DISCRIMINATIONANDMODERNPAGANISM:ASTUDYOFRELIGIONAND
CONTEMPORARYSOCIALCLIMATE
By
ElizabethHoadley
BachelorofPhilosophy,EnglishLiteratureandAnthropology,
UniversityofPittsburgh2016
SubmittedtotheFacultyof
TheDietrichSchoolofArtsandSciencesinpartialfulfillment
oftherequirementsforthedegreeof
BachelorofPhilosophy
UniversityofPittsburgh
2016
UNIVERSITYOFPITTSBURGH
DIETRICHSCHOOLOFARTSANDSCIENCES
Thisthesiswaspresented
by
ElizabethHoadley
Itwasdefendedon
May17,2016
andapprovedby
Dr.MichaelBobick,PostdoctoralFellow,DepartmentofAnthropology
Dr.AmyMurrayTwyning,Lecturer,DepartmentofEnglish
Dr.S.ZorehKermani
ThesisDirector:Dr.HannahJohnson,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofEnglish
ii
DISCRIMINATIONANDMODERNPAGANISM:ASTUDYOFRELIGIONAND
CONTEMPORARYSOCIALCLIMATE
ElizabethHoadley,BPhil
UniversityofPittsburgh,2016
ThisworkinvestigatesattitudesofreligiousdiscriminationagainstPaganismand
howthefaithislivedasaculture.Itcloselyexamineshowdiscriminatoryattitudesagainst
PaganismaretranslatedintoactionsandhowtheyhaveaffectPaganlivesonanindividual
basis.Thisprojectalsoinvestigatestheoriginsofdiscriminatoryattitudesfornon-Pagans,
inordertobetterunderstandthem.Theresearchproblemincludestwobasicparts:
distinguishingdiscriminativeactionsandattitudes,andobservingtheireffectsonPagans’
dailylives.ThecycleofactionandinformationinvolvedindiscriminationagainstPagansis
discussedindetail,includingananalysisofthedefensemechanismsemployedbyPagansto
mitigatetheadverseeffectsofdiscriminationintheirlives.Thegoalofthisresearchisto
addtocurrentunderstandingsofreligiousdiscriminationandhowitcangreatlyinfluence
Paganpracticeandculture.Theuseoftheresultsofthisresearchwillincludebutnotbe
limitedto:furtherstudiesontheculturalpowerofreligiousdiscrimination,theformation
ofgreaterpublicunderstandingofnontraditionalreligionsandhowtheyareaffectedby
modernsocialclimates,andtheadditionofaseldomheardvoiceintocurrent
conversationssurroundingreligioustensionsinthemodernworld.
iii
TABLEOFCONTENTS
CHAPTERONE...........................................................................................................1
1.0
1.1
INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................1
1.2
COMMUNITYSCOPENATIONALLYANDREGIONALLY.............................................7
1.3
RESEARCHINGDISCRIMINATION................................................................................10
1.4
PAGANORIGINSANDPRACTICE..................................................................................14
1.4.1
1.5
RECONSTRUCTINGADEFINITION...............................................................................18
1.5.1
Animism......................................................................................................................18
1.5.2
IndividualandCommunity...................................................................................20
1.5.3
Magic............................................................................................................................22
1.5.4
Ritual............................................................................................................................24
1.5.5
AWorkingDefinition..............................................................................................26
2.0
CHAPTERTWO........................................................................................................29
2.1
SCHOLARLYROOTSOFTHEFIELD.............................................................................29
2.2
DEFINITIONANDSYNTHESIS(1980-1995):............................................................31
2.3
CONSOLIDATIONANDCOMMUNITY(1995-2005):...............................................35
2.4
ANALYSISANDEVOLUTION(2005–Present):.......................................................39
2.5
PreviousWorkonDiscrimination..............................................................................42
3.0
3.1
HistoricalOrigins.....................................................................................................14
CHAPTERTHREE.....................................................................................................48
DEALINGWITHDIFFERENCE:THENON-PAGANVIEW........................................48
iv
3.1.1
ConceptualizingtheUnfamiliar..........................................................................48
3.1.2
TranslatingFictionalImageryintoReality.....................................................49
3.1.3
“Witchcraft?LikeCauldronsandFlyingBroomsticksandPointyHats
andStuff?”....................................................................................................................................52
3.1.4
“I’mPrettySureIt’sDevilWorship.”.................................................................56
3.1.5
“They’reJustaBunchofWeirdos.”....................................................................60
3.2
MASKINGDISCRIMINATION..........................................................................................62
3.2.1
PerformancesandHowtoSpotThem..............................................................63
3.2.2
MyOwn“Liars”.........................................................................................................68
CHAPTERFOUR.......................................................................................................73
4.0
4.1
UNCOVERINGTHECYCLEOFDISCRIMINATION.....................................................73
4.1.1
InterviewingandEffects........................................................................................75
4.1.2 CreatingaCycleofIgnorance...................................................................................76
4.2
THEPAGANPERSPECTIVE.............................................................................................79
4.2.1 LisaandTara.................................................................................................................79
4.2.2
Matt...............................................................................................................................81
4.2.3
Janet.............................................................................................................................85
4.3
5.0
ACOMMUNUALRESPONSE............................................................................................88
CONCLUSION............................................................................................................90
APPENDIXA........................................................................................................................95
APPENDIXB........................................................................................................................95
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................................97
v
vi
1.0
CHAPTERONE
1.1
INTRODUCTION
In1994,threeteenageboysfromasmalltowninTennesseewereconvictedofthefirstdegreemurderofthreechildrenbasedonfalseaccusationsofparticipationinasatanic
ritual.Themainsuspect,DamienEchols,hadaninterestinWiccaandunbeknownsttohim,
hisreligiouscuriositywouldbethedownfallofhisentirecase.Soonafterthemangled
bodiesofthethreeyoungboyswerefound,rumorsbegancirculatingthatthekillingsmight
havebeentheworkofdevilworshipers.Evenbeforereceivinganyinformationonthecase,
theWestMemphisPoliceDepartmentassignedthecasenumber93-05-0666tothefile,the
lastthreedigitsanumberhistoricallyassociatedwiththedevil,(Echolsv.State,1996).Two
daysafterfindingthebodies,investigatorsinterviewedthe“troubledlocalteenager,”
DamienEchols.Damien“wrotedarkpoems,worelonghair,hadatattooonhisupperarm,
andwasaself-describedWiccan.”1Withahistoryofpsychologicalproblemssuchas
depressionandaggression,Damienpresentedtheinvestigatorswithaneasytarget.When
searchinghishome,investigatorstestifiedattrialthattheyfound“elevenblackt-shirtsand
thebookNeveronaBroomstick.”2Whileowningalotofblackt-shirtsanda(rather
informativeandwell-rounded)bookonthehistoryandoriginofWiccadoesnotseem,
today,toprovehisparticipationinaritualmurderofthreeyoungboys,thisinterestin
Wiccawasthepinnacleoftheprosecution’scase.Inadditiontothebook,investigatorsalso
1
2
This is a direct quote from the investigative report included in the Echols v. State (1996) case file.
ibid.
1
obtainedDamien’sprivatenotebookfullofmusingsonthereligionfromwhichDamienwas
askedtoreadduringhistrial.
IntheinvestigativereportpublishedonMay10th,1993outliningDamien’s
statementstothepolice,heechoesthethoughtsandexperiencesofmanyotherWiccans.
Damiencameacrossacommunityonlineandmetaperson“whoheconsideredtobea
priestess.”3Hedescribedhisreligionasa“whitewitchgroup,”thatbelieved“therewasa
GoddessandnotaGod,”andthatworkedtogethertowards“adivinelight”(Echolsv.State).
Despitetestifyingrepeatedlythathe“wasnotaSatanist,”and“didn’tbelieveinhuman
sacrifice,”DamienEcholswasconvictedofmurderingallthreechildrenduringasatanic
ritualandwassentencedtodeaththatsameyearattheageof18(Echolsv.State).After
manyyearsofarbitrationEcholshasrecentlybeenreleasedfromprison,butthescarsof
suchagravemisunderstandingremain.Echols,whowaswronglyunderstoodasaSatanist,
wasinrealityjustatroubledboywhohadaninterestinPaganism,anature-basedreligion
thatbelievesindoingnoharmandthesignificanceofthecyclesoflife(Linder).
Thiscaserepresentstheconsequencesthatmayarisefrommisinformationwhichis
thefocusofthisstudy.Althoughthroughouthistory,elementsofanimalsacrificehavebeen
includedinsometraditions,thenatureofthereligionsincludedwithinthePaganlabelis
notinanywaycenteredonthingssuchasdevilworshipandhumansacrifice.Infact,the
WiccanRede,ortheWiccanmoralcode,requiresthatawitchharmnone,andWiccans
firmlybelievethatwhatevertheyputoutintotheworld,positiveornegative,willcome
backtotheminlifethree-fold;thusmakingitveryimportanttoactwithpositivitytowards
3
Eventhelanguagewithinthisreportgiveswaytothepre-existingattitudesthattheprosecutionheld.
Phraseslike“whoheconsideredtobe,”showtheirlackoffaithinthevalidityofhisstatementand
suspicionsurroundingthereligionitself.
2
others(Walker).WiccansregardtheRedeasanage-oldtraditionpasseddownorally,the
contentsofwhichisthecodebywhichallWiccansidentifythemselvesandtheirvalues
(Walker).Paganism,likemostotherreligions,hasitsmainfocusonpersonalgrowth,and
thecreationofacommunity.Theyseektoenlightenthemselveswiththeaspectsofa
better,morewholeself,whichtheyfindinnature.Paganism,aprecisedefinitionofwhich
willbediscussedfurtheron,isanumbrellatermencompassingavarietyofnature-based
religionsincludingWicca,thedefinitionsofeachjustasdeepandtangledashistoryitself.
ThewordPaganismfunctionsmuchlikethetermChristianity:undertheumbrellaof
Christianityanditsvariousdenominationsandsects,onefindshighlyvariablebeliefsand
practicesthatareallunitedbyasmallsetofcore,universalbeliefs.Thesameistruefor
Paganism.Eventhoughthereachesofpaganismarewideanddiverse,eachsectcelebrates
suchdiversityinarespectfulwayandallidentifyasalargercommunityaswellas
individualbranches.Forsomeonetobesentencedtodeathsimplybecausemembersoflaw
enforcementwerenotfamiliarwithWiccaanddidnotinformthemselvesdepictsthelevel
ofignorancesurroundingPaganismandtheconsequencesthatcancomefromsuch
misunderstanding.Itseemsacutelyhumantobecarriedawaybywhatisexcitingand
dramaticascanbeseeninnon-Pagans’definitionofwordssuchaswitchcraft,which
relatestothepracticeofWiccaandotherPagangroupsbuthasbeenredefinedbypop
culturalimagery.Whatnaturallysticksinone’smindisnotthemundaneorbenign,but
ratherwhatisexcitingandunfamiliar.Thisisperhapsthereasonwhypopculture
understandingsofwitchcraftarequicklyattachedtoPaganreligions.Thedeephistorical
tensionandmodernculturalspectacleattachedtothewordWitch,iswherethis
discriminationandmisunderstandinggrowsroots.Notingtheimportanceofsuch
3
influences,myresearchaimstofurtherinvestigatetheoriginsandextentofthese
potentiallydiscriminatoryattitudes.
Whenintroducedtothetopicofmyresearch,manyinmyaudiencestruggletoplace
thewordPaganismintoacontextinwhichitiseasilyunderstood.Whilewitchand
witchcraftaretermsthatareexceedinglyfamiliarwithinpopularculture,Paganismisa
wordseldomheardinmainstreamsociety.Whethertheyconsideritadead,ancient
religion,orhavebeenacquaintedwiththeterminaderogatorywaythroughtheirown
religiousbackground,allofmyinformantsoutsideofPaganculturefounditmuchmore
difficulttoexplainthewordPaganismthanwordslikewitchandwitchcraft.Whilethe
lattertwowordsareinevitablyconnectedintheirminds,Paganism,thetechnicalumbrella
termforavarietyofreclaimedancientreligions,ismuchmoreunfamiliartomostof
modernAmericathanthetermwitch,whichisusedasaninsiderdesignationmainlyby
Wiccansandasaderogatorystatementbysomenon-Pagans.Whenonethinksofamodern
witch,mostpeopleimmediatelypicturesomeformofdevilworshiporevildoer—animage
popularizedbyfilms,television,andthemedia.UnfortunatelyforDamienEchols,his
outwardappearanceofwhatmanylabeledas“gothic,”fitthisbillperfectly(Linder).While
thegothicsubcultureisunrelatedtotheactualpracticeofPaganismentirely,thisimage
rootedinentertainmentisthentransferredontomainstreamsociety’sideasofthereligion
ofPaganismasthepopculture“witch”isoftentheironlylinkbetweenunderstandingand
unfamiliarity.ThecaseoftheWestMemphisThree,forexample,isatestamenttothe
negativestigmathattheWiccanreligionreceivesasaresultofthisideologicalconnection.
Althoughthewitch-huntsofthepastmayseemarchaic,thesadrealityisthateven
inAmericatodayreligiouslymotivatedhatecrimesmakeupaboutonefifthofallhate
crimescommitted(UnitedStatesDepartmentofJustice).Theseincludeviolence,
4
vandalism,andthreatsamongothers.However,inthecaseofPaganismwhatseemtobe
moredetrimentalarethelessblatant,systemicconsequencesofmisunderstandingand
ignorance,suchasthatwhichbroughtthedeathpenaltyuponDamienEcholsintheWest
MemphisThreecase.Damienwasnotbeatenupbyastranger,norwashishome
vandalized,butbecausethemembersoflawenforcementinchargeofhiscaseimmediately
wroteofftheWiccanreligionasdevilworship,theconsequencesquicklyspiraledoutof
control.Evenbeyondthelegalandpubliclyvisiblerealmisanentirelevelofdiscrimination
thatnearlyalwaysgoesunreported.Theconsequencesofthesecircumstancesareechoed
intheaccountsofmanyofmyPaganinformants.Oneman,forinstance,hadhisPaganflag
torncompletelydownbyoneofhisneighbors.Whilethiswasindeedanactofvandalism
andcouldbeconsideredahatecrime,whatJeff4,a50-year-oldmanfromthequiet
countrysidejustoutsideofPittsburgh,consideredtobemoredetrimentalwasthelossof
hispeaceofmindandplaceinthecommunity.Jeffhasbeenamemberofthecommunity
formanyyearsandlivesinafairlyruralareathatisheavywithChristianchurches.While
hewasawarethathisneighborswereChristian,heneverimaginedthattheywouldgoso
farastowalkontohispropertyandphysicallyvandalizehisflag:
ItwasjustanicelittleflagIpickedupatoneoftheesotericstoresIwenttoonce,
andIdidn’tthinkitwouldoffendanyone.Ithadapentacleonit,butI’mnot
embarrassedofthat.Satanisminvertsthepentacleforeviljustliketheyinvertthe
cross.Butoneofmyneighbors,amiddleagedmaninthehouseover,walkedupto
myhouseandtoremyflagdown.Now,IknewhewasaChristianandIcouldguess
whyhedidit,buttoactuallyripmyflagdown?Thatwassurprisingtome.Ifelt
prettyuncomfortableafterthat,andIfeltlikeIneededtospeakwithhimaboutit.
WhenIconfrontedhimaboutitlater,heclaimedthatmyflaghadoffendedhimand
hedidn’twanthischildrenseeingit.But,Isaid,thewitchdecorationsheputsup
aroundHalloweenoffendmeandprovidesabadexampleforhiskidstoo.The
crappypartisthatdoesn’tevenregistertohim,evenafterItalkedtohimaboutit.
Hewasstilljustasangryabouthischildrenseeingmyflag,anddidn’tseeanything
wrongwithtearingitdown.ItwaslikeIdidn’tevencountasaperson(P203).
4
Pseudonyms have been assigned to all informants in order to protect their anonymity.
