Role of climate in the rise and fall of Neolithic cultures on the Yangtze
Delta
SHIYONG YU, CHENG ZHU, JIAN SONG AND WEIZHENG QU
Yu, S., Zhu, C., Song, J. & Qu, W. 2000 (June): Role of climate in the rise and fall of Neolithic cultures on
the Yangtze Delta. Boreas, Vol. 29, pp. 157–165. Oslo. ISSN 0300-9483.
Climatic changes in the Yangtze Delta have played an important role in the emergence, persistence and collapse of civilization. Archaeological excavations in the region over many years have demonstrated that there
are several layers of fine sand or organic mud that interrupt the consecutive culture strata in a number of Neolithic culture sites. Continuous biostratigraphical and sedimentological records from the Maqiao cultural site,
Shanghai, suggest that the fine sand and organic mud units resulted from expansion of water bodies both by
sea-level fluctuations and from increased flooding during cold and humid episodes of Holocene climates. The
absence of human settlement from 7240 BP to 5320 BP in the region was mainly caused by higher sea levels
resulting from a warm and humid climate. The Neolithic cultures developed under conditions of lower and
more stable sea level as well as warmer and dryer climates between about 4410 BP and 3250 BP. A flood-induced lake expansion interrupted the civilization in the region at about 4200 BP. Later, higher water tables
and expansion of lakes between 3250 BP and AD 618 under a cold and moist climate temporarily terminated
settlement on the delta. Later, during the Tang Dynasty, beginning at about AD 618, the region again became
suitable for human settlement under conditions of more favourable climate and lower water tables.
Shiyong Yu, Department of Quaternary Geology, Lund University, Tornavägen 13, SE-223 63 Lund, Sweden;
Cheng Zhu, Department of Geology & Ocean Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, P. R. China;
Jian Song, Department of Archaeology, The Museum of Shanghai, Shanghai 200002, P. R. China; Weizheng
Qu, Department of Meteorology, Ocean University of Qingdao, Qingdao 266003, P. R. China; received 10th
August 1998, accepted 2nd December 1999.
Observed hydrologic response to modern climate
anomalies supports the idea that climate variations
severely impacted on human settlement in the Yangtze
Delta (Sun & Sun 1994). Historical flood records
documented in Chinese annals also provide exceptional
information to help us understand how past climate
alterations affected human occupation in the region
(Chen 1987). Although ice-core oxygen isotopic
records from Antarctica and Greenland reveal that
climate variability was remarkably more subdued
during the Holocene than during the Last Glaciation
(Bender et al. 1994; Jouzel 1994), recent evidence from
both tropical coral and mid-latitude tree rings indicates
that the Holocene has also experienced occasional
extreme short-term high variability (Feng & Epstein
1994; Beck et al. 1997). For example, the Hypsithermal
Interval (about 7000–5000 BP) contains evidence for a
series of cold episodes, each lasting about 50 to 200
years (O’Brien et al. 1995). Estimating the damage to
human livelihood that results from abrupt shifts in
modern climate can be reasonably determined (Chen
1989), but inferences about similar information from ice
cores in order to understand the human impact of such
rapid changes in Holocene climates are more difficult.
To resolve this discrepancy, it is essential to seek proxy
profiles that contain information on both climate
variations and vestiges of human activity.
The colossal magnitude of Neolithic culture sites in
the Yangtze Delta, East China, contained in a wellpreserved Holocene stratigraphic context, provides an
ideal framework for evaluating associations between
evolution of Neolithic cultures and Holocene climate
fluctuations. Climate has been hypothesized to be an
important control because the civilization in the region
terminated mysteriously at 3000 BP, resulting in a
regional hiatus of human occupation known as the
‘cultural interruption’ (Zhu et al. 1996a; Yu et al. 1998).
Elsewhere, others have also invoked climate variation
to explain aspects of civilization evolution (Hodell et al.
1995; Curtis et al. 1996; Binford et al. 1997; Grosjean et
al. 1997). Nevertheless, direct evidence for climatic
background in which the emergence, evolution and
collapse of Neolithic cultures occurred is scarce. Here,
we offer uninterrupted biostratigraphical and geochemical records from the Maqiao cultural site, Yangtze
Delta, to evaluate the climatic context of the Neolithic
cultures and to discuss responses of civilization to
forcing from climatic anomalies.
