under the United Nations’ General Assem bly Resolution 174(11),
the Commission has been charged w ith the codification and development
o f the international law o f the sea. It is interesting to note the extent of
cartographic support contained in the IL C ’s 1956 report and in the 1958-60
UN Conferences at Geneva on the L a w o f the Sea. These conferences were
convened for the purpose o f acting on the ILC draft rules and were attended
by representatives o f 86 countries. Although principal issues such as the
breadth of the territorial sea and fishing rights w ithin a contiguous zone
were left unresolved, other conflicting interests were w id ely discussed and
areas of agreement achieved on such substantive matters as the right to the
use o f the high seas, the right of passage through international straits and
territorial waters, and the right o f each coastal nation to exploit the resources
o f its continental shelf. Cartographic applications were reflected in the
adoption of rules for defining the lim its o f inland waters, fo r the drawing
o f baselines, for delineating the outer limits of the territorial sea and
boundaries through the territorial sea and the high seas, and fo r rights of
innocent passage. Charts, in fact, serve as a fundamental instrum ent to
both determine and portray the low water line, seaward lim it o f territorial
and o f interior waters, roadsteads and anchorages, danger and warning
areas, pipelines and cables, defense restricted areas, and superadjacent
waters and airpace.
Conclusions
The desire and endeavors of lesser developed countries and territories
to benefit from the technical progress and economic capacity o f the rest
o f the world impose a m oral obligation upon the latter to make available
their economic potential, knowledge, and experience. In the field o f carto­
graphy, typical international products are charts and related publications
embodying m ultilateral agreements on specifications and utilization; or
special projects with individual countries which involve delegation of
experts, preparation o f specifications, loan o f equipment, conduct of surveys
and production o f maps and charts, practical and theoretical training,
invitations to study groups, etc. Technical developments have a tendency
to compel new approaches in international relations.
The economic and practical value of accurate maps and charts to the
national economy o f a country — particularly for planning and im plem ent­
ing projects — is not always fu lly appreciated. Fortunately, through the
efforts of the United Nations, international organizations with cartographic
interests, private industry, and individual cartographers, progress is being
made in alerting the w orld to these most useful tools.
Cartography, as a form of graphic communication, serves a growing
industry of new users reflecting the work and expressive needs o f scientists,
economists, and historians. The nautical cartographer, for example, who
prepares computer programs, operates automatic plotting, photogramm etric,
and type-placement equipments, has entered into a new and dynamic
environment. Not only does he continue to im prove existing conventional
charts, but, also, he strives to interpret and display m ulti-dimensional data
in graphic form to support special w ork being done in surveying, navigation,
oceanography, gravity, magnetics, geography, and numerous other fields.
Nautical Charts not only reflect boundaries and navigational data as
defined in international agreements and treaties, but may also serve as
evidence in claims against the Government. Chart production agencies must
recognize the responsibility o f the cartographer for m aintaining high
accuracy standards and for keeping the navigator inform ed o f changes vital
to safety.
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