5
ForJeff,thisinstancewasmorethanjustanactofvandalismonhispropertybuta
dehumanizingactthatmadehimfeelostracizedfromhiscommunity.Whilethissmall
eventwasnotsomethingthatJefffeltcouldbereportedinawaythatwouldsolveany
issues,itisthedehumanizinganddemoralizingconsequencesoftheignoranceof
mainstreamsocietythatcausesmuchgreaterdetrimenttothePagancommunity.AsJeff
explained,“Icanreplacemyflag,thatwasn’ttheissue.Theissuewasthewayitmademe
feelunsafeandunwantedinmyowncommunity”(P203).Whilethisfeelingisoftenthe
resultofhatecrimes,whatisuniqueaboutPaganismisthatthisostracizationand
discriminationmostoftencomesfrommuchsmallerandcoverteventsthatflyunderthe
radarofanyrealconsequenceforthediscriminator.ManyofmyPaganinformants
describedsimilarissuesresultingfrommisunderstandingandprejudiceassociatedwith
Paganism,suchasJanet,whowasfiredfromherofficejobshortlyaftershestartedtelling
peopleaboutherreligion,orJohn,whoseownfamilynolongerassociateswithhim
becauseofhisreligion(P236)(P222).Almosteveryotherinformantdescribedthefear
thatexistsintheirlivesasaresultofhearingthestoriesofothers.Iarguethatitisthis
exactsystemofinformationsurroundingexperienceswiththebroadercommunitythat
leadsPaganstoperpetuatethecycleofdiscriminationbyusingdefensetechniquesto
guardthemselvesfromanypossiblediscomfort.
FearandanxietyleadsmanyPaganstoremainquietabouttheirbeliefsevenwith
theirclosestfriends.InthisworkIarguethatwhileremainingsilentdecreasestheirriskof
discrimination,itconverselyincreasestheprobabilitythatdiscriminationwillcontinueto
exist.Becausetheyarenotpresentingaclear,visibleimageofthePaganpopulationtothe
communityatlarge,thesecrecyandcompartmentalizationcementsinplaceafeedback
6
loopofignoranceandthusdiscrimination.Ifthegoalofthecommunityistoberespected
andunderstood,thiscycleofignoranceandsecrecycannotcontinue.However,theease
withwhichaPaganisabletoguardhisorherbeliefsmakesthealternative—dealingwith
thepossibleconsequencesthatmayfirstcomewithmakingtheircommunityvisible—all
themoreunappealingtomany.WhileanAfricanAmericancannotguardhimselfagainst
theconjecturesofaracist,aPaganhastheabilitytoblendinandremainundertheradarof
anyonewithstrongprejudicesagainstthem.Thisfactleadsmanymembersofthe
communitytotakeprecautionsintheirliveswhenallowinganyonetoknowtheirreligion,
andthusinadvertentlypromotesaskewedpopularunderstandingofthescopeofthe
religion.
1.2
COMMUNITYSCOPENATIONALLYANDREGIONALLY
AccordingtorecentPewResearchCenterstudiesonthereligiouslandscapeoftheU.S.,
Paganismmakesup.3%ofthepopulation.Whilethisnumberdoesnotseemlikealarge
portionofthepopulation,itamountsto956,700Pagans,giventhecurrentU.S.population
of318.9millionpeople(PewResearchCenter).Thisliesfarbeyondwhatmanywould
estimatethepopulationofPaganstobeintheU.S.basedontheirvisibilityalone.Whenone
non-PaganinformantwasaskedwhathewouldestimatethetotalpopulationofPagans
withintheU.S.tobe,heanswered“20,000”(NP123).Thisestimateis2%oftheactual
populationintheU.S.whoidentifyasPaganorWiccan.ItisnotjustthesecrecyofPagans
thatcausesthisunderestimate,butalsothewaysinwhichPaganspractice.Pewestimates
thatnearly60%ofallPaganschoosetopracticeontheirown(PewResearchCenter).Being
asolitarypractitionerisapopularchoicenationally,asthepracticeofthereligioneasily
7
allowssmall,individualceremoniesthatcanbedoneinsideone’sownhome.Solitary
practitionersstillmayfunctionasapartofthebroaderPagancommunity,butperform
mostreligiousritualsbythemselves.Thisway,thepractitionerisallowedtochooseexactly
howtheywanttopracticeandwhattheywanttobelieve.Becausethebeliefsencompassed
inpaganismvarywidely,itisoftenmoreproductiveforeachmembertoperformritualson
theirown.However,40%ofthepopulationisinvolvedingroupworship,whichalthoughit
accountsforasmallerpercentageofthepopulation,isstillanotableamount.Thetrue
detrimenttovisibility,however,isthelackofanyestablishedchurches.Althoughthe
PluralismProjectfromHarvardUniversityrecordednearly400Paganorganizationswithin
theU.S.,onlyaboutonefourthofallofthecommunitieslistedactuallyhadabuildingthat
couldbeeasilyidentifiedbyanoutsiderasaplaceofworship(Eck).Foralmostonemillion
followers,thereareonlyaround100estimatedcentersofworshiplistedonthewebsite
withtheirownbuildings.ForalargemajorityofPagans,theirpreferredsettingforrituals
isoutside,inpublicparksorprivateland.Manyotherspracticeingroupsintheirleaders’
homes.Thiscausesagapinperceivedcommunitysizenationallyforthosewhoarenot
involvedinthePagancommunity. ThistrendisechoedwithinthesmallersamplesizeofPennsylvaniaandwithin
Pittsburghaswell.PewResearchCenterprojectsasimilardistributionamongreligious
affiliationswithinPennsylvaniaasthosepresentednationally.Agroupof.3%ofthe
populationresidingwithinPennsylvaniawhoidentifyasPaganswouldamountto38,370
people,giventhemostrecentstatecensuspopulationrecordof12.79millionpeople(U.S.
CensusBureau).Evenstate-wide,thepopulationofPagansexceedsthenationalestimateof
thenon-Paganinformantmentionedabove.Again,thisunderestimateisnotshocking,as
only5outofthe400totalPaganreligiousorganizationslistedinThePluralismProject’s
8
databaseareinPennsylvania,andnoneareinPittsburgh(Eck).Basedonmyownresearch
andinteractionwiththePagancommunity,thisisestimateofthenumberofreligious
organizationsisinaccurate.Duringmytimeinteractingwiththecommunity,Ihave
personallycomeincontactwithmorethan10differentorganizationscenteredon
PaganismjustwithinPittsburghandrepresentedamongmy38informants.Thisleadsto
theconclusionthatthereareperhapsmanymorereligiouscentersnationallythanare
listedonThePluralismProject’swebsite.WhileIhaveinterviewedatotalof38members
ofthePagancommunity,Iwouldestimatethattherearearound1,000inthesurrounding
Pittsburgharea,basedonattendanceateventssuchasPaganPrideFestival,andthe
estimatednumberofreligiousgroups.However,anyestimateofthenumberofPagansis
subjecttoinaccuraciesasthereisaportionofpractitionerswhodonotinteractwiththe
communityatallandarethusrelativelyunreachableandunidentifiable.
Ingeneral,accordingtoTheAssociationofReligionDataArchive(ortheARDA),
Pittsburgh’smostpopularreligionisCatholicism,accountingfor460,672peopleoutofa
totalpopulationof740,979intheir2010report.Thislendsitselftoamoderatelyreligious
atmospherethroughthecityanditsoutskirts,andmanyofmyinformantshavestatedthat
theyfeelPittsburghisaveryreligiouscity.Outof25non-Paganswhowereinterviewed,all
butonestatedthattheydidn’tfeelthatPittsburghwouldbeaparticularlywelcomingcity
toPaganism,andoverhalfmentionedPittsburgh’sstrongCatholicbackground.When
Paganswereaskedthesamequestion,theyweregenerallymoreoptimistic:onascalefrom
1to10,25outof38ratedthecitybetweena5anda7.Thisdifferenceisperhapsbecause
thenon-PagansarevirtuallyunawareofanysortofPaganpopulationwithinPittsburgh,
andthereforeareignorantofthewaysinwhichthePagancommunityisalready
functioningeasilyandpeacefullywithinthecity’slimits.Insum,itseemsthatmy
9
informantsgenerallyfeelthatPittsburghisneithertheworst(1)northebestarea(10)of
theU.S.foraPaganpopulationintermsofpossiblediscriminationbutrathersomewherein
themiddle.
1.3
RESEARCHINGDISCRIMINATION
MyprojecthasinvestigatedattitudesofreligiousdiscriminationagainstPaganism,howthe
faithislivedasaculture,andhowdiscriminationaffectsthisexperience.Ihaveclosely
examinedhowdiscriminatoryattitudesareexperiencedandunderstoodbybothnonPagansandPagansalike,aswellashowhowtheyhaveagencyoverPaganlivesonan
individualbasis.Theresearchprobleminitiallyinvolvedtwobasicpointsofaction:first,
identifyingactsofdiscriminationthatdoindeedexist,andthenobservingthewaysin
whichsuchactsaffectPagans’dailylives.Withthegoalbeingtoaddtocurrent
understandingsofreligiousdiscriminationandhowitcangreatlyinfluencePaganpractice
andculture,Iexpectedtoseeclear,concreteexamplesofcauseandeffectmovingfromthe
discriminationexhibitedbynon-PaganstothedetrimentaleffectsinPaganslives.WhatI
initiallyhadexpectedtofindwasalargecommunityofPaganswhoweremiserable
keepingtheirreligiousidentitiesasecretandwishedforawaytomakethemselvesknown
tothelargercommunity,aswellasastrongnon-Paganforceofblatant,outward
discrimination.However,insteadofdiscoveringwhatIpreviouslythoughtwouldbeacut
anddrylinearpathfromdiscriminationtodetriment,whatIfoundwasthatthereisa
deeplyingrainedcycleoffeedbackbetweenPagansandnon-Pagans:Paganscontinueto
practiceinsecret,keepingtheircommunityjustoutsidethelinesofmainstreamculture,
andthusnon-Paganscontinuetobeignorantaboutthereligionduetoalackofaccurate
10
informationpresentedtothem.Simultaneously,insteadoffindingaveryclearandoutward
representationofdiscriminationagainstPagansinmyresearchwiththenon-Pagan
community,Ifoundthatmanysimplyhadnoideawhatthereligionactuallywas,and
substitutedinformationtheythoughtrelevantfromearlierlifeexperiencestocreatea
viablesenseofunderstandingforthemselves.Moreover,itseemsthatmyPagan
informantsdonotseekeepingtheirreligionasecretasaburden.Secrecyisingrained
withinthetraditionsofPaganism,anddoesn’tpresentanyimmediateself-perceived
barrierstotheirwell-being.Assecrecyandcompartmentalizationguardthemfromany
emotionalharmorsocietalstruggle,theyhavelittlemotivationtostopthisbehavior.
Withsecrecyandmysteryatthecenterofthereligion,itisnowonderthatmembers
outsideofthecommunityhavenootherunderstandingofanythingevenclosetothetopic
besideswhatispresentedtotheminliteratureandpopularcultureofwitchcraft.This
ignoranceandconcurrentsubstitution,Iargue,istherootofthemajorityofthe
discriminatoryattitudes,andcouldseeminglyberemediedifthePagancommunitywereto
bemoreopenandvisibletoitssurroundingsociety.Thereiscomparativelylittlecurrent
ethnographicinformationonthesubjectofPaganismcomparedtomostotherreligions,
andnearlyhalfofthosewhodostudyitaremembersofthecommunitythemselves.This
furtherinsulatesthecommunityintoitself.EthnographerslikeSarahPikeandTanya
LuhrmannintheirbooksEarthlyBodies,MagicalSelves,andPersuasionsoftheWitch’sCraft
respectively,provideusefulinsightsintohowPaganismfunctionsasacultureand
acknowledgethatdiscriminationinevitablyexists,yetwhatisnotdevelopedincurrent
worksisanyanalysisoftheexactconsequencesofreligiousdiscrimination.
However,theconsistentlackofvisibleinformationforthemajorityofthepublicisa
problemthatmustberemediedifthePagancommunityhopestogainrespectand
11
acceptanceasareligion.Iaddressthisgapinknowledgebypresentingaresearchproject
thatisnotrootedsolelywithinthePagancommunity.Simplybyinterviewingnon-Pagans,
myresearchallowsanoutletformyinformantstoaskquestionsaftertheinterviewhas
beenconcluded,andall25askedformoreinformationaboutthereligionanditspractices.
Intotal,38Pagansand25non-Paganswereinterviewedoverthecourseofthisstudy,with
interviewsrangingfrom20minutesto1hourand40minutes.Theresearchwasconducted
usingstandardanthropologicalfieldworkmethods,includingparticipantobservationand
bothformalandinformalinterviews.Informantsweregatheredusingasnowball
technique,whichinvolvesaskingthecurrentintervieweeforcontactrecommendationsfor
furtherinterviews.Informal,anonymousonlinesurveyswereusedaswellandwere
administeredthroughemailinordertogaugeabettergeneralsenseforthesocialclimate
surroundingtheseissues.Theanonymoussurveyswereusefulinprovidingmewithan
outletforunderstandingwhatmembersfromthesamegeographicaldemographicwould
sayiftheirreputationorsocialrespectwerenotontheline.Thus,thesesurveysallowed
metocontrolforsocialdesirabilitybiaswithintheinterviewsettingwhichwillbe
addressedinfurtherchapters.Auniformsetofquestions,whichareavailableinthe
appendix,wereemployedduringtheseinterviewssoastoprovideastrongerbasisfor
comparison,butunplannedspeechalsotookplaceandwasencouraged.Foursmalllunar
cycleritualswereobserved,andalloftheseasonalSabbatsoverthespanofayearwere
observedaswell.IninterviewingbothPagansandnon-Pagans,thisresearchprovidesa
morecompleteviewofthecycleofdiscrimination,ashasnotbeenthoroughlyapproached
before.Theuseoftheresultsofthisresearchincludebutarenotlimitedto:furtherstudies
ontheculturalpowerofreligiousdiscrimination,theformationofgreaterpublic
understandingofnontraditionalreligionsandhowtheyareaffectedbymodernsocial
12
climates,andtheadditionofaseldomheardvoiceintocurrentconversationssurrounding
religioustensionsinthemodernworld.
Throughoutthiswork,mylargerargumentisthatbothnon-PagansandPagans
exhibitbehaviorthathasbecomeacycleofmisinformationanddiscrimination.Pagans,
whoexhibitthreemaindefensivetechniques:compartmentalization,secretkeeping,and
downplayingemotionalresponses,usethesestrategiestoprotectthemselvesfrompossible
discrimination.Fueledbystoriestheyhaveheardfromothers,orpersonalexperiences,
Pagansattempttocreateasafeenvironmentfreefromthethreatofdiscriminationandits
effects.Byusingtechniqueslikesecretkeepingandcompartmentalization,theyare
essentiallylivinginhiding.Ifnon-PagansareunabletoidentifythemasPagans,thenthey
areunabletodiscriminateagainstthempersonallyandthusPaganseffectivelysafeguard
themselvesfromhardshipordiscomfort.Indownplayinganyemotionalresponseonemay
havetowardsactsofdiscriminationagainstthem,theyalsominimizetheeffect—or
perceivedeffect—thatdiscriminationhasontheiremotionalwellbeing.However,these
techniques,whicharemeanttosafeguardfromdiscrimination,inactualityserveto
increasetheprobabilitythatdiscriminationexists.DiscriminationagainstPaganismis
fueledinlargepartbyalackofinformationandunderstandingsurroundingthetopic.
Whennon-PaganslackrelevantandaccurateinformationaboutPaganism,theyfillthisgap
withknowledgetheyhavegleanedfromothersourcessuchastheirownreligious
backgroundandthemedia.Thisprocessistheexactreasonwhymanypeopleattribute
suchinaccuratenegativeimagesandpracticestothereligionofPaganism.Thedefense
strategiesthatPagansusethusincreasethislackofunderstandingbynotallowingpositive
andaccurateinformationtobevisible.Bykeepingtothemselvesandstayingawayfromthe
13
publiceye,Pagansareguardingthemselvesfromdiscomfortandsimultaneouslyfortifying
theoutletsoftheirdiscomfortaswell.
Inthefollowingchapters,Iwilldiscussthisargumentindetail,analyzingthetopic
fromboththenon-PaganandPaganperspectives.Inordertoformacontextualbasisfor
myargument,therestofthischapterwillcreateabettersenseofhowtodefinePaganism
anditsconstituents.Combiningadiscussionofhistoricaloriginsandformerscholarly
definitions,IoutlinethedefinitionthatIreferencefortheremainderofthiswork.Chapter
2containsafurtherdiscussionofpreviousscholarlywork,andananalysisofthetrends
withinthefield.InChapter3,Idiscussthenon-Paganperspectiveonthisissue,using
informationfrommyowninformants.Itincludesananalysisofnotonlyhow
discriminationfunctionsbutalsowhereitsoriginslie.Thefollowingchaptermirrors
Chapter3,withadiscussionofthePaganperspectiveandtheeffectsofdiscriminationon
theirlivesandwillclosethisworkwithadiscussionofmyconclusionsandsuggestionsfor
furtherresearch.