Study area
The Yangtze Delta (30°N–33°N, 119°E–122°E),
located in East China (Fig. 1), is characterized by a
subtropical monsoon climate. Mixed deciduous and
evergreen forest characterizes the vegetation of the
158
Shiyong Yu et al.
BOREAS 29 (2000)
Fig. 1. Map showing the location
of the Yangtze Delta studied in
the text. CS-01: Fuquanshan
cultural site (CCRMS 1990); CS02: Songze cultural site (CCRMS
1962a); CS-03: Guangfulin
cultural site (CCRMS 1962b); CS04: Jinshanfen cultural site
(CCRMS 1989); CS-05: Maqiao
cultural site (present study). The
solid line indicates the coastline
from 7200 BP to 6000 BP, the
dash line represents the coastline
from 5800 BP to 5700 BP, and
the dotted line demonstrates the
coastline from 4300 BP to 3200
BP (Zhu et al. 1996b).
region. The mean annual temperature is 15.5°C. In
summer, the region is occupied by the Subtropical High
and the maximum temperature reaches 28.9°C; in
winter, the region is influenced by the Mongolia High
and the minimum temperature is about 3.3°C (Jiang
1991). The mean annual precipitation is 1235 mm.
Rainfall during the summer months accounts for 40% of
the annual total, and only 11% occurs during winter
months. Climatologically, the region is sensitive and
susceptible to environmental change because it lies
along the demarcation between subtropical climate and
temperate climate representing seasonal frontal zones
that separate highly contrasting air masses. Heavy
flooding results mostly from excess rainfall during
summer, especially in June and July (the so-called Plum
Rainy Season), when slow-drifting cold fronts collide
with moist and unstable subtropical-derived air masses
(Xiang & Bao 1981). A nearly level plain with an
elevation of 2–7 m above sea level covers 95% of the
region. The delta is a well-developed area with a long
history of human settlement, including numerous
Neolithic culture sites. Sediment from these sites
provides exceptional information about human-environment interactions for the following reasons. First,
many of the cultural sites are associated with the Taihu
Basin, which has experienced continual slow subsi-
dence that ensures a continuous record of sedimentation. Thus, the Neolithic culture series is not disrupted.
Second, the cultural sites are located along margins of
lakes, where the origin, rise and fall of Neolithic
cultures reflect the extraordinary adaptability of human
beings within a harsh environment and the existence of
a critical environment threshold.
There are about 340 Neolithic culture sites in the
Yangtze Delta and these sites can be categorized into
four sequential stages (Wu 1988): the Majiabang
Cultures (7000–6000 BP), Songze Cultures (6000–
5000 BP), Liangzhu Cultures (5000–4000 BP) and
Maqiao Cultures (4000–3000 BP). Numerous archaeological excavations have demonstrated that, frequently, there are several layers of archaeologically
sterile sediments of fine sand or mud in these sites (Fig.
2). These units cluster into the following periods: 5900–
5800 BP, 5100–5000 BP, 4400–4300 BP and 3000–
2900 BP (Yu et al. 1998). Sedimentological evidence
confirms that these sterile units have no connection with
human activity (Yu et al. 1998). The hiatus in human
presence represented by the sterile sediments suggests
that the Neolithic culture sites in the region were
strongly affected by shifts in Holocene climates. The
Maqiao cultural site, 121°25'E, 31°05'N, Yangtze
Delta, is most typical and could serve as a paradigm.
Role of climate in Neolithic cultures, Yangtze Delta
BOREAS 29 (2000)
159
Fig. 2. Composite
lithostratigraphy of the
Neolithic culture sites that
contain cultural interruption
layers. Their locations are
shown in Fig. 1. The Zhou
Dynasty lasted from 1066
BC to 771 BC, and the
Tang Dynasty began in AD
618 and terminated in AD
907.
The site is represented by continuous biostratigraphical
and sedimentological records that represent Holocene
climate variations and their impacts on Neolithic
cultures.
Materials and methods
The Maqiao cultural site (elevation 4.5 m a.s.l.) is
located 1.0 km to the east of Maqiao Town, Shanghai. It
was discovered in December of 1960 and was excavated
tentatively in 1966 (CCRMS 1960; CCRMS 1978). In
1993, a continuous trench of 200 cm depth was
excavated at the site. The section was sampled at 10–
15 cm intervals in the field.