1.4
PAGANORIGINSANDPRACTICE
1.4.1 HistoricalOrigins
Beforetouchingonanyanalysisincludedwithinthiswork,however,anunderstandingof
whatexactlyitisthatIamstudyingmustbeclear.Itisbesttobeginwiththehistorical
originsofthereligionandthetermsassociatedwithit.Toattempttocreatea
comprehensiveandstabledefinitionofPaganismwouldbetofightagainstsomeofthe
14
mostimportantaspectsofsuchareligion.Paganism—whichiswidelyprizedamongits
followersforitsfluidityandabilitytoadapt—hasadefinitionthatisnotonlychanging
fromtraditiontotradition,butalsofrompersontoperson.Paganismcontainsaclear
exampleofhowthebalancebetweenindividualandcommunityagencymayexist,andto
forcethereligionintoabsolute,universalparameterswoulddotheessenceofthisreligion
aninjustice.Withinthiswork,Iwilltakeamoreproductiveapproachanddescribe
Paganismthroughitshistoricalorigins,thebasicsimilaritiesamongtraditionswhichlie
undertheumbrellaofPaganism(touchingonitsvariousbranchesandnuances),andits
meaningfromtheperspectiveofitsfollowers.Usingthisapproach,itispossibletocreatea
moreaccuratedepictionthatstaystruetotheprinciplesofPaganism.
Justasthemajorityofitsfollowersplaceahugeemphasisonhistoricaloriginsand
the“OldReligion,”sotoowillthisworkemphasizeafewofthemostimportanthistorical
influencesthatcontinuetoaffectthemodernPaganmovementtoday.Thiscanbebetter
explainedthroughanunderstandingoftheoriginofthewordpagan.Stemmingfromthe
post-classicalLatinwordpaguswhichmeantaruraldistrictoutsideofthetown,andthus
paganusmeaningadwellerofsuchdistricts;PaganbegantobeusedbyChristiansasa
termforthosewhowerenotoftheChristianfaith,asthesepeopleintheoutskirtsof
societyweretypicallythelasttoembracethenewChristianwayoflifeandholdontotheir
oldreligionsandcustoms(Adler9).This,interestingly,couldpointtoamoreconservative
imageofearlyPaganism,astheyresistedreligiouschangeormoderninnovation.Theword
paganwasusedinasomewhatsimilarwayascontemporaryAmericansusethewordhick
andthewordwasevenusedbyShakespearein1600tomeanprostitute(OxfordEnglish
Dictionary).Therefore,thetermPaganfromitsverybeginningsencompassedawidearray
ofdifferentbeliefsandcustoms(andinsults)thathaveformedthroughalongstrainof
15
complexevolutionintothereligiontoday,andthecontemporaryuseofthewordto
describethereligionitselfiscontestedwithintheacademicworld.Becausescholars
disagreeaboutthereligion’sorigins,theyhavecoinedothertermstodescribeit,suchas
naturereligions,polytheists,orneo-pagans.However,duetothenatureofthiswork,Iwill
bereferringtothereligioninthewordsusedbyitsfollowers,andthatistypicallyPagan.
Today,Pagansreclaimthiswordfromitspreviousdefinition—muchlikeWiccansreclaim
thewordwitch—takingsomethingthatwasoncenegativeandredefiningitfortheirown
use.
ThereareafewhistoricalstrainsofPaganismthatremainfocalpointsforPagans
today,includingtherevivaloftheNorsetraditionsfromnorthernEurope,andCeltic
traditionsfromBritain.HoweverotherwidelypracticedtraditionsincludetheAlexandrian,
Anglo-Saxon,Dianic,Druidic,Faery,Shamanic,Strega,andWiccanpractices,simplyto
nameafew.Manypathsareintentionallyreconstructionist,attemptingtoreviveancient
traditionsintheworldtoday.Basedonmyresearch,manymodernPagans’choicesabout
whichpathtostudystemfromtheplacesinwhichtheirancestorsresided,andusetheir
familyhistoryasameanstostakeclaimontheirbeliefs.Oneinformant,Matt,statedwhen
askedwhatbroughthimtothereligion,thatonesideofhisfamilywasextremelyCatholic,
whiletheothersidewas
moreoflikethePaganfamily.Mygrandmotheronmydad’ssidenevertalkedabout
religionreallybutitwaslikethisdiscordofthefactthatwe’redescendantsofthe
SalemWitchTrials.My9th-great-grandmotherwastriedontheSalemWitchTrials,
butwasneverhanged…shewasactuallythelastonetobetriedbeforetheyended
(P210).
InbeingabletotracehisfamilyhistorybacktotheSalemWitchTrials,Mattfindsprideand
purposeinhispathofWicca.Anotherinformant,Maggie,statedthatshewasinitially
drawntoGardinarianWiccabecauseofherstrongCelticbackground:“Ilikedthewayit
16
honoredmypastinawaythatIhaven’tbeenabletowithanythingelse.Ifeelconnectedto
myancestorswhenIpracticeCeltictraditions”(P204).
Generally,manyPagansintheareaofPittsburghwhotracetheirfamiliallinebackto
ItalypracticetheStregatraditionwhichcomesfromaquasi-Catholicorientedsorcery
foundincommonItalianfolktraditions.Thesameistrueformanymembersofthefaithin
theareawhotracetheirancestrybacktoBritainwhopracticethevariousCeltictraditions
likeMaggie.However,therearesomefollowerswhodonotpracticeaccordingtotheir
ancestry.ThisemphasisonancestryandpersonaloriginparallelsancientPagans’worship
oftheirancestors(andotherworldreligionsaswell)before3000BC,astheywouldbury
theminlongbarrowsandperformritualscenteredaroundthemtoinfluencethemundane
worldsuchastheweatherorharvest.Astheclimatechangedradicallyaround3000BC,
thereligionturnedawayfromtheirancestorsandtowardsnatureastheprimaryfocus,
thuscreatingoriginsforthenaturereligionthatexiststoday(Gibson173).AsGraham
HarveyexplainsinContemporaryPaganism:ReligionsoftheEarthfromDruidsandWitches
toHeathensandEcofeminists,Paganismhas“createdanddevelopedanidentityfrommany
threadswhichithaswovenintopatternsatonceoriginalandfamiliar”(Harvey172).
Harveyclaimsthatacrossthewiderspanofthemovement,historyisanimportantsource
ofidentityandself-understandingjustasIhaveseenwithinmyownresearch.Intriguingly,
thissenseoflegitimacyandauthoritybasedinhistoryperhaps,accordingtoHarvey,isa
responsetonon-Pagans’critiquesofthevalidityofthereligion.Itiseasytoseethisattitude
whenanalyzingmyownresponsesfromnon-Pagans,manyofthemmakingclaimssimilar
tothoseofanagingprofessor:
Ijustdon’tseePaganismasareligion,andIknowmanyotherswhodon’taswell.
WheneverI’vecomeacrosstheideaofPaganism,it’salmostapproachedasasortof
antithesisforreligion.Liketheoppositeofreligion.AsfarasIknow,thereisn’tany
17
sortofreligiousdogma,therearenochurches,itdoesn’thaveasolidbasis
throughouttime.Itjustdoesn’tsatisfywhatIwouldqualifyasareligion(NP120).
Thiscomment,comingafteradiscussionofPaganrituals,seemstoalludetothe
prevalentideathatPaganismconsistsofnotmuchmorethancastingspellsanddoingstage
magic.Manynon-Pagansareoftheopinionthatthereisnohistoricalbackgroundforthe
Pagantraditions,andareinmanycasespredisposedbypopularnamingclassificationslike
“NewAge,”and“neo-Pagan,”tobelievethatitisareligionthathasbeenfabricatedinthe
recentpast.ItispartlyinresponsetothisthatweseePaganslegitimizingtheirfaith
throughhistory.
1.5
RECONSTRUCTINGADEFINITION
1.5.1 Animism
ThroughallofwhatweknowofthesevariousPaganperspectives,therepersistseveral
mainthemesthathavebeencarriedthroughtotoday.Oneofthemostvisiblethemesfrom
the“globalPaganperspective…isrespectfortheenvironmentasaspiritualentity”(Davies
10).ThePagandivine,asmanyPaganshavebeeneagertotellme,isthoughttobe
encompassedinallthings.Thissentimentisaversionofwhatscholarshavetermed
animism.“TheGoddessisineverything,she’sinthetrees,therocks,animals,andevery
humanbeing.WeareallapartoftheGoddess,likeitornot,”oneinformantclaimed(P
204).Anotherexplained,thatalthough“Wicca…isoftenwhattheparticipantdesirestobe,
atitsheartitisarespectfor—aworshipof—nature”(P218).Thedestructionofsuch
18
things,likecuttingdowntreesorpollutingtheenvironment,arethoughttobeactsof
desecration(Davies11).Accordingto“LivingWitchcraft,”apagandescribestheunifying
principleofthereligionassuch:
Wiccaseesnodiscontinuitybetweentheselfandother,betweenhumansandthe
divine,betweenthespiritualandthenatural.Rather,eachofusactsasthecenterof
cosmicforces;eachofusreflecttheentiremacrocosm;eachofus—plant,element,
animal,orgod—isdivine(Scarboro,CampbellandStave42).
Readingapassagelikethisone,itiseasyseethewaysinwhichareligiousmovementof
thiskindcangainmomentuminasocietythatisbecomingincreasinglyobsessedwiththe
sustainabilityoftheenvironmentandeco-friendlypractices.Infact,manyPagangroups
explicitlyencourageenvironmentalinvolvement,liketheOrderofBards,Ovates,and
Druids,whoexplicitlyencourage“PersonalEnvironmentalResponsibility”(Harvey125).It
isthroughanunderstandingofanimismthatanon-Paganmaybegintograspwhy
somethinglikedoingharmtonaturewouldbesoseveretoaPagan.Eachaspectofthe
world“containsasparkofintelligence,”andeveryaspectissacredasisencompassedin
theideaofanimism.Thesacredmayhavedifferentmeaningsamongstthem,“tosomeit
meansallpartsoftheuniverseareprecious,andworthyofrespectandcarefulhandling.To
othersitimpliesafeelingofkinship,ofconnection…”nearlyallwouldagreethatnatureis
preciousandmustbeprotectedasonewouldprotectabrotherorsister(J.Higginbotham
andR.Higginbotham53).JoyceandRiverHigginbothamalsodescribethiskinshipto
natureinPaganism,AnIntroductiontoEarth-CenteredReligions,asa“cosmicbrother-or
sisterhood”(J.HigginbothamandR.Higginbotham40).Aneasywaytounderstandthe
complicatedidealsencompassedwithinanimismistoviewtheworldasa“radically
interconnectedlivingsystem.”Notonlyarethevariouspiecesofnatureconnectedasa
whole,buttheentiretyof“nature…isalive,ensouled”(Harvey87).
19
1.5.2 IndividualandCommunity
However,althoughPaganism’sstrongfocusonthecommunal,interconnectivityof
experienceseemstobeclear,individualismplaysjustassignificantarole.Paganismlives
withinthedichotomyofindividualismversuscommunityorientedfunctioning,presenting
modernAmericawithawayinwhichthetwoideasmayworktogetherwithoutbeing
mutuallyexclusive.Asafundamentalpartoftheirspiritualgrowth,orwhatPagansreferto
astheirspiritual“path,”thereisaprofoundempowermentoftheself,whichbreedsan
acceptanceofindividualityandsolidarity.Membersofcovensandgroupsdonotneedto
believeexactlythesamethings,orpracticeinexactlythesameway,andarenotthoughtto
beanylessalikeincamaraderie.WheninterviewingmembersofalocalcovenofWiccans,
onestatedthateventhoughsheandanothermemberofhercovendifferedonsome
seeminglyfundamentalelementsofthereligion,suchaswhetherornotoneshould
worshipamaleGodaswellasafemaleGoddess,shebelievedthatthesedifferencesdidnot
hinderthegrowthorfunctioningoftheircoven,butratherenhanceditwithdiversity(P
220).AlmosteverylargepubliceventthatIhaveattendedoverthecourseofthisstudyhas
includedamemberofthecommunityspeakingpubliclyaboutthebeautyofthePittsburgh
community’sdiversityandthestrengththattheyfindwithinit.Thereseemstobea
constantmantrabehindeveryPaganPrideDayorfestivalthatyoucanhearechoedinthe
openingandclosingritual:theirdiversityiswhatmakesthemstrongerasawhole.This
seemstogoagainstthenegativityofwhatmanyothermodernreligionssuchasIslamand
Christianitywouldbelieveasanoutcomeofadiversityofbeliefs.Whenspeakingwith
Cathy,amiddle-agedadministrativedirectoratalocaluniversity,aboutthefundamental
20
aspectsofPaganismafterIhadexhaustedmyscriptofquestions,shemadetheclaimthat
“thatkindofdiversityin,like,fundamentalbeliefsjustwouldn’tworkinachurchlikemine.
Idon’tthinkIwouldlikeiteither.Ireallyenjoybeingabletoknowthateveryonebelieves
exactlywhatIbelievewhenIstepintomychurch.It’skindofstrengthening,whichIdon’t
thinkyoucouldreallygetifnoteveryonebelievedthesamething”(NP113).While
PaganismwouldnotbeaperfectfitforCathy,manyothersenjoybeinginvolvedinthe
religionsspecificallyforitsdiversityofthought.BecausePaganismdoesnothaveaclear
“10commandments,”orsetofrulesordogmas,thereligionallowsformultiple
interpretationsoftheuniverseandthedivine,allwithoutcontradictingeachother.Thisis
whatcausedtensionfortheelderlyprofessorindefiningPaganismasareligionas
mentionedabove.WhileaChristianwhosays“Godisn’ttheonlydivinebeing,Ibelievethat
thereisagoddessaswellandIwanttoworshiphertoo,”wouldarguablynotbeaChristian
anymoreashewouldbeinconflictwithsomeofthefundamentalidealsofthereligion,a
Pagancansaythisandstillconsiderhimselfjustasmuchapartofthesamereligionasthe
personnexttohimthatonlybelievesinoneGoddess.
Thisperhapsstemsfromtheideathatthetruedivineiswhatunderliesallaspectsof
life,asPaganssimplyseethisasfindingdifferentlabelsforthesamethingasoneperson
callsaglassofwaterhalffullandanothercallsithalfempty.Bothdefinitionsofsaidglass
are,intheend,accuratelydescribingthesamethingjustfromdifferingperspectives.Itis
interestingthatPagansareabletonotonlybelievethingsthatareinconflictwithother
Pagans’beliefs,butthattheyarealsoabletoworshipdifferentversionsoftheirdeityinthe
samerituals.ForthepreviouslymentionedWiccanwhodisagreeswithherfellowcoven
memberabouttherepresentationofthedivineasamalegodaswellasafemalegoddess,
sheisabletoattendthesamerituals,gothroughthesamemotions,andrecitethesame
21
incantationswithouteitherofthemfeelingasiftheyarecompromisingafundamentalpart
oftheirpersonalworship.
1.5.3 Magic
Anotherunifyingaspectofthereligionisthepracticeofspiritualmagic.Althoughthereare
manydifferentformsandwaystopractice,theunderlyingobjectiveofbothpersonaland
communalritualisinsomeparttoinvokethepowerofmagic.Traditionally,inthewordsof
AleisterCrowleyinhisbookMagickinTheoryandPractice,magicis“thescienceandartof
causingchangetooccurinconformitywithWill”(Crowleyxii).However,thisdefinition
doesnotilluminatethewayinwhichmagicworksforPagansinallitscomplexity.While
manydifferentpeoplecanexplainitinmanydifferentways,ageneralideaofitwouldbe
theactof“steppingintotheuniversalflowandchoosingtoparticipatewithitina
deliberatefashion”(HigginbothamandHigginbotham163).Theessenceofmagicisboth
naturalandrational.OneinformantdescribedPaganmagicsuccinctlyas“focusedintention
withprayer”(P205).AccordingtoPaganphilosophy,onemaynotusemagictoevokea
responseintheuniversethatisneithernaturalnorbeyondtheconfinesofrational
thinking,anditisgenerallylookeddownupontousemagicfortrivialpersonalgain.For
example,oneinformantstated:
Iwouldneverperformaspellforsomethinglittleortrivial…that’sawasteoftime
andenergy.Magicisforbigthings—thetruetasksoflife.Iwouldneveraskthe
goddessforstrengthto,youknow,getupandwatermygarden.Isn’tthatalittle
insultingtomyself?AsifI’mincapableofdoingthatonmyown.It’sonlyforthings
thatyouwouldn’tbeabletoaccomplishwithoutalittledivinehelp(P201).
Thus,withareligionsofirmlyrootedinindividualstrengthandidentity,itseemsunnatural
toaskforsomethingthatonewouldbecapableofdoingoneself.
22
AmoreappropriateuseofmagiccanbebetterillustratedinoneWiccan’s
endeavors.Maggie,alocalWiccanHighPriestessmentionedpreviously,hadfallenonsome
tougheconomictimes.Shefoundherselfunabletoprovideforherfamilyandwasfeeling
hopelessabouthereconomicpursuits.Seekingawaytoremedyherunhappiness,Maggie
setupanaltarinherhome,connectedtothefosteringofeconomicstabilitythroughits
symbolsandelementalpieces.Everyday,Maggiedevotedsometimetofocusonhergoal,
withherthoughtsdevotedtothisideaofstabilityandprosperity.Sheclaimsthataftera
monthorsoofthisfocusingofenergy,shebegantoseechangesinhereconomicsituation.
Herhomewasapprovedtoberefinanced;herpieceoflandinsouthwesternPennsylvania
suddenlybegantoproducegasroyalties,justtonameafew.Maggiebelievesthatitwasher
focusedenergy,intunewiththegoddess,thatbroughtabouttheseeconomicchanges.
Inmanyways,PaganmagicisnotunliketypicalChristianPrayer.Inthesameway
thataChristianwouldsitdowneverynightandfocusacertainamountofenergyonagoal
ordesire,thePaganfocusestheirthoughtsandthustheirenergyonagivengoalordesire.
Oneinformantreiteratedthissentimentinsaying,“ourideaofmagicreallyjustreminds
meofaformofprayer.Wedevotealargeamountofenergytofocusonaskingtheuniverse
forhelp”(P206).Manytimes,theprayerandmagicalactbothedntailaskingthedivineto
emotionallyfortifythem.WhileaChristianwouldaskGodforthestrengthtostandupfor
herselfatworkthenextday,aWiccanmightaskthepowersoffiretoinstillherwiththe
passionnecessarytobeabletodefendherself.S.ZohrehKermanidescribesasimilar
sentimentinthebookPaganFamilyValues,ChildhoodandtheReligiousImaginationin
ContemporaryAmericanPaganism,incitingacouplewho“discuss[ed]thesimilarities
betweenmagicandprayer,notingthat‘magicisaformofprayer’thatcanbemanifested
throughvisualizationandincantation”(Kermani39).However,Paganmagictendstobear
23
amoreindividualresponsibility;mostoftheburdenofmakingthiseventhappenisonthe
practitioner.AsPagansbelievethatthedivineiswithineverything,mostbelievethatthey
haveenoughpowerwithinthemselvestocarryouttheirownmagicalendeavors.Kermani
againdescribesthisinrecountingthestatementsofaPaganinterviewedforPaganFamily
Values:“Pagansinvesttheirownenergyintothechangetheywanttomakeandaskonlyfor
guidanceandsupportfromtheir[deity]”(Kermani40).Itisclear,then,thatmagicgoesone
stepbeyondprayerandinsteadofhopingandaskingfortheeventtohappen,Pagans
assumeagencyintheachievementofthisgoal.
1.5.4 Ritual
Asthesecommunitiesdonothaveanysortofconcretedoctrineforthewaysinwhichthey
oughttopracticeandinsteadrelyontraditionspassedthroughgenerationsortraditions
thatarerecreatedfromancienttexts,theytypicallydonotseeritualasstable,unchanging,
andinflexible.Whileinmanytraditionsthereisanaturalframeworkthatisfollowed
includingpurification,circle-forming,andeatinganddrinkingtogether,thereisnosetof
openingremarks,songs,orprayersthatarerecitedineveryritualasauniversalsymbolof
leavingbehindthemundanerealmandenteringthespiritualmindset.WhileaMuslimmay
hearthesamecalltoprayereveryday,nomatterwhatcitytheyarein,andassociatethis
withatimetoleavebehindtheireverydaylifeforashortperiod,Pagansdonothaveany
suchprayerorcalltoactionthatissaidateveryritual,oreveryprayer.Pagans,acrossthe
board,donotevenhaveaspecificsetofopeningandclosingremarksformagical
endeavors,likeChristianstypicallyemployinprayersuchas“amen,”—althoughIhave
witnessedinvariousWiccanritualsseveralrepeatedphrasessuchas“blessedbe.”This
24
aidsinthefluidityofritualandmagicalacts,asthereisnoframeworkorprerequisite
phrasingforanythingtobeconsideredaviablereligiousendeavor.Catholicmass,oneof
themoststableandunchangingreligiousrituals,isrifewithpatternedphrasingand
habitualactionsinawaythatcanbedirectlycontrastedwithPaganritual.Althoughthere
areafewinterestingsimilaritiesbetweentheactionsofCatholicmassandPaganritual
suchastheburningofincenseandtheringingofbells,theabsenceofanysolidbasisof
words,songs,orprayersacrosstheboardofPaganismaidsinassertingasenseofvariation
fromritualtoritual.
FormanyscholarsoftheanthropologyofreligionsuchasDurkheim,thesesymbols
ofleavingthemundanerealm,themostpowerfulwayofwhichisintheformofwords,
phrasing,andsong,areimperativeforthepracticeofreligion.However,Iwouldarguethat
uniformactionstaketheplaceofuniformphrasingforthePagantraditions.Thetypical
ritualformat,intheopeningandclosingofthecircle,andthepartakinginfoodanddrink
togetherspansnotonlyvarioustraditionsbutalsoconnectspagansacrosstheworld.AsI
stoodonPrimroseHillinLondonwithagroupofDruidsobservingtheirritual,eating
scotcheggsanddrinkingmead,Icouldn’thelpbutbetransportedinmymindbackto
AmericaandtheritualsIhaveattendedthere.Itseemedtomethatthisnotionofsharing
themostbasicessenceofwhatgivesuslifespansfurtherandmorepowerfullythanany
wordorsong.Actionssuchasthistranscendculturaldifferenceandhistoryandtouchon
someofthemostbasicaspectsofwhatmakesusallhuman.Whilethesecommonritual
actionsconnectthemovementonawiderscale,eachtraditioninevitablyhasitsown
myths,itsownconnectionwithancientpeople,anditsownritualfocus.Eachritualactsout
themythsoftheirancestors,anditisinthisreligiousactionthattheirbeliefstakeon
visibleforms.
25
1.5.5 AWorkingDefinition
Acrossitstimeasafocusofscholarlyattention,therehavebeenseveral“official”
definitionsofthereligion.SabrinaMagliocco,theauthorofWitchingCulture:Folkloreand
Neo-PaganisminAmerica,claimsthattheNeo-PaganmovementwasrevitalizedbyTim
“Oberon”Zellin1971,whichcouldbedefinedasanattemptto“revive,revitalize,and
experimentwithaspectsofpre-Christianpolytheism”(Magliocco4).Thispre-Christian
polytheisminvolvedintheoriginoftheveryword“pagan,”involvesconnectiontonature,
andadeepbeliefinanimismasdefinedpreviously.SomethingMaglioccobringsupthatI
don’tnecessarilyseeasanintegralpieceinthedefinitionisthegoalofadeepconnection
“withcommunity.”WhileIthinkthisisverytrueinsomecases,therearealsomanyothers
whomightdisagree.FrommyobservationsthusfarIhaveseenmanypracticingwitches
whoaresolitary,meaningthattheypracticealoneandhavelittletonoconnectiontothe
communityatlarge.TheabilitytopracticebyoneselfisauniqueaspectofPaganismthat
shouldnotbeignoredwithinitsdefinitionasIhavediscussedabove.
ForMichaelYork,theauthorofPaganTheology:PaganismasaWorldReligion,the
definitionofPaganismisnearlyimpossibletopindown.Yorkclaimsthatdrawingupa
“definitivelistofnecessarycharacteristicsforanygivenpracticetobeassessedaspagan”
wouldnotonlybeexceedinglydifficult,butitwouldalsobeunnecessary(York13).At
26
best,Yorkstates,wemaydeterminea“rangeofpossibilities”thatwemightbeableto
identifyinanygivenpaganexample.ForYork,these“possibilities”include,
polytheism,animism,idolatry,corpospirituality,localemphasis,recognitionsof
geosacredconcentrations,perceptionsofsoulduality,andeithernatureworshipor
natureasachiefmetaphoricalregisterexpressiveofthedivine(York13).
Yorkthengoesontodescribealistoffivecommontraitsthathebelievesanyversionof
Paganismwouldinclude(contradictinghispreviousstatementslightly),narrowingdown
hispreviouslistofpossibilitiestoconsistof(1)havingbothmaleandfemalegods,(2)
involvingsomeaspectofmagic,(3)emphasizingritualefficacy,(4)asensethatthebodyis
asourceofwisdomwhichshouldbelistenedto,and(5)theplacingofgodsandhumanson
thesamelevelofcodependencyandimportance(York14).WhileIfeelthatthesepoints
arevalidandpanoramicinscope,IthinkthatYorkdoesnotemphasizetheimportanceof
naturesufficientlywithinhisdefinition.Ialsodonotbelievethathavingsuchrestrictive
parametersforareligionlikePaganismisproductive.Itsfluidityisoneofthemost
importantaspectsofthereligion,andtryingtoshoveitintoacookiecutterofthe“five
simplestepstopaganism,”isdoingthereligionanditsfollowersadisservice.Iarguethat
employingalessrigidsetofparametersforadefinitionofPaganismthatIhavegiven
abovemoreeasilyrepresentsthefluidityandvariationamongstitsvariousbranches.
However,somescholarslikeRonaldHuttoninPaganBritain,describePaganismas
simply“thepre-ChristianreligionsofEuropeandtheNearEast,”whichisfartoobroadofa
definitionandgivesthereadernotruedirectioninwhichtothinkaboutthetopic(Hutton
vii).Inusingthiswide-spanningdefinitionheisallowingthereadertoassumethatallof
thesereligionsmusthaveaconcreteunderlyingcommonality,whilenotreallyeven
touchingonwhatthiscommonalityevenis.Goingforward,Iwouldprefertocombineand
modifythedefinitionsofthesethreescholarsthatadequatelyrepresentthescholarlybasis
27
thusly:Paganism,whichtracesitsoriginstothepre-ChristianreligionsofEuropeandthe
NearEast,encompassesadeepconnectiontonature,animism,andbothmaleandfemale
deities,withmanypaganreligionsalsoincludingaspectsoflocalemphasis,ritualworship,
andmagic.
28
2.0
CHAPTERTWO
2.1
SCHOLARLYROOTSOFTHEFIELD
Inthecurrentscholarlyenvironment,Paganismisagrowingsubfieldofinterest.
Anthropologists,scholarsofreligion,andpractitionersalikehavebeguntobringthetopic
intotheforefrontofreligiousanthropology,beginningmostnotablywithRonaldHutton
andMargotAdlerinthelate1970sandearly1980s.Withinthelasttwodecades,therehas
beenawiderangeofauthorsworkingandstudyingadiversearraytopicsrelatingtothe
field.TheseworksspanfromexaminingthehistoryofPaganismlikeRonaldHutton’s
comprehensivework,TriumphoftheMoon,quantitativeresearchdonetooutlinethe
demographicofpeoplewhoareinvolvedinNewReligiousMovementsbyLorneDawsonin
2003,studiesonhowtheinternetaffectstheconstructionofFeministWiccabyConstance
Wisein2008,tostudiesofsecret-keepinginherenttothereligionsuchasKimberly
Kirners’workonPagans’interactionsinthehealthcaresystemin2014.Whileeachwork
makesstrong,valuableadditionstothegrowingfield,whatseemstobemissingisa
focuseddiscourseondiscrimination.Throughoutthelast40yearsthatPaganscholarly
workhasbeenpublished,onlyoneotherpublicallyavailableworkhasfocusedon
discrimination:ContemporaryPaganism,MinorityReligionsinMajoritarianAmericaby
CarolBarner-Barrywhichwillbeaddressedindetailfurtheroninthechapter.Scholars
acrossthespanofContemporaryPaganismhaveinvestigatedawiderangeofideasand
aspectsofthecommunityandreligionitself,movingmorerecentlytosurveysanddata
collectionthatrevolvearoundPaganismasitispracticed,ratherthandescriptionsofits
beliefsystem.WithinmyresearchIfocusonthereligionasitislived—meaningnotjust
29
whatPaganbeliefsare,orhowtheyperformritualsandpracticereligiousceremoniesbut
ratherthewayPagansfunctionoutsideofthecontextofreligioussituations.Iamnotso
muchinterestedinhowaPaganexperiencesritualashowaPaganexperiencestherestof
theirlivesbesidesthatwhichisdirectlyrelatedtotheirreligion.Afoundationofdefinition
andpracticehasbeensufficientlyestablished,allowingme,likemanyotherscholarsinthe
last15years,tomovetowardsanemphasisonanalysisratherthandescription.
Manyearlierworks,suchasSarahPike’sEarthlyBodies,MagicalSelves,andMargot
Adler’sDrawingDowntheMoon,providescholarsofPaganstudieswithilluminating
accountsofhowPaganismispracticedandwhatPagansbelieve,butdonotmovemuch
pastdescription.This“definitionwork,”asIcallit,wasnecessarytoformabaselineupon
whichotherscholarsmaybuild.Adler’sworkfocusesondefiningtheindividualPagansand
Pikefocusesondefiningthecommunity,servingasusefultoolsforthefoundationofPagan
Studies.WithPaganismasarelativelynewstudyfocus(onlybeingproperlydevelopedin
themid-1980s),thetrendamongitsscholarsseemstomovefromformingafoundationof
scholarlyunderstandingtomoreintricateanalysisofthereligion’scomplexities.Scholars
likeRonaldHutton,MichaelYork,LorettaOrion,LorneDawson,andJoyceandRiver
Higginbothamallprovideaninsightfulfoundationforunderstandingthereligion,anddelve
deeplyintotheactofunderstandingwhatexactlyPaganismisonlevelsevenbeyondwhat
thebelieveandhowtheypractice.JorgensenandRussell’swork“AmericanNeopaganism:
TheParticipants’SocialIdentities,”whichlooksatPaganidentitiesoutsideofthereligious
settingisagoodexampleofthisastheworkgoesbeyondthetypicaldescriptionworkand
looksatPagansoutsideofareligiouscontext.Whilethelinescertainlyblurbetweenwhat
canbelabeled“definition”andwhatcanbethoughtofasan“intricateanalysisofthe
complexitiesofthereligion,”whatisclearwithintheseearlyworksistheperceivedneedto
30
createaclearpictureofwhoaPaganisandwhataPagandoes.Itisnaturalforthe
membersofafieldtofirstfeelanoverwhelmingneedtodescribewhatexactlyitisthat
they’restudyinginordertoformagroundworkforfuturescholars.Asenseoftotalityof
understandingmustfirstbeachievedinordertomoveontobroaderanalysis.
TherearethreeperiodswhichIhaveendeavoredtounderstandandexaminewithin
thestudyofthereligionwhichIwilldiscussindetail.Theseperiods,whichIwillcall
“DefinitionandSynthesis,”“ConsolidationandCommunity,”and“AnalysisandEvolution,”
whichmovefromthebroadtopicsofhowtodefinethereligionasawhole,howthereligion
worksasalargescalecommunity,andfinallyhowthereligionfunctionsinternally.Starting
from1979whenAdler’sfirstversionofDrawingDowntheMoonwaspublished,to2013
withKermani’sPaganFamilyValues,Iwillexaminethewaysinwhichscholarlyapproaches
haveevolvedintheirinterests.
2.2 DEFINITIONANDSYNTHESIS(1980-1995):
MargotAdler,(1979).DrawingDowntheMoon
MargotAdler,ajournalistbyoccupation,Wiccanbychoice,startedoutherjourneytothe
PaganfaiththroughajournalisticeffortinvestigatingthehistoryoftheDruidsinEngland.