The ages of strata within the profile were determined
by the traditional 14C radiocarbon method. Age control
for the profile is based on two 14C dates of shard from
cultural layers and four 14C dates of shell slice, bulk
mud, and fossil tree from organic mud and shell layers,
respectively. The 14C ages were measured at the
Radiocarbon Laboratory of Nanjing University and at
the Radiocarbon Laboratory of the Shanghai Museum.
The half-life of radiocarbon dates employed in the study
is 5730 30 years. The 14C dates were converted to
calendar ages, following the tree-ring calibration data
set (Stuiver & Reimer 1993).
Pollen, foraminifera and ostracodes were extracted
by conventional methods. The pollen concentrations of
species were expressed as percentages of the total sum
of pollen and spores. Only selected taxa are shown in
the diagram. At least 200 foraminifera and ostracodes
were counted from each 50 g dry sample. The relative
abundances of foraminifera and ostracodes were also
given as percentages. The frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility (Xfd) was measured in SI units with
a Bartington magnetic susceptibility meter (MS2) and
probe (MSF). The sensor emits a 1-Oersted alternating
magnetic field and the operating frequency of the probe
is 580 Hz (Thompson & Oldfield 1986).
Results
Chronology
The chronology of the Maqiao cultural site is constrained by six conventional radiocarbon ages (Table 1).
According to the archaeological stratigraphy, it was
determined that the 24–37 cm horizon is the cultural
layer of the Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907), the 44–59 cm
horizon is the Maqiao cultural layer, and the 67–96 cm
horizon is the Liangzhu cultural layer. The cultural
layers are disrupted by two layers of fine sand and
Table 1. Conventional radiocarbon dates and calendar ages referenced in the text and in Fig. 3.
Sample type
Depth
(cm)
Laboratory no. Dated material Radiocarbon age (yr BP)
Cultural layer
Organic mud
Cultural layer
Organic mud
Shell ridge
Organic mud
45
64
94
135
181
198
SB-9320
SB-9321
SB-9322
ND-96011
SB-9323
ND-96012
Shard
Fossil tree
Shard
Bulk mud
Shell slice
Blk mud
3075 80
3840 109
4005 109
4750 92
5500 96
6615 73
Calendar age (yr BP)
Sedimentation rate (cm/yr)
3250 250
4200 95
4410 110
5320 135
6150 120
7240 85
0.012
0.020
0.143
0.070
0.028
0.016
160
Shiyong Yu et al.
BOREAS 29 (2000)
of evergreen trees and subtropical ferns indicates a
warm and moist climate between 7240 BP and 5320
BP.
Fig. 3. Distribution of calendar ages versus depth at the Maqiao
cultural site, Shanghai. Plot symbols encompass error bars.
organic mud. All the ages are properly ordered, with
calendar ages increasing from upper part to lower part
along the profile of the site (Fig. 3).
Foraminifera and ostracodes
Fifteen samples were investigated for foraminifera and
ostracodes (Fig. 4). Foraminifera and ostracodes are
concentrated prior to 5320 BP. All the foraminifera
are benthic species dwelling in saline water less than
20 m deep, but most of them can also tolerate brackish
water. Specimens containing both foraminifera and
ostracodes demonstrate a coastal sea environment that is
influenced frequently by fresh water. The abundance
and compound diversity of foraminifera in per 50 g
desiccated sediments decrease gradually from 7240
BP and vanish after 5320 BP, which indicates a
process of sea regression, after which civilization in the
region emerges.
Pollen assemblage
On the whole, both the pollen and spores are abundant
in the site and well preserved. Concentrations of tree
pollen are low, but herb pollen and fern spores are more
abundant. The pollen sequence can be divided into three
zones (Fig. 5).
Zone I (200–137 cm, 7240–5320 BP). – The zone is
characterized by abundant fern spores and aeolian
gymnosperm pollen such as Pinus, Tsuga, but the
terrestrial herb pollen is scarce. Fern and algae spores
make up around 75% of the total sum, most of them are
subtropical species. In addition, there are also some
evergreen, broad-leaved trees such as Cyclobalanopsis
and Castanopsis growing at higher elevation landscapes
in the coastal region. The flora composed by abundance
Zone II (137–44 cm, 5320–3250 BP). – The zone is
dominated by abundant herb pollen. Xerophytes such as
Gramineae, Artemisia, Cyperaceae and Chenopodiaceae represent about 70% of the herbaceous species.