Accordingtoherbiographyincludedinherpublishedbooks,Adlerspentmanyyears
devotedtoWiccaandeventuallybecameaHighPriestesswithinCovenantoftheGoddess,a
popularsectofWicca.Adlerisoneofthefirst,alongwithscholarslikeRonaldHutton,todo
whatmaybecalledPublicRelationswork.Inlightofthepublicfirstbecomingfamiliarwith
NewReligiousMovementsinthe60sand70s,therewasaneedtocreateanaccessible
outletforaccurateinformationinanattempttoredirectanymisinformationor
31
misunderstandingthatmightarise.Adler’sbookservedasanoutletthroughwhich
membersofthecommunityasawholemaybetterunderstandPaganismandits
constituents.Manyofthebookspublishedduringthistime,suchasLivingWitchcraft:A
ContemporaryAmericanCoven,seemtobewrittenforandmarketedtopeoplewhoplace
themselvesfirmlyoutsidethecommunityandaimtodispelmisconceptions(Scarboro,
CampbellandStave).However,thesebooksduringthistimeperiodalsoservedasa
doorwayintotheworldofPaganismforpeoplewhowereinterestedinbecominga
memberofthecommunity.WorkssuchasEugeneGallagher’sAReligionWithoutConverts?
BecomingaNeo-Pagan,highlightthisfact.Adlerandothersduringthiseraprovidelater
scholarsofthefieldwithastrongbasisofdefinitionandunderstandingwhichdidnot
previouslyexist.InusingworkssuchasAdler’s,Iamabletomovefarbeyonddefinition
andusethisfoundationasmeanstobuildmyownargumentindirectionsthatwerenot
previouslyattainable.
Adler’sapproachtoPaganismitselfhasbeenonethatisemulatedandfrequently
discussed.AsbotharesearcherofPaganismandaPaganherself,thelinesblurredbetween
whatwasacademicandwhatwaspersonalinAdler’swork,acriticismnotedbyquiteafew
scholarsofthefieldsuchasMarkusDavidseninhisarticle,“WhatisWrongwithPagan
Studies?”Whatstartedoutasarelativelyunbiasedjournalisticenquiryendedupbeingthe
focusoftherestofherreligiousexperiences.Yet,itisperhapspreciselybecauseofthis
connectiontotheinnerworkingsofthereligionthatbeingamemberaffordsherthather
studieshaveproventobeparticularlypanoramicandinsightful.Thus,MargotAdler
occupies,amongmanyotherswhoparticipateinthestudyofPaganism5,thespacebetween
5NotablescholarsofthefieldwhoidentifyasbeinginvolvedpersonallywithPaganisminclude,
amongothers,RonaldHutton,AleisterCrowley,HelenBerger,MichaelYork,andVivianneCrowley.
32
theoutsiderandinsiderpointofview,orrathertheemicandtheeticpointofview.AsI
havemyownpersonalconnectionstoPaganism,althoughIamnotapractitionermyself,
myresearchwassimilarlyenhancedbytherangeofcontactsIwasabletoamassandthe
trustthatwasmoreeasilybuiltbetweenmyPaganinformantsandI.
Adler’sstudy,DrawingDowntheMoon,wasfirstpublishedin1979,andthenwas
republishedseveraltimesuntilitsfinalcopywaspublishedin2006,just8yearsbeforeher
death.MargotAdler’searlyworkserveswithinmyanalysistohelpchartthebeginningsof
thestudy,andprovideanexampleofhowthefocusofstudyishandledbysomeonewhois
explicitlyamemberofthetradition.DrawingDowntheMoonprovidesastrongsenseofthe
origins,holidays,andbeliefsofPaganism,allwhileincludingawidearrayofopinionsand
responsesfromPagansinordertoformadiverseandwell-roundedideaofeachtopic.Her
workprovidesscholarslikemyselfwithacomprehensivefoundationtounderstanding
howthereligionfunctionsasawholeandhowitsmembersconceptualizetheworld
aroundthem.Furthermore,Adlerexemplifiesaproductivewaytotacklethewidelyvarying
andoftencontradictorynarrativessurroundingPaganismwithinherworkwithout
favoringoneviewovertheother.
However,itiswithinthechapter“TheCraftToday,”thatIfoundworkthat
resonatedmoststronglywithmyown.Inthischapter,Adlertakestimetodiscussthe
formationofadefinitionofPaganism,andwhoisallowedtodefineit—aparticular
discussionthatcontinuestothisday6.Adlercomestothedecisionthat“nosingledefinition
appliestoallWiccans,”—aconceptIhavebecomeexceedinglyfamiliarwiththroughmy
ownresearch(Adler97).Adleremphasizesthispointbyincludingfourdifferinganswers
6
Seeagain“WhatisWrongWithPaganStudies?”byMarkusDavidsen(2012)
33
totheseeminglysimplequestion,“Whatisawitch?”Withinmyownresearch,Ihaverarely
foundtwoPaganswhowhollyagreeonanygiventopic—eventhoseasstraightforwardas
whatPaganismis.Basedonherapproach,Adlerseemstobelievethatthetrueand
accepteddefinitionofPaganism—oratleastWicca—shouldbedefinedbythemembersof
thereligionthemselves.
Withinthischapter,“TheCraftToday,”Adleralsoincludesinstancesofperceived
persecution,suchasawomanlosingcustodyofherchildinadivorcehearingafter
admittingtopracticingwitchcraft,andanotherwomanwhowas“setup”byapolice
informerandarrestedforperformingdivination.Shealsotouchesonsomethingwhichis
therootofmyinterestindiscrimination:thatthemoresubtleformofthisdiscrimination
comesfromimagesportrayedintelevisionshowsandinfilmslikeRosemary’sBabyandThe
Exorcist,7althoughtelevisionandfilmstodayprovideamuchwiderarrayofmaterial.Thus,
Adlerprovidesoneofthefirstlooksintothewaydiscriminationismaterializedinregardto
Paganism,howeverAdlergoeslittlefurtherthansimplystatingthattheseinstancesexist.
ThisisyetanotherreasonwhyAdler’sworkisparticularlypertinenttomystudy,asAdler
laysthegroundworkforthinkingaboutrepresentationsinvariousformsofmediathat
becomemisinformationforthosewhoarenotfamiliarwithPaganismorWicca.
Adler’sapproachtodefinitionworkliesattheforefrontofPaganStudies
scholarship,specificallyinitsabilitytoencompassadiverserangeofopinions.Acommon
themeforAdlerandothermembersofthefieldatthistimecanbesummarizedasfollows:
7
Whichshementionsdirectlyinthesubsection“WitchesandPersecutionToday,”ofthechapter5,
“TheCraftToday.”
34
anemphasisondefinition,origin,andmechanics.8Adlerseemstobeinterested,basedon
thetopicscoveredinDrawingDowntheMoon,inthewaysinwhichPaganismfunctions:
howitisjoined,howitsmembersdefinethemselves,andhowitsmembersfunctionin
society.Herfocusisonthedefinitionoftheseaspects,andtheactofformingagreater
understandingofthereligionitself.Adler,muchlikethehistorianRonaldHutton,who
writeslater,workstohelpscholarswhohavenotfocusedonthesubjectpreviously
understandthefoundationofthereligion.Therootoftheworkthatscholarsofthistime
areproducing,isactingassomewhatofapublicliaison.Whatispertinenttorecognizehere
isthatthesepublicrelationseffortsareclearlystillneeded.WhiletheworksofAdler,
Scarboro,Gallagherandmanyothersareundoubtedlywellconstructedeffortstocreate
greatervisibilityandunderstandingofthereligion,Paganismremainstodayahighly
misunderstoodtopicasrevealedinmyownresearch.WhilethedefinitionworkofAdler
andherpeersmaybeleftinthepast,publicrelationsworkisongoingandremainsatthe
forefrontofnecessity.
2.3
CONSOLIDATIONANDCOMMUNITY(1995-2005):
SarahPike(2000).EarthlyBodies,MagicalSelves:ContemporaryPagansandtheSearchfor
Community
8
See“NeverAgaintheBurningTimes:PaganismRevived,”LorettaOrion(1995);“AReligion
WithoutConverts?BecomingaNeo-Pagan,”EugeneGallagher(1994);“LivingWitchcraft:A
ContemporaryAmericanCoven,”Scarboro,Campbell,andStave(1994)
35
SarahPike,aprofessorintheReligiousStudiesdepartmentatCaliforniaStateUniversity,
Chico,representstheinvolvementofapurelyscholarlyinterestinthesubject,unmotivated
byanyprofoundpersonalconnectiontothereligionthatisapparentwithinthework.Itis
intheabsenceofanysuchconnectiontothesubjectthatPike’sbooktakesaclearlymore
scientificapproachtothestudyofthereligion.However,asthestudyisethnographybased,emotionsandopinionsofmembersofthegroupstillformthebasisofthis
narrative’sargument,asmostethnographicmaterialdoes.Pikeusesaparticipantobserver
approachtocreatetheidealamountofinterpersonalconnectionsandthesimultaneous
abilitytomaintainthedistancethatisnecessarytoperformunbiasedanalysis.Myresearch
usesasimilarethnographicapproach,blendingtheaspectsinsiderconnectionpresentin
Adler’swork,withelementsofparticipantobservationfoundinPike’swork.Likeothers
duringthistimeperiod,Pike’sworkspecificallyallowsforfurtherunderstandingofthe
fluidityofthereligion,andprovidesabasisofunderstandinghowPaganismworksasa
communityratherthanjustindividuals.Otherworkspublishedduringthistimesuchas
“PaganTheology:PaganismasaWorldReligion,”byMichaelYork,“FindingaFolklore,”by
RonaldHutton,and“theStatusofWitchcraftintheModernWorld,”byWilhelmMannhardt
paralleltheworkofPiketoformagreatersensePaganisminalargercontextandasa
community.IndiscussingPaganismasitconnectstootherreligionsanditsborrowing
techniquesthataredescribedinPike’sworkandothers’,providethefieldasawholewitha
betterandmorewellroundedunderstandingofthefluidityofPaganismanditsmany
definitions.Astheattainmentofanimmobileandconcretedefinitionprovestobe
inappropriateforthistopic,scholarsthusmovetoattempttobetterunderstandtheways
inwhichthereligionmovesoutsideofastabledelineation.
36
PikemovesbeyondthegroundworklaidoutbeforeherbyscholarssuchasAdlerin
thatsheintroducesananalysisofhowsomeofthecomplexitiesofthereligionfunctionand
introducesnewandinterestingwaystolookattheformationofmodernPaganism.Pike
conductedobservationsandinterviewsduringseverallargePaganfestivalsinWestern
America,providinginsightsintohowPagansinteractasacommunityastheycome
togetherforvariousevents.ContrastingAdler’sapproachofemphasizingthedifferences
thatexistwithinthereligion,Pikeallowsthereaderstounderstandthewaysinwhich
Pagansformacommunityandactwithinit.Thepracticeofgroundingherethnographic
researchintheattendanceoffestivalshasoccasionallybeencriticizedbecause“Quiet,
everydaypracticesandbeliefsmaynotberevealedintheheightenedcircumstancesof
theseboundedevents”(Noonan98).ItisinthiswaythatPike’sparticularapproachwould
notbeadequateforastudysuchasmine,whichexaminesthenuancesofinteractionand
information-flowbetweenPagansandtheoutsidecommunity.However,Iwouldargue
thatforPike’sspecificresearchtopic,thatofhowPagansformacommunity,theideaof
focusingonfestivalsseemsaptandpointed.WithsomanyPaganspracticingassolitaries
andothercovensprovingdifficulttocontactasIhaveoutlinedinChapter1,festivalsseem
tobetheperfectplacetoreachmanyofthesepreviouslyunreachablecorrespondents,as
theyhavebeenformyownresearchaswell.Otherworksduringthiseraalsoexplorethis
idea,andattempttobetterunderstandthereligionthroughaspectssuchasthewaythey
formcommunitiesratherthansimplytheirbeliefsystemssuchas“CivilReligionAspectsof
Neo-Paganism,”anarticlebyMichaelYorkpublishedinthePomegranate,apeer-reviewed
journalfocusedonPaganstudies,and“AModestLookatRitualNudity,”byRonaldHutton.
Theseworksandotherduringthistimemovetowardunderstandingthereligiononlarger
societalscalebyconnectingaspectsofthereligiontootheraspectsofsocietysuchasCivil
37
ReligionandModesty.Theseworksalsoseemlessinterestedinspendingalotoftime
participatinginthepublicrelationsworkofthepreviousera.
Pike,likeAdler,mentionstheinevitablepersecutionstoriesthatcropupwhen
speakingaboutPaganism,butlikewisedoesnotmoveforwardbeyondthemereassertion
thattheseinstancesexist.Whileadmittedlyitwasnotherpurportedgoaltodoso,Pike
doesnottakemuchofastanceonwhytheseinstancesoccurandinwhatwaysthe
communityresponds.Inordertocreateamorecomprehensiveviewofthecommunity,I
believeitisimportanttounderstandhowtheyareaffectedbyadversityandstressjustas
muchasitisimportanttounderstandhowtheyfunctionintimeswithoutthistension.AsI
willdiscussinChapter4,Pagansformcommunaltiesandfindsolidarityinsharingstories
ofdiscriminationandusetheexperiencesofotherstoformopinionsonhowoneshould
behaveasaPagan—forexample,whetheritisnecessarytokeeptheirreligionasecretor
not.
Thisbookandotherworksofthistimeshowanevolution(whileinnowaylinear)
ofthescholarlyattentioninthefield.Theyprovideuswithaninsightintohowthestudy
developedfromabasisofdefinitionworktobeginningtofeelcomfortablemovingonto
larger,morepanoramictopicssuchascommunityformationwhichisdiscussedinPike’s
work.However,Pikestillremainswithinthecategoryofdefinitioninthatsheseemstobe
onlyperipherallyconcernedwithsocietalimplicationsofherfindingsandisfocusedmore
adamantlyonattemptingtoformasolidoutlineofthePagancommunityasawhole.Prior
tothisera,scholarshadbeenfocusedprimarilyonthedefinitionofwhatanindividual
Paganmightbeandhowheorshemightfunction.EarthlyBodies,MagicalSelvestakesthis
understandingofPagansasindividualsandbuildsuponitbyformingafoundationof
knowledgeofhowPagansmaybedefinedandunderstoodtofunctionasacommunity.
38
Movingbeyondsolelyfoundation-formingdefinitionwork,scholarsnowshowinterestin
thevariouswaysPaganismfunctionsasasocietalmicrocosm.Thisinterestcontinuesinto
thenextera,inwhichscholarsnotonlylookatPaganismasamicrocosm,butalsothe
microcosmswithinPaganism.
2.4 ANALYSISANDEVOLUTION(2005–Present):
S.ZohrehKermani,(2013).PaganFamilyValues,childhoodandthereligiousimaginationin
contemporaryAmericanPaganism
S.ZohrehKermanirepresentswhatIwouldcallathirdwaveofstudywithinthescholarly
worldofPaganStudiesofwhichthisstudyitselfisapart.Afteroverthreedecadesof
ceaselesseffortstodefinenotonlyPagansasindividuals,thecommunityofPagansat
variouslevels,andeventhestudyofPaganismitself,thefieldemergeswithavisibly
increasedsenseofconfidenceinitslegitimacyandrigor.Itisduringthistimethatonemay
see,throughvariousoutlets,theintroductionofworksfocusedentirelyontheimplications
ofvariousreligiouscomplexitiesandinspectionofsmallerdetailsofPaganlife.While
KermaniandIworkonverydifferenttopics,weshareasenseofnecessitytogetintothe
everydayexperiencesofPagansandhowtheirexperiencesaffectsthem,aswellasforming
abetterunderstandingofthewaystheymanagetheiridentitiesinthenon-Paganworld.
OtherworkspublishedaroundthistimeechobothmyownandKermani’sapproachto
Paganstudies,suchas“BecomingaVirtualPagan:‘Conversion’orIdentityConstruction?”
byJamesR.Lewis,“PaganPrayerandWorship:AQualitativeStudyofPerceptions,”by
JanetGoodall,EmyrWilliams,andCatherinGoodall.Scholarsatthispointduringthe
developmentofthefieldaremoreconfidentinitslegitimacyanddonothavetodoasmuch
39
groundworkandfoundationbuildingassomeonelikeRonaldHuttonorMargotAdlerwho
beganstudyingthereligioninthe1970s.WithKermani,thefieldalsoshowsaheightened
interestfromgraduatesofeliteuniversities,whichrepresentsasignificantchangeinits
statuswithintheacademicworld.
InPaganFamilyValues,the“firstethnographicstudyoftheeverydaylivesof
contemporaryPaganfamilies,”Kermanibringsanothersideoftheconversationtolight
(backcover).WhilePikewasabletoapproachPaganismasasocietalmicrocosm,Kermani
layssignificantgroundworkforapproachingthelayersofexperiencewithinPaganism
itself—suchaschildhoodwithinthereligionandhowPaganfamiliesfunction.Inobserving
thewaythatPaganfamiliesliveandfunctionasaunit,Kermaniallowsroomfor
examinationofthewaysinwhichPaganismispasseddownandinculcatedintofamilylife
andthelivesofyoungchildren.Formanydecades,Paganismwasreferredtotimeandtime
againasthe“religionofconverts,”meaningthatnearlyallofthemembersofthereligion
werenotbornintoitbutrathercametoitontheirown(Kermani8).Now,afternearlythe
fifthdecadeofPaganism’smodernpopularity,scholarsarestartingtonoticethewaysin
whichthereligionispassedontochildrenasthefoundationsandtiesofthereligion
strengthenwiththepassingoftime.
Kermanitakestheaccepteddifficultiesofthereligion,suchasitsvaryingdefinitions
amongitsmembers,andinspectshowthesefunctiononafamiliallevel,andhowitis
explainedtoandunderstoodbychildren.KermaniusesthegroupSpiralScouts,atroop
similartoaBoyScouttroopbutforchildrenfromPaganfamilies,toexaminehowthey
approachthedefinitionofPaganism.Although“thediversityofapproachestoreligionwas
evident…”thetroopleadersreconciletheaforementionedtensionofvaryingdefinitions
describedbyAdlerbyusingsimpleanalogiestoexplaintheseconceptsanddosorather
40
fruitfully—explainingtheelementsandtheirconceptswithideaswithwhichchildrenare
familiar(Kermani128).Theexistenceofsuchagroupalsobringsintotheconversationthe
ideathatthesegroupsarebecomingmorepublicallyacceptable,signalingthechanging
landscapeofhowpeoplebothenterandlivewithinthereligion.
KermaniexploresthecommonidealthatPaganismistherootofallotherreligions,
usingthepersonaltestimoniesofPagansasthemajorityofscholarsbeforeherhavedone.
KermanicitesonePaganmother,explaining:“IbelievePaganismistheoldestfaith,
reachingtothedawnofcivilizationwhenhumansrealizedtherewerepowersgreaterthan
themselves,”whosesentimentisechoedwithinmyownobservations,hearingmanytimes
theideathatthehistoricalrootsofPaganismoutlastthoseofanyotherreligion(Kermani
32).Thisseemstobearootoflegitimization,andaproductiveoneatthat.Withareligion
thatissohistoricallyandpersonallyrecent,itisunderstoodbythescholarlycommunity
thatthislegitimizationwithinhistoryisnecessaryformanypractitioners.9
Kermanialsoportraysthefield’srecentchangefromusingtermssuchas“Neopagan”or“NewAge,”torefertothePaganreligion.Thisismostlikelytheresultofdissent
frompractitionersofthereligion,claimingthatthisideaofthenewnessofthereligion
illegitimatestheirsenseofidentityandimportancewithinthereligiousworld.Informants
ofmyownhavestatedthatthey“hatetheideaofcallingit‘Neo-paganism’becauseit’snot
new.It’sactuallytheoldestreligionintheworld,”reaffirmingtheideaofprideinits
historicalpresence,andtheirfirmassertionsthatthereligionwhichtheypracticetodayis
oneandthesame(P201).
9
Barner-Barryreferencesthisideainherworkduringthisperiod,citingalackoflegitimizationas
apossiblesourceofdiscrimination.
41
KermaniandherpeersinPaganStudiesduringthisera,suchasCarolBarner-Barry,
PegAlio,andHannahJohnston,providemystudywithabasisfromwhichImayformmy
ownapproachtothecomplexitiesandimplicationsofvariousaspectsofPaganism.Inthe
samewaythatKermaniusesthelensoffamilialconstructsthroughwhichtoanalyze
essentialpartsofPaganism(suchasthefield’sfirsttopic;itsdefinition),Ianalyzereactions
todiscriminationasawaytofurtherunderstandthereligionanditsfollowersasawhole.
Herwork,alongwiththescholars’mentionedabove,hasprovidedmeaclearperspective
onhowPaganidentitiesareformedandhowtheyinteractwiththenon-Paganworld
outsideofthetermsofdiscrimination.Inordertocomprehendthewaysinwhich
discriminationaffectsthePaganidentity,Imustalsounderstanditwithinothercontexts,
suchasthecontextofPaganfamiliesandchildrenwhichKermaniprovides.Thisworkand
otherfromthiseraprovidemewiththetoolsnecessarytoperformmyanalysismore
thoroughlyandaccurately.
2.5
PreviousWorkonDiscrimination
Whiletherehavebeenfewindepthinquiriesintoinstancesofdiscriminationwithin
Paganismandhowtheymanifestthemselves,theonlymajorexistingstudyinthisareais
presentedinCarolBarner-Barry’s2005publication,ContemporaryPaganism,Minority
ReligionsinMajoritarianAmerica,whichfocusesonthewaysinwhichlesser-practiced
religionsfunctioninasocietydominatedbyChristianity.Barner-Barrycentersheranalysis
onPaganismandclaimsthattheseideascanbeappliedtoabroaderrangeofreligionsas
“allnon-ChristiangroupsinAmericahavetheseexperiences[ofdiscriminationand
42
subjugation]inonewayoranother,”duetothedominatingnatureofChristianitywithin
Americansociety(Barner-Barryix).Sheworkswiththeideathatlarger,majoritarian
communitiesfunctioninawaythatthecreationofminoritiesisinevitable.Thereare
alwaysbothmembersofacommunity,andthosewhodonotqualifyasapartofit.BarnerBarryusesAmericanmainstreamChristianityinordertoexaminethewaysinwhich
Paganismformsasocietal“other.”Whilethisapproachisusefulandclearlyfruitful,I
wouldarguethatlookingatdiscriminationsimplyfromtheChristianperspectiveislimiting
anddoesnotprovideanadequatelyencompassingviewoftheproblemastherearemany
otherculturalaspectsthatleadtothediscriminationofPaganismwhichwillbediscussed
inChapter3.
ContemporaryPaganism,MinorityReligionsinMajoritarianAmerica,likevirtually
everyoneofitspredecessors,beginsthediscussionwithadefinitionofitsterms:what
discriminationmeansinthiscontextandwhatactionsareconsidereddiscrimination.Inthe
firstchapter,Barner-Barrylaysoutthetermsofherstudy,whichisoftennecessarytogeta
diverseaudience,liketheaudienceofPaganpublications,onthesamepage.Shereaffirms
thecovertideasofmanyauthorsbeforehersuchasAdler,Pike,andYork,incitinganeed
tofindlegitimacywithinPaganism.Assertingthatalackoflegitimacy,alongwithalackof
understandingandlackofgroup-wideorganizationleadstodiscrimination,Barner-Barry
furtherexplainsthisideaintermsofChristianity.Thisworkprovidesmyresearchwitha
basisforbetteridentifyingthesediscriminatoryactionswithinthecommunityIam
studyingandalsorecognizinghowtheyaffectthePagancommunity.Accordingtoher,
therearethreemainwaysthatreligiousdiscriminationgetscarriedoutbyChristians:
(1)“harmfulactionsthataretakenthroughdisinterestandlackofunderstanding,”
(2)“attemptstoconvertorforceChristianityonpeopleespousingminority
religions,”and
43
(3)“outrightandmaliciousattemptstotrytodriveminorityreligiouspeopleand
theirorganizationsfromcommunities”(Barner-Barry5).
Thisoutlineispertinenttomystudy,specificallyinthatitprovidesmewithaconcrete
basisaccordingtowhichImayqualifyactsasdiscriminatoryalthoughtheymaynot
directlybephysicallyoremotionallyharmful.Specifically,initialdisinterestand/orlackof
understandingcoloralmostalldiscriminatoryattitudesofnon-Pagans.Withherwork,Iam
thusabletobetterunderstandhowtheseactsofdiscriminationcanberootedwithinthe
cultureofChristianity,whichisamainfocusinmyanalysis.
Whatisparticularlyuniqueaboutthiswork,however,isitsemphasisoncreatinga
legalbasisforwhatisbeingsaid.Barner-Barrydevotesanentirechaptertothediscussion
ofalegalfoundationthathasfosteredanenvironmentabundantwithreligious
discriminationthatisinterestinglyplacedbetweenthetwobeginningchaptersfocusingon
definition.ItisclearthatBarner-Barryfeelsthatadiscussionofthislegalrealmisintegral
inadiscussionofidentityandpublicunderstanding.Shespendsanentirechapter—the
firstofthework—discussingthelegalbackgroundofreligiousdiscriminationagainst
Paganism(Barner-Barry9-29).Infact,shefindsawaytoincorporatelegalcasesintoevery
topicshebringstolight,includingwhetherornotPaganismqualifiesasareligion,andthe
topicofaccusationsofdevil-worship.
Fromalegalstandpoint,thereaderisprovidedwithaslewofpolicies,amendments,
appeals,andthelike,inordertobetterunderstandhowminorityreligionsareacceptedor
notacceptedwithinAmericansociety.Movingfromthehistoricalbasisofreligious
freedom,citingthenarrowscopeofthefirstamendmentwhichappliedonlytovarious
formsofChristianity,totheReligiousFreedomRestorationActsthatbeganin1993,
Barner-BarryshowsthatasthescholarlycommunitysurroundingPaganismhaschanged
44
andevolvedovertheyears,sotoohasthelegaldiscoursesurroundingthetopic—albeiton
amuchlongertimescale(Barner-Barry19).Constantlyqualifyingherchoiceofstudy,
Barner-BarryagainassertsthatshespecificallychosetostudyPagansasthey“representan
extremeexampleofthekindsofsituationsthatwillcontinuetoariseasmoreandmore
Americanspracticereligionsthattheirfellowcitizensdonotunderstandandmayeven
fear,”(Barner-Barry27).
Throughoutherwork,Barner-BarryisalsoabletoanalyzeaccusationsofSatanism,
whichisthebasisofdiscriminationformanymisinformedChristians.Withoutworkingina
viableframeworktoextensivelydiscussthis,manyscholarsbeforeherhaveignoredthe
topicalltogether.Barner-BarrycitesthewordsusedbyPaganstodescribetheirpractices
asparticularlycondemning,suchaswitch,andwitchcraft,whichhaveovertlynegative
connotations,thusleadingtheword“pagan”tocarry“vaguelynegativeovertones,”aswell
(Barner-Barry58).Barner-Barrymovesfurtherthansimplyclaimingthatthese
accusationsexistaswasthetypicaltrendinstudiesbeforehers,andexplainshowPagans
respondtotheseaccusations,citingthat“withinthemainstreamofcontemporaryPagans,
thereisaninsistencethatSatanisnotevenrelevanttoPaganism,”andthat“Satanists
usuallyturnthepentagramupsidedown,but(asPaganspointout)thisisnodifferentfrom
Satanists’tendencytoinvertthecross”(Barner-Barry60).Thiscomparisontothe
inversionoftheChristiancrossisastatementthatIhaveheard,verbatim,inseveral
interviews.
Barner-Barryalsoincludesanentirechapterfocusedon“outwarddiscrimination,”
somethingthathas,inmostcasesbeforeher,beenlessadequatelyaddressed(BarnerBarry147).However,asIhavereiteratedmanytimeswithinthiswork,Barner-Barrydoes
notgofurtherthantostateinstancesofdiscriminationagainstPagans,ratherthan
45
analyzinghowtheseinstancesaffectthepracticeofPaganismasawhole.Barner-Barryalso
focusesontheseinstancesfrommoreofalegalstandpointratherthanthatofacultural
analysis.Thisapproachisinvaluabletomyownresearchaswellasthefieldasawholein
formingabetterunderstandingofthetypesofdiscriminationatstake.However,the
broaderculturalsphereiswhererealchangesinattitudeandtheiraffectsmaybe
observed,andthusitisequallyimportant—ifnotmoreso—toexaminetheprocessesat
workinthatrealmaswell.
Heroverallemphasisonlegalissuesbringsup,again,thetopicoflegitimization.Is
Barner-BarryherselftryingtolegitimizethestudyofPaganismandreligious
discriminationthoughadiscourseoflegalaction?Throughoutthebook,therearemany
instanceswhereitseemsasifBarner-Barryfeelstheneedtoqualifyherchoiceofstudying
Paganism,suggestingpossibleanxietysurroundingtheperceptionoflegitimacyofsucha
choicebyherpeers.Itseemsperhapsmorelikelythatthisneedtolegitimizeastudysuch
asthisstemsfromaphenomenonI’vealreadymentioned—namelythatthemajorityofthe
populationseemsunawareofPaganismasareligionandthusequallyunawareofthe
problematstake.
Ibuildoffofthisfoundationandtakemyunderstandingofthefieldinadirection
notpreviouslyemphasized:thatoftheeffectsofdiscrimination.Thereisrelativelylittle
closeethnographicexaminationofthediscriminationagainstPaganism,andevenless
discussionofthisissueasaseriousproblemforPagans.EthnographerslikeSarahPikeand
TanyaLuhrmannintheirbooksEarthlyBodies,MagicalSelves,andPersuasionsofthe
Witch’sCraft,respectively,provideusefulinsightsintohowPaganismfunctionsasaculture
andacknowledgethatdiscriminationinevitablyexists,yetwhatisnotdevelopedinmany
currentworksisanyanalysisoftheexactconsequencesofreligiousdiscrimination.
46
Barner-Barry’sstudyisastepintherightdirection,butscholarsinthisfieldhavenot
yetadequatelyaddressedhowexactlycurrentdiscriminationhasaffectedthewayinwhich
Paganismispracticedandfunctionsinasocietyofdiversereligions,theymerelyprovethat
thisdiscriminationandcommunityexist,whilecurrentlyexpandingonotherfocusesof
analysissuchasconversionandfamilyvalues,howtostudythetopic,andtheeffectsofthe
internet.Mystudyaddressesthistopicinawaythathasnotyetbeenapproached.Building
offofthefoundationthesescholarshavelaidbeforeme,thisresearchgoesbeyond
descriptiontouncoverthehiddeninnerworkingsofsystemsofdiscriminationand
misinformation.AsIhavestatedpreviously,acycleofsecrecyandmisunderstandingfirmly
linksnon-PagansandPaganswithintheculturalcommunityofPittsburghandonalarger
scaleaswell.Inanalyzingthewordsandactionsofbothpartsofthecommunity,Iamable
tobetterunderstandtheoriginsofdiscriminationandwaysinwhichthecyclemaybe
addressedtofosteragreatersenseofreligioustolerancewithinthecommunityatlarge.
47
3.0
CHAPTERTHREE
3.1
DEALINGWITHDIFFERENCE:THENON-PAGANVIEW
3.1.1 ConceptualizingtheUnfamiliar
DuringthetimethatIhavespentstudyingthistopicandthepeopleinvolvedinit,Ihave
interviewedpeopleacrossvaryingagerangesandsocioeconomicbackgrounds.Mydiverse
poolofinformantsincludesmembersofthenon-Pagancommunityasoldas67andas
youngas18,with23otherinformantsevenlydispersedbetweenthoseages.Their
occupationsvary,butduetoresidinginaheavilyuniversity-orientedarea,thereissome
stratificationtowardscareersinacademicfieldsorstudents.Myinformants’occupations
rangefromanEmeritusProfessor,anAdministrativeDirector,anewlyhiredmemberof
thehealthprofession,andafirstyearcollegestudent.Ofthe25informants,21identified
withanabrahamicreligion—theother4identifyingasagnosticoratheist.Allofmy
informantshaveHighSchooldiplomas,and19have,orareworkingtowardssomelevelof
highereducationsuchasanassociatesdegree,atechnicalcertificate,oradoctorate.While
thediversityofmyinformantsisclear,whatisintriguingisthatdespitetheirdifferent
backgrounds,experiences,andreligions,acommonnon-Pagannarrativeappearstoexist
regardingtheirunderstandingofPaganism.Regardlessofthefactthatonlyoneperson
whodidnotidentifywiththePagancommunityhadeveractuallymetaPagan,each
informanthadaclearideaofwhattheythoughtwitchcraftwouldbe.Theseideashave
similarorigins,mostnotablyfromreligiousandpopularculturesources.Inlieuofany
48
easilyaccessed,accurateinformation,thepolarized,fantasticalimagesfoundinthemedia
andinreligiousdepictionscolortheopinionsofnon-Pagansinahighlydetrimentalway.