Trees are dominated by Pinus, Quercus and Salix, and
ferns comprise Dennstaedtiaceae, Pteris and Hicriopteris, but their low proportion is interpreted to signify a
warm and dry savannah vegetation that persisted from
5320 BP to 3250 BP. The absence of foraminifera
and ostracodes assemblages indicates that the sea had
withdrawn from the region. In organic mud layers (59–
67 cm and 96–137 cm), deciduous tree pollen and fern
spores increase abruptly and herb pollen decreases
rapidly, which suggests that cooler and wetter climates
may have been present during the time of their
deposition. Liangzhu Cultures, a well developed civilization, emerges after the first event of water expansion; however, after the second event, civilization
vanishes from the site. It should be pointed out that
the fossil pollen grains and spores preserved in the
sediments are mainly from angiosperms and ferns
disseminated merely by pollen falling directly onto
the sediments, only a few of the pollen grains are of
aeolian origin from gymnosperms. Furthermore, the
provenance of sediments on the Yangtze Delta is mainly
from the Taihu Basin, where, owing to the low
elevation, the vegetation follows neither a distinct
horizontal zonality nor an apparent vertical gradient
(Yan & Huang 1987). Therefore, large amounts of
deciduous tree pollen and fern spores preserved in
organic mud layers reveal the natural cooling and
wetting of regional climates.
Zone III (44–0 cm, 3250 BP-present). – The zone is
marked by abundant herb pollen and fern spores. Tree
pollen is in low proportion, but herb pollen (mainly
Gramineae, Artemisia, Cruciferae and Cyperaceae)
comprises about 55% of the total, and fern spores
account for 35% of the total. Common occurrences of
Dennstaedtiaceae and Hicriopteris indicate a warm and
humid climate from 3250 BP to the present. In a fine
sand layer (37–44 cm), fern spores increase abruptly
and herb pollen decreases rapidly, and these biotic shifts
are associated with a transient period of expansion of
water bodies. At about the same time, the Neolithic
cultures of the region terminate. Settlement does not
begin to develop again in the area until the Tang
Dynasty (AD 618–907).
Grain size, magnetic susceptibility and geochemistry
In Neolithic culture sites, the geochemical elements
phosphorus and iron are the exceptional proxies of
biogenesis and anthropogenesis (Goldschmidt 1954).
BOREAS 29 (2000)
Role of climate in Neolithic cultures, Yangtze Delta
161
Fig. 4. Foraminifera and ostracode stratigraphy of the Maqiao cultural site, Shanghai. Only selected species are shown in the diagram. The abundances of foraminifera and ostracodes are
expressed as percentages of the total number counted.
Fig. 5. Pollen stratigraphy of the Maqiao cultural site, Shanghai.
Only selected taxa are shown in the diagram. The concentrations
of pollen and spores are given as percentages of the total number
counted.
162
Shiyong Yu et al.
BOREAS 29 (2000)
Fig. 6. Diagram showing the changes in grain size, geochemical elements and magnetic susceptibility of the Maqiao cultural site, Shanghai. Sand, silt and clay refer to the microparticles, which grain sizes are greater than 0.063 mm, from 0.063 mm to 0.004 mm and less than
0.004 mm, respectively.
Phosphorus is a dominant composition of cytoplasm of
animals and plants, and is also an important ingredient
of animal bones and teeth. Iron in cultural horizons is
mainly controlled by oxidation/reduction associated
with the use of fire. Therefore, the extreme concentrations of P2O5 and Fe2O3 in Neolithic culture sites
indicate human settlement rather than climatic changes.
In addition, the variations in magnetic susceptibility are
primarily controlled by silt-sized magnetite and/or
maghemite content (Maher & Thompson 1995). Thus,
both the sedimentation dynamics (grain size) and
oxidation/reduction process can influence the values
of magnetic susceptibility (An et al. 1991). The
percentages of sand, silt and clay content are determined from the 50 g dehydrated specimens sieved
fraction that are >0.063 mm, 0.063–0.004 mm and
<0.004 mm, respectively. In cultural layers, the concentrations of P2O5 and Fe2O3 are high and the values of
magnetic susceptibility are also high owing to human
settlement (Fig. 6). However, in the fine sand layer (37–
44 cm) and organic mud layers (59–67 cm and 96–
137 cm), the sediments are mainly composed of clay.