Keepinginmindanypossibleinaccuraciesbasedontheinfluenceoftheinterview
processwhichwillbeaddressedbelow,itremainsclearthattherearethreemain
touchstonesonwhichtheinformantsbasetheirideasofandsubsequentreactionto
Paganism:referencesfoundinpopularculture,religiousdoctrine,andtheirideasof
normativity.Intheabsenceofanyrealfamiliaritywiththereligion,theinformantslook
backtopointsintheirexperiencewheretheyhavecomeacrosssomethingrelatedtothe
wordsbeingused(like“witch”or“witchcraft”)anddrawuponthesetosupplementtheir
understandingoftheunfamiliar.Fromimagesthey’veseeninmovies,thingsthey’vebeen
toldinreligioussettings,orsimplyrecognizingsomethingaslyingoutsidetheirideaof
“normal,”theyforminferencesaboutwhatthereligionofPaganismis,whatarealwitch
mightbe,anddiscernwhetherornotitissomethingthatshouldbetakenseriously.As
thesepatchworkopinionsresultfromagapinknowledge,thetruerootofdiscriminationin
thecaseofPaganismisalmostundoubtedlyignorance.Becausethereisalackofvisibleand
accurateinformationregardingthereligionandhowitispracticed,peopleoutsideofthe
communitysimplydon’thaveanoutlettoreplacethefalseimagespresentedtotheminthe
sourcesmentionedabove.However,beforedelvingtoodeeplyintothisanalysisitis
importanttoaddresswhatseemstobelostintranslation.
3.1.2 TranslatingFictionalImageryintoReality
49
Whatisstriking,whenspeakingtothenon-Pagansubjects,isthattheyseemtobetalking
aboutalmostacompletelyseparatetopicalltogether.Whenanon-Paganhearstheword
witch,themajoritydonotthinkofreligioninanyway,shape,orform.Tothem,religionis
placedfirmlyinchurchesandinthehandsofwellestablishedandadvertisedbelief
systems—allthingsthatthePaganreligiondoesnotinclude.Whenaskedwhatthey
thoughtawitchmightbe,23outof25informantsreferencedpopularimagesfabricated
solelyfortelevisionandentertainmentthathadnobearingonthePaganreligionatall.Itis
inattemptingtotranslatetheirknowledgeoftheword“witch”toreallifethatthepotential
fordiscriminationexists.
ThewayaPagantalksaboutwitchcraftorwitches,haslittlesimilaritytothewaysin
whichanon-Paganexplainsthesametopic.Itisspecificallywithinthewordswitchand
witchcraftandtheirchargedhistorythatthereseemstobeadisconnectbetweenreality
andperception.OnePagan,a48-year-oldwhohasbeenpracticingfor20yearswould
explainherworshipor“witchcraft”as“focusingalltheirenergyonachievingagoaland
askingtheGoddessandelementsforthestrengthtodoso,”muchlikepraying,echoingthe
sentimentsofthemajorityofotherPaganswithwhomIspoke(P201).Simultaneously,
almostallnon-Pagansreferencedsomesortof“blackmagic,”whichbarelyevenexistsin
thePaganworld,andmanynon-Pagansusewordslike“manipulation,”“otherworldly
powers,”“potions,spellsandmagic,”andeven“demonstuff”(NP113)(NP115)(NP114)
(NP101).Suchlanguagedemonstratesthestronglypolarizedfeelingsandideas
surroundingtheword“witchcraft”whichthusbecomesequatedwithPaganismby
association.ThisideaofblackmagicanddevilworshiphasnorealbearingwithinPagan
ideology,andimpliesalargegapbetweenrealityandmisinformation.Oneinformant,John,
50
a28-year-oldemployeeatalocalrestaurantwhoidentifiesasCatholic,explainedthis
sentimentclearly:
WhenIheartheword‘witchcraft,’Ialmostimmediatelygetthisfearinmystomach.
Ithinkofpeopleraisingthedead,puttingcursesonpeople,thatkindofstuff.Using
thingsliketoadsandratstomakegreenpotionsinabigcauldronandalsostuffI’ve
seenonT.V.Iassociateitwithevil(NP125).
Anotherinformant,Rick,arecentgraduateofcollegeandnewlyhiredhealthcareworker
defensivelyechoedthissentimentofevil:“Imean,historicallyit’salwaysbeenportrayedas
evil.So,it’snotlikeit’swrongtoseeitthatwaybecausethat’showit’salwaysbeen
portrayed”(NP123).Rickexemplifiesthecommonjustificationofmassdiscriminationby
rootinghisopinionsintheopinionofthemajority.AlthoughPaganismitselfisnota
religionbasedonevil,thefactthatothersbeforehimhavethoughtthisway(anextremely
powerfulsocialforce)allowshimjustificationforhisunfoundedopinion.Theidealof
conformitythatexistswithinRick’sstatementshedslightonwhyshowingnegative
portrayalsofwitchcraftinthemediamightservetoreifydiscriminatoryopinions.
Juxtaposingthesedefinitionsandkeywords,aPaganoffersanentirelydifferentset
ofdescriptionssuchas“connection,”“focus,”and“energywork”(P212)(P213).One
PaganreferencesapopularoccultauthorDionFortunetobetterexplaintomethewayshe
conceptualizeswitchcraft:
Itakeahighlypsychologicalandspiritualviewofwitchcraft,bestsummedupby
DionFortune'sdefinitionofmagicas‘theartofcausingchangesinconsciousnessin
accordancewiththewill.’10Philosophically,forme,thisdoesnotnecessarilymean
thatmagicisallinyourhead,althoughIdobelievethatcertainquirksofhuman
psychologycontributeto‘magicalthinking.’Instead,Ibelievethatchangesin
consciousnessfacilitateamagicalmindset,providingtheawareness,openness,
sensitivity,focus,andreceptivitynecessarytoexperiencemagic,ifitistohappen(P
227).
10
This quote is originally attributed to Aleister Crowley, and has been adapted many times by
various Pagan authors.
51
Thisexplanationismilesawayfromtheopinionsandconceptionsofthenon-Pagansabove.
Becausewordslikewitchandwitchcrafthavesuchaninaccurateandnegativemeaningfor
membersoutsideofthereligion,thisbreedsideasthathavealmostnothingtodowiththe
realreligionandwhichseemtobethesourceofthenatureoftheprejudiceatstake.What
furthercomplicatesthisideaisthefactthatPagansconsciouslychoosetoreclaimwords
suchaswitchandwitchcraftandthewordPaganitselfisthoughttobeareclaimed
derogatoryterm.Thus,themodernPagancommunityconsciouslychosestograpplewith
thesepreconceivedimagesandideas.
3.1.3 “Witchcraft?LikeCauldronsandFlyingBroomsticksandPointyHatsand
Stuff?”
Throughoutthemajorityofinterviews,referencetopopularcultureisoftenbroughtup
withoutprompting,asisalreadyevidentfromthequotesabove.Whenaskedthesources
fortheirideasofPaganismandwitchcraft,18outof25citedacombinationoffilm,books,
T.V.,orsimply“themedia.”Aportionoftheseinformantsevenciteparticularworksfrom
whichtheirideasstem,suchasthepopularT.V.showSupernatural,theclassicfilmThe
WizardofOz,orthepopularbookseriesHarryPotter.Allthreehavebeenexplicitly
referencedbymanyofmyinformantsandallfeaturevaryingdegreesofinterpretationof
theideaofwitchcraft.
Theseworksofpopularculturearealikeinthateachoneincludesastrong
connectionbetweenwitchesanddarkmagic.Sarah,a20-year-oldstudentatalocal
universitywhoidentifiesaslooselyChristianexplainedwitchcraft’spresenceinthe
populartelevisionseriesSupernaturalwhenaskedwhatshethoughtthepracticeof
52
witchcraftmightbe,makingthelinkbetweenfictionandherrealideasofPaganism
apparent:
I’dprobablyguessthatwitchcraftisanegativething.IntheshowSupernatural,
witchesaretiedheavilytobeingevil,andeventhoughtherearewitchesonthe
showwhoarelessevilthanothers,theyareonlylessevilbecausetheydon’t
practicetherituals.
Sointheshow,goodritualsdon’texist?
Yeah.Theonlywayagoodwitchcanbegoodisiftheydon’tpracticerituals.The
spellbooks,incantations,andallofthatarealljustusedfornegativethingslike
necromancy.SoIguesstherootofwitchcraftisevil.There’salwaysasortof
spookinessaroundthosescenes(NP101).
ForSarah,themostmemorableandimportantimageofwitchcraftthatshehasexperienced
isthatwhichportraysthepracticeofwitchcraftasinherentlyevil.AsSarahimmediately
broughtthisupwhenaskedaboutherreal-lifeopinionsaboutthetopic,theconnection
betweenfictionandrealityforherseemstobeblurred.Whenaskedwhatshethoughta
real-lifewitchmightbelike,Sarahresponded“Wait…dotheyactuallyexist?”(NP101).
Becausethewordswitchandwitchcrafthaveneverbeenanythingotherthanobjectsof
fictiontoher,understandingtheirplaceinrealityisdifficult.Thisdifficultystemsdirectly
fromthelackofasourceofviableinformationonthereligionitself.
IntheWizardofOz,thereisagaintheideaofthe“badwitch,”thistimeportrayedto
anevenmoreridiculousextentcompletewithflyingmonkeys.HarryPotterisamore
intriguinglyneutralportrayalofwitchcraft,howeverthefantasticalityofthestoryfallsfar
fromreality.Whatisinteresting,however,isthatthesethreeexamplesthatwerecited
includepositiveportrayalsofwitchcraft,butforthemostparttheimagesthatstickinthe
viewers’memoriesarethenegativeones.Forexample,Jacob,aprofessoratalocal
university,echoedthissentimentdirectlywhenaskediftheWizardofOzincludesa
benevolentwitchaswell:“yes,butdoesanyonerememberthatone?”(NP117).Rick,the
recentgraduatementionedpreviously,alsomentionedtheproblemofmemorabilityin
53
termsofthenegativestereotypes.Whenaskedaboutthepositiveportrayalofawitchin
theWizardofOz,hestatedthat
Galindaisn’ttheimagethatstickswithyouatall.Lookingbackinmymemorytothe
movie,IcanhardlyrememberwhatsheevenlookedlikewhereasIcoulddrawyoua
pictureofthebadoneprettyaccurately,facialfeaturesandall.Galindadidn’tdo
anythingexcitinginthemovie,buttheWickedWitchhadalltheintensemoments
(NP123).
Itseemsthatthereasonthesenegativeportrayalsbecomesopopularisbecausethatis
whatisexcitingand/ordisturbingandfearful.TherealityofPaganismanditspractices
maynotquiteliveuptothesefantasticalimagesofwitchcraftandthusisnearlynever
showninthemedia—especiallynotforashowwhosegoalistobeexciting,eye-catching,
andmysteriousliketheWizardofOzorSupernatural.Whatmakesasuccessfulmovie,
televisionshow,orbookisincludingthingsthatengagetheaudience’sattention.Judgingby
multipleinformants’reactionstoGalindatheGoodWitchintheWizardofOzasopposedto
theWickedWitchoftheWest,benevolentmagicdoesn’tprovidethepotentialforcreating
momentsthatexcitetheaudienceaseasilyasdarkmagicdoes.
Beyondsimplyportrayingwitchcraftasnegative,themajorityoftheseworksof
popularculturethatincludewitchcraftarealsomarketedtoeitherchildrenoryoung
adults.FilmssuchasHocusPocus,whichwasmentionedby5informantsbetweentheages
of19and25-years-old,wasproducedbyWaltDisneyPicturesandwasoriginallyseenby
themajorityofthosewhomentioneditonthepopularchildren’stelevisionchannel,The
DisneyChannel(NP102)(NP103)(NP115)(NP118)(NP121).HocusPocus,asIwill
discussinfurtherdetailinChapter4,includesthepopulartropeofchildrenbeingstolenby
witcheswhichismostnotablyincludedinthefairytalesRapunzelandHanselandGretel.It
isnosurprisethatthepeoplewhogrewupwatchingthesekindsoffilmsandtelevision
showsnowdescribewitchcraftusingwordslike“devil’spractice,”ordescribingitas
54
“naughty”(NP112)(NP107).Thesecommonwitch-tropesthatarefoundinpopularmedia
likethefilmHocusPocusandtheWizardofOzseemtobe,forthemostpart,most
commonlyrecycledideasfromchildren’sfairytales.Cinderella,SleepingBeauty,Rapunzel,
SnowWhite,HanselandGretel,areallhouse-holdstoriestoldtochildrenoverandover
again,aremadeandre-madeintofull-lengthfilmsandstorybooks,andallinclude
witchcraftandmagicasacentraltheme—whetherit’sthewickedoldwitch,orthefairy
godmother.Itisfromthesestoriesthatthepopulardescriptionofthehideousoldwoman,
aswellastheideaofthebeautiful,“bewitching”versionisbroughtintothemindsof
childrenveryearlyon.Imagesfromthesestoriesshowthetypeoffantasiesthatexisted
surroundingvariousaspectsof“witches,”whetheritbetheterrifyingoldwomanwho
wantedtocookandeatchildrenfromHanselandGretelorthestunningandevilwoman
whowouldperformanymagicshecouldtomaintainheryouthandbeautyfromSnow
White.Withtheindoctrinationofsuchideasearlyoninchildhood,itisnosurprisethatthe
majorityofnon-Paganswoulddescribewitchesthewaythattheyhave:“Creepyold
woman,”“spooky,evil,”“naughty,inawhimsicalway,”allresonatewiththeimageryof
thesefairytalevillainsandwithalmosteverydepictioninpopularculturetoday(NP101)
(NP104).Thisimageryhasbeenrepeatedandreplicatedthroughoutthecourseofour
modernhistory,ingrainingitselfintothemindsofthemajorityofAmericanculture.There
areonlyafewmoviesthatPagansarewillingtociteasmoreaccurateportrayalsoftheir
religion,withthefilmPracticalMagicbeingamongthem.Withjustafewfilmsamongasea
ofthousandsofinaccurateportrayals,itisnosurprisethatthemajorityofnon-Paganshave
minimalunderstandingofthereligion,andoftenascribeaspectstheyseeinpopular
culturesportrayalofwitchesandwitchcrafttotherealreligionitself.Thus,apatternof
associationoccursthatisclearineveryinformant.Witch,firstandforemost,regardlessof
55
theleveloftheirfamiliaritywiththereligion,callstotheirmindstheimagethathasbeen
fixedintotheirpsychethroughpopularculture’srepetition.
Whiletheimageryfoundinthemediaclearlypromotesmisinformationand
sensationalization,CarolBarner-Barrydisagreeswiththepolarityofmystatement.Infact,
Barner-BarrycitesthissortofmediapresenceandtheHarryPotterseriesitselfaspartof
thereasonwhyitiseasiertobeaPagantodaythanitoncewas.The“formidable”media
presence,“[has]increasedthenumberofpeoplewhoarecuriousandopentomore
accurateinformationaboutPagans,particularlyaboutWitchesandWiccans”(BarnerBarry4).Whileinsomerespectsthisisindeedpossible,Ihavefoundthatwithoutany
actualvisiblyaccessiblesourceofinformation,this“curiosity”doeslittletoadvancethe
statusofPaganismwithinthesocialworldtodayasBarner-Barrysuggests.Althoughevery
non-Paganinformantdisplayedthiscuriositybyaskingfollow-upquestionsafterthe
interviewhadended,noneofthemmentionedbeingdrawntoknowmoreaboutPaganism
basedonwhattheysawontelevision.Inshort,thiscuriositydoesnotnecessarilyleadto
action.AsIhaveexplainedpreviously,thepresenceofsuchimagescontributestothelevel
ofdiscriminationthatoccursforPagans,particularlyinattributingthesenegativevaluesto
thePaganidentityinreality.AstheaforementionedstatementmadebyRickattemptingto
justifythenegativeportrayalofPaganismexemplifies,thepresenceofsuchstrongnegative
imagesattributedtowitchesreinforcestheseopinionsinreallife.ThusIwouldarguethat
themediapresencedoesfarmoreharmthangood.
3.1.4 “I’mPrettySureIt’sDevilWorship.”