Furthermore, the proportions of P2O5 and F2O3 are low
and the values of magnetic susceptibility are also low in
these horizons (Fig. 6). This demonstrates that transient
expansion of water bodies occurred three times in
response to colder and wetter climates. These three cold
and humid episodes of Holocene climate are also
recorded in ice cores and tree rings (Feng & Epstein
1994; O’Brien et al. 1995).
Discussion
Both the abundance and compound diversity of foraminifera from the Maqiao cultural site demonstrate
that sea level reached its maximum at about 7240 BP,
and the high sea level was maintained for about 1100
years, probably owing to aglobally warmer climate and
eustatic factors. Then, from 6150 BP, the sea level
began to decrease, and by 5320 BP the sea had
withdrawn from the region (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). Our
conclusion is compatible with the results derived from a
chronology of shell ridges (Zhang et al. 1982).
According to the radiocarbon ages and distances of
the shell ridges (Fig. 1), the rate of sea regression was
very fast (50 m/yr) from 6000 BP to 5800 BP. The rapid
regression is mostly associated with both the abrupt
drying climate and the sudden increase in sand
discharge from the Yangtze River caused by the
southward migration of the channel (Chen & Stanley
1995). During the span between 5800 BP and 5700 BP,
the shoreline was stable owing to uniform climatic
conditions and the stability of the Yangtze River
channel. After about 5700 BP, the sea regressed again
at a low rate (7m/yr), conditioned by the drying climate
BOREAS 29 (2000)
Role of climate in Neolithic cultures, Yangtze Delta
163
and slightly southward drifting Yangtze River channel.
During the period from 4300 BP to 3200 BP, the
shoreline was stable because of the long-term drier
climate (Fig. 5). During this period, most of the Yangtze
Delta emerged from the sea, allowing the Neolithic
cultures of the region to develop.
Because of the close vertical proximity to sea-level
control and high water-table conditions, modest changes
in sea level might very strongly influence drainage
conditions in the delta. Nevertheless, pollen taxa
indicate that the levels of lakes and water tables were
mainly controlled by regional precipitation. In addition,
because of the slight southward shifts of the Yangtze
River channel (Chen & Stanley 1995), the increased
sand discharge raised the levels of lakes and water
tables, and accelerated the susceptibility to flooding.
Therefore, massive river flows from the upstream
Yangtze River represent another factor that triggers
regional flooding. There are a great many fossil trees in
the region. Sedimentological studies demonstrate that
the trees were transported by runoff from upstream on
the Yangtze River or inundated by expanded water
bodies (Zhu et al. 1997a). Chronological studies also
verify that high frequencies of fossil trees in the region
were concurrent with the cultural interruptions (Zhu et
al. 1996c; Yu et al. 1998). These studies and studies
elsewhere support the conclusion above and indicate
that the magnitude and frequency of floods tend to
increase when climates shift toward colder and wetter
conditions on a time-scale of centuries and millennia
(Ely et al. 1993; Knox 1993; Zhu et al. 1997b).
Numerical experiments with a general circulation
model (GCM) demonstrate that widespread shrinkage
of the East Asian summer monsoon circulation occurs
during periods of climatic cooling, induced by a
reduction of solar insolation derived from increased
aerosol loadings (Mudur 1995). During such global
cooling episodes, the region is occupied by the tropospheric westerly belt instead of the East Asian summer
monsoon circulation, because of the southward drift of
the climatic zones. Because the largest floods are
mainly caused by frontal cyclones in the westerly belt,
the magnitude and recurrence frequencies of large
floods increased during cooler episodes. At present,
the palaeohydrologic parameters such as precipitation,
runoff volume and flood level cannot be determined
quantitatively from the elevations of fine sand and
organic mud layers in the cultural site. Nevertheless, the
findings demonstrate that modest Holocene climate
changes have resulted in very significant hydrologic
responses that greatly affected human settlement in the
coastal zone of the Yangtze Delta.
cultural site, Shanghai, offer a climatic background in
which the Neolithic cultures emerge, persist and
terminate. The strata in the Maqiao cultural site have
a common lithological sequence consisting of cultural
layers separated by archaeologically sterile horizons
that are represented by fine sand and organic mud (Fig.
2). Biostratigraphical and sedimentological information
from the Maqiao cultural site provides direct evidence
for the interaction between human beings and environment, because the archaeologically sterile horizons are
associated with abrupt climatic shifts toward cooler and
wetter conditions and increased flooding of the area.
Neolithic cultures and palaeoclimatic context
3250 BP–present
Continuous pollen, foraminifera, grain size, geochemistry and magnetic susceptibility data from the Maqiao
During this period, the climate shifted back toward
warmer and moister conditions than had prevailed
7240–5320 BP
Climate during this period was warm and moist. The
pollen taxa indicate an abundance of trees and ferns
living on higher land in the western Yangtze Delta,
while the present eastern Delta was covered by a
shallow sea. A similar environment is also recorded in
pollen assemblages from the Taihu Lake and the East
China Sea (Liu et al. 1992; Liu & Chang 1996).
Higher sea level during the period 7240–6150 BP
restricted Neolithic cultural sites to the high land of the
western part of the Yangtze Delta, and the Maqiao area
was inundated by the sea (Fig. 1). After 6150 BP, the
climate became cooler and drier, and sea level was
falling (Yang & Xie 1984). By about 5320 BP, most of
the Yangtze Delta was above sea level (Fig. 1) and
human settlement spread onto the recently emergent
plain. To sustain the dense population on the delta, the
civilization developed irrigated agriculture and cultivated rice (Yin & Zhang 1962).
5320–3250 BP
After 5320 BP, the sea withdrew from the region
entirely (Fig. 1), leaving behind fossil shorelines of
shell ridges (Zhu et al. 1996b). The climate during this
period became warmer and drier. Nevertheless, during
the span of 5320–4200 BP, the pollen taxa indicate
two events of rapid expansion of water bodies, which
resulted in a harsh wetland environment for human
settlement in the Yangtze Delta. After termination of
the first period of water expansion, the Liangzhu
Cultures in the region flourished, owing to the suitable
climate and an enlarged living area. The cultural sites
expanded southward and northward, indicating the
dense population and agriculture on the delta (Yu et
al. 1998). At 4200 BP, another episode of expansion
of water bodies caused the Liangzhu Cultures to vanish
and led to a regional hiatus of human occupation.
Thereafter, the Maqiao Cultures emerged.
164
Shiyong Yu et al.
between 5320 BP and 3250 BP. Similar changes are
also observed in pollen assemblages from adjacent areas
(Liu et al. 1992; Liu & Chang 1996). Pollen assemblages indicate that, after 3250 BP, rapid expansion of
water bodies occurred, because there are large numbers
of fern spores such as Hicriopteris and Dennstaedtiaceae that live in freshwater swamps. Apparently, higher
water tables and frequent flooding caused civilization to
migrate to the high land of the western Yangtze Delta.
The colder and more humid climate that terminated the
Neolithic Age in the region lasted about 1600 years.
Civilization in the region was initiated again at the
beginning of the Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907).
Conclusions
The continuous records of biostratigraphy, sedimentology and geochemistry from the Maqiao cultural site
suggest that Neolithic cultures on the Yangtze Delta
were strongly affected by climatic changes. During the
period 7240–5320 BP, the climate was warm and
humid, and the sea level was higher than that of present.
The high sea level limited living area, and rendered the
region unsuitable for permanent settlement. By 5320
BP the sea had withdrawn from the region, but cold and
humid climatic conditions resulted in the expansion of
water bodies that lasted for about 800 years. After this
event, the civilization migrated to the region and began
to reclaim the plain. At the late stage of the Liangzhu
Cultures, rapid expansion of water bodies occurred. The
high lake levels and high water tables caused the
civilization to vanish and human settlement migrated to
the higher landscapes of the western Yangtze Delta.
Later, the Maqiao Cultures emerged, but during a late
stage of the Maqiao Cultures, expansion of water bodies
caused by cold and humid climatic conditions again led
to a rapid collapse of settlement in the delta. Settlement
of the region resumed during the Tang Dynasty (AD
618–907) when climatic conditions again became more
favourable for agriculture in the region.
Acknowledgments. – We cordially thank the Museum of Shanghai
and the Museum of Nanjing for permitting us to access the Maqiao
cultural site for sampling. Professor James C. Knox critically perused
the manuscript and rectified the language; we are grateful for many
valuable comments. We also express our gratitude to Professor
Fubao Wang and Professor Lingyu Tang for beneficial discussions.
This programme was supported by the National Science Foundation
of China (NSFC) awards 49771075 and the Foundation of the Centre
for Modern Analyses of Nanjing University.
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