56
Alongsidepopularculture,manyinformants,liketheonequotedabove,relatePaganismto
theantithesisofChristianity(NP103).Manydirectlycitetheirownreligiousbackgrounds
asoriginsfortheirideasofPaganism,statingthatthey’ve“touchedonitduringbible
school,”or“readaboutitinthebible”(NP108)(NP124).As21outof25informants
identifiedasfollowersofAbrahamicreligionssuchasJudaismandvarioussectsof
Christianity,manyconnectideasofwitchcraftwith“worshipingevil,”andattemptto
explaintheideawithintheirownreligioustermssuchasitmayrelatetotheDevil,which
(asmostpaganswillbeeagertotellyou)doesnotevenexistasarelevanttopicinthe
Paganreligion.APaganinformantwhowaspreviouslyaChristianministerexplainedthis
connectionthroughherexperiencetrainingtobecomeaminister:
Weweretaughtinministerialschoolaboutthingslikechildsacrificethatthe
Israelitesfoughtbackintheday,andwarnedagainstthedemonicactsofwitchcraft,
channeling,workingwiththedeadandallthat,butnoneofitwaseverspokenabout
indetail.Eventhingslikemeditationandyogawereconsidereddemonic(P216).
This,perhaps,againstemsfromthehistoryoftheword“witchcraft,”whichwasoriginally
usedtorefertomembersofsocietywhowentagainstthechurchofthetime,orthosewho
wentagainstmajoritariansociety.Additionally,asIhavestatedpreviously,theoriginofthe
wordPaganisdirectlyrelatedtoChristianity,asitwasmeantasaninsultforsomeonewho
wasslowtoacceptthenewreligionanditswaysoflife.
InContemporaryPaganism:MinorityReligioninMajoritarianSociety,CarolBarner-
BarrycitestheproselytizingaspectofChristianityasasourceofhegemonyandconflict
withPaganism.AsChristiansspendasizableamountoftimeandmoneyattemptingtowin
overthosewhodonotsharetheirreligiousbeliefs,itseemsobviousthatanyonewhodoes
notfollowthereligionisatargetinmanyways.AsmostAbrahamicreligionsholdthefirm
beliefthattheirreligionisthe“OneTrueReligion,”itisnaturalthenthatanyonewho
57
believesanythingelseisthoughttobeeitheraninnocent,uninformedpersonwaitingfor
someonetoshowthem“thelight,”orsomeonewhoisdirectlyagainstthatforwhichthey
stand.WhatBarner-Barrytermsthe“Christianproselytizingimperative,”comesfroma
sourceofgenuineconcernthatcanquicklyturntoangerwhenthis“giftthatisbeing
offered,”isrefused.Thepeoplewhorefusedthe“gift”ofChristianitywerethefirstpeople
tobenamedPagans.Andeventoday,formoderateandliberalChristiansalike,theword
Pagan“carriesvaguelynegativeovertones”(Barner-Barry58).Shealsodiscussesthe
differencebetweenwitchandPagan,butdoesnotquitereachaproperexplanationofwhy
ChristiansreactmorenegativelytothetermwitchthantheydoPagan,exceptforthebible
verse“thoushaltnotsufferawitchtolive”(Exod.22:18).Iarguethatthisdifferenceis
thankstotheconstantverificationfoundwithinpopularculturethatthewordwitchis
negative,andamuchsmallerpresenceofanyverificationforthewordPagan.Forinstance,
Cathy,a49-year-oldadministrativedirectorstatedthatwhile“thewordwitchconjuresup
aclearimageinmyheadandIfeellikeIknowwhatitmeans,thewordPaganisalotless
familiartomeanddoesn’tcomewithaconcreteimageorideaofwhatexactlyitis”(NP
113).Theimageofwhichshespeaksistheimagefoundinthemedia,andthuscausesher
tofeelmorestronglyaboutonewordovertheother.
TheformidablelinktoSatanismthatisdisplayedinthemediaandthroughreligious
outletscanbestronglyfeltintheresponsesofmynon-Paganinformantswiththeir
referencesto“devilworship,”“blackmagic,”and“devil’spractice”(NP103)(NP110)(NP
112).ThisconnectionisfurtherdiscussedinBarner-Barry’swork,aswellasseveralother
articles.Shediscussesthe“stunning…powerofwords”inthat“Ifyouareapagan/witch,
you,therefore,mustworshipSatan,killbabies,holdBlackMasses,usespellstoharm
Christians,andsoon”(Barner-Barry60).BecauseoftheassociationthatmanyChristians
58
seebetween“witch”and“devilworshiper,”andthusviolenceandevil,intheireyesheor
sheisthereforerequiredtobesuch.Thisconnectionhasbeenthesourceofmuch
persecutionthroughouthistory,aswellasthesourceofmuchofthediscriminationthatmy
Paganinformantshaveexperienced.Judy,amemberofthePagancommunityinPittsburgh,
astutelyexplainstheironythatcomeswiththeseaccusationsofviolence,devilworship,
andevil:“Magic,Paganism,traditionalpre-ChristianbeliefsofEuropeandtheworldarenot
evil,arenotofthedevil,wedonothurtpeople.However,theChristianorAbrahamic
reactiontowitchcraftandPaganismisextremelyviolentandwelldocumented”(P211).
WhilethisargumentdoesnotmeanthatthereisnosuchthingasSatanism,thepointhas
beenmadetimeandtimeagainbyPagansacrosstheU.S.thatSatanisaJudeo-Christian
constructthathasnobearingonPaganismwhatsoever.Thearticle“Satanismand
Witchcraft,”byJamesT.Richardsonin“NewReligiousMovementsandReligiousLibertyin
America,”alsodiscussesthemassconfusionsurroundingthetopic.Richardsoncitesthe
historicallystronglinkbetweenthetwowords,WitchcraftandSatanism,stating:
thisclaim[ofaconnectionbetweenwitchcraftandSatanism]ismadeandhasbeen
madeforcenturies,firstasapartoftheconflictbetweenearlyChristianityand
Paganism,aconflicteventuallywonbyChristianity.LaterinthehistoryoftheWest,
claimslinkingSatanandallegationsofwitchcraftweremade,todevastatingeffect
(DavisandHankins79).
TheauthoritywithwhichChristianitywieldstermslikewitchcraftanddevil-worshiphas
hadadetrimentaleffectforPagans,specificallywithintheJudeo-Christian-centricsociety
ofcontemporaryAmerica.Thesetiesareseennotonlywithincontemporaryresponsesto
theideasofwitchcraft,butalsohistoricallythroughtheactionsofpersecutionandhysteria
acrosstime.
Itisinthiswaythatthesenon-Paganinformantsarenotintentionallymaliciousin
associatingthetwoideas,howeverthelackofmodernknowledgeofthereligious
59
movementisproblematic.Thisiswidelyduetothecycleofmisunderstandingthatis
cementedinplacebythedefensivestrategiesemployedbyPaganswhoshieldthemselves
frompublicrecognition.Therepersistsalackofaccurateinformationreadilyavailableand
visibletothecommunityoutsideofPaganswhichinturncausesareinforcementofthese
negativeideas.
3.1.5 “They’reJustaBunchofWeirdos.”
Itisimportant,whilediscussingthistopic,torememberthatignorancedoesnot
necessarilymeanbadintentions.Althoughmanyoftheseinformantswillinglyadmit
ignoranceaboutthetopicandseemtobehumoringmebyevenattemptingtoformsome
sortofopinionaboutit,thisdoesnotmeanthateachoneactivelyandconsciously
discriminatesagainstPagans.Iwouldargue,though,thatalthoughonemaynotactively
discriminateagainstagroup,subconsciousdiscriminationisstillpossibleandisvisiblein
theiranswers.Eventheactoflabelingthegroupas“weird”and“crazy,”couldbe
consideredcovertdiscrimination.OneofthemostwidelyseenreactionstoPaganismin
publicistotreatthemasspectaclesofidiosyncrasy.Becausethereligionisnotapartof
mainstreamculture,thethoughtthusfollowsthatthemembersofthisreligionmustalso
resideoutsideofmainstreamculture.OnePaganexplainedthatsheonceheardthereligion
explainedas“mentallyillpeopledressingupfunnyinparks”(P210).Thisopinionwas
paralleledbyanon-Pagan’sexperiencestumblinguponaPaganritualwhilstonabikeride
withhiswifeintheEnglishcountryside:
MywifeandIweretakingavacationinEnglandandwerestayinginOxfordwhen
wedecidedtotakeabikeridethroughthecountryside.Aswewereridingalongwe
endedupnearoneofthoseministonehengetypestructuresandsawthattherewas
60
somekindofritualgoingon.Weknewitwasaritualbecausetheywereallstanding
insomewhatofacircle,andtherewasaguydressedinwhitethatseemedtobe
leadingeverything.Butotherthanthatitdidn’tseemveryorganized.Westayedfor
awhilebytheroadandwatchedtheceremony,butitwasn’tthatimpressive.There
wasn’treallymuchorganizationgoingon,andnooneseemedtoreallyknowwhat
theyweredoing.Oneofthemlookedkindofdrunk,anditdidn’tlookthat impassionedtomelikeIwouldhavethoughtaPaganritualwouldbe.Mostlyitjust
lookedlikeaveryoddgroupofpeople(NP118).
Whenaskedhoworwhythesepeoplewouldbeconsideredweirdheexplainedthat“it’s
justthewaytheyweredressed,thewaytheyconductedthemselves.Theyalllooked
pretty…well…weird.Youcouldtelltheywerethepeopleontheoutskirtsofsociety”(NP
118).YouevenhearsimilarsentimentsfromPagansthemselves,surprisinglyenough:“the
peoplewhowillclaimthattheyarediscriminatedagainstarenotreallydiscriminated
againstbecausethey’rePagans,perse,butthey’rejustweirdpeople.Thisreligionattracts
the‘weirdies,’sometimes”(P210).Thisseemstoalmostbeajustificationofdiscrimination
insomeways.Itisasifbeingweirdornon-normativeisanacceptablereasontobethought
ofinanegativeway.ThejustificationhasbeeninculcatedintosomeofthePagans’
thoughtsandideasofwhythegroupmaybediscriminatedagainstasalmostawayof
saying“it’snotthereligionthat’sweird,ornegative,it’sthepeoplewhosometimestryto
practiceitthatgiveusabadname.”Justaswithanyreligion,therearevaryingdegreesof
commitmentanddevotion.WhilesomeareleaderswithinthePagancommunityandtake
theirreligionanditsimagewiththeutmostseriousness,therearealsopeoplewhoshow
uptoanopenritualortwobecausetheyaredrawninbythenegativeactivitiestheysee
portrayedontelevision.
Inmakingthereligionintoaspectacleofidiosyncrasy,themembersoutsideofthe
PagancommunityminimizetheimportanceandpowerthatthePaganreligionmayhave.It
takesawayanyviabilityoftheirbeliefsandpracticesbyinsinuatingthattheyarementally
61
ill,ordoingitforattention.Thismakesanon-Paganmorecomfortablewiththeideathat
realPagansevenexistoutsideoffiction.Insteadofsomescary,powerfulgroupofwitches
chantingaroundahugefireinthemiddleofthenight,theyperhapsimaginemisfitadults,
awkwardlygoingaboutanunorganizedceremony.Itiseasytosee,then,howmuchofa
comfortthatmaybetoanoutsider.Forpeopleoutsideofthecommunity,ridiculingthe
communityisalotmorecomfortablethanbeingafraid.Thus,justasPagansthemselves
ridiculetheignoranceofnon-Pagansasawaytodefendthemselvesagainstemotional
harm,non-Pagansridiculemembersofthereligionasawaytodefendthemselvesagainst
fear.
3.2 MASKINGDISCRIMINATION
ThroughoutmyworkwithinPittsburgh,ithasbecomeincreasinglyobviousthattheactof
ethnographicinterviewingpresentsbothethnographerandtheinformantwithacomplex
systemofpreviousassumptions,protocols,andrelationships.Whensomeonetakesonthe
roleofsomeonewhoisbeinginterviewed,therearecertainexpectationsandassumptions
thatcomewiththisbriefsocialidentity.Theseassumptionsinclude,amongmany:thatthey
havevaluableinformationthattheinterviewerisinterestedin,thattheyaregoingtobe
honest,andthattheywillbeinasomewhatprofessionalsetting.Evenwhenthese
interviewsaredoneinlivingroomsorcoffeeshops,theactofinterviewingandbeing
interviewedisliftedfromcasualconversation.Ithasbecomeapparentwithinmyresearch
thattheactofinterviewing,andaninabilitytofulfilltherolesincluded,causesanxietyand
discomfortforeachpartyandthusfacilitatesaneedforwhatmanyethnographershave
understoodasdeceitfulavoidances
62
3.2.1 PerformancesandHowtoSpotThem
Withitsroles,objectives,andprotocol,theactofinterviewingcouldbeexplainedasanact
ofperformance.Ifaperformanceisdefinedas“anactivitythatapersonorgroupdoesto
entertainanaudience,”theactivityofbeinginterviewedcancertainlyfitintothese
confines.While“entertain”maybealoosefitinthissituation,therolesofthespeechact
aremuchthesame:thereisa“performer”whoistheconveyorofinformationtothe
“audience”whoarethereceivers.Thisinformationconveyedtotheaudienceisforthe
audience’spleasureandtheaudiencetypicallydecidesiftheperformanceissuccessful.
Thisisparticularlyimportantintermsofmyresearchbecauseofthetopicwhichweare
discussing.Discriminationisnotadesirableaction,andpartofhavingasuccessful
performanceisportrayinghimselforherselfinapositiveanddesirableway.Thisiscalled
thesocialdesirabilitybias,whichwillbediscussedinfurtherdetaillater.
Bauman,inhisworkDisclaimersofPerformance,usesthiscomparisoninorderto
understandmorefullythewaysfolknarrativesareconveyedduringinterviews.Withinthe
firstfewparagraphs,BaumanintroduceshisdefinitionofperformancewhichIwillreferto
throughouttheremainderofthissection.“Inordertounderstandthedynamicsof
performanceinallitscomplexity,”Baumanclaims,“wemustextendourinvestigationsto
performancesthatarehedged,ambiguous,negotiating,shifting,orpartial—instances
wherespeakersmaynotwishtotakefullresponsibilitytotheiraudienceforadisplayof
communicativecompetence”(Bauman183).Baumanspendstherestofhiswork
explainingwhatexactlyhebelievesthereistobegainedfromextendingouranalysisto
theseambiguousexamplesofperformance,inwhichheexplainsthatitiswithinthese
63
instancesthatonemaybegintounderstandthetruemetalinguisticand
metacommunicativeaspectsofinterviewingandhowthesecanbeusedtobetter
understandthesubjectthatisbeingresearched.Thesemetacommunicativeaspectsare
relevanttomyresearchaswell,whichwillbediscussedinfurtherdetailbelow.
BaumanbaseshisanalysisontheexampleofMr.Bush,anelderlymanfromtheLa
Haveislands,fromwhichthetraditionoftelling“yarns”originates.A“yarn”isanorally
performednarrativewhoseeffectivenessisvaluedforitsbasisintrueevents,muchlikethe
opinionsandexperiencesmyinformantsareaskedtoconvey.Narratorsof“yarns”use
thingssuchaspersonalexperienceandeyewitnessaccountstocreateanairofcredibility
surroundingthesestorieswhichattimesincludeinstancesofmagicorthesupernatural.
DuringMr.Bush’sinterviews,hewasaskedtorelatevariousstoriesthathavebeentold
overthecenturiesas“yarns.”Duringhisretellings,Mr.Bushrunsintoseveral
metanarrativecomplicationsthataffecthisstorieswhichincludetheinabilityto“sustain
thenarrativelineandtheflowofnarration,”andhislackof“knowledgeconcerningthe
outcome”ofthestorywhichhewasrelatingtoBauman.Theseinstancescanalsobeseen
amongmyinformantsandtheirlackofknowledgeonthetopicofPaganism.Thesehiccups
innarrationalflowaremarkedbyMr.Bush’sdeviationfromhismarkedstoryline.Inthe
firsthiccup,Mr.Bushacknowledgesmid-sentencethatheis“workedup,”andnervous,and
hastotakeanelevensecondbreak.Mr.Bushthencontinuestorelateapieceofback
informationaboutthesituationhewasdescribingthatherealizedBaumanwouldnotbe
familiarwith.“Theproblem,apparently,layinconstructinganadequatenarrationfor
[Bauman],theoutsider”(Bauman189).
Thenextinstanceofmetanarrationalspeechisonethatrestsevenmorecloselyto
myownwork.WhenMr.Bushcomestotheendofthestory,herealizeshedoesn’tactually
64
knowhowitends.Inanxietyabouthisperformance,Mr.Bush“fulfillstheneedhefeelsfor
moredetailbyspeculating.”Inbothcases,thereadercanseethatthese“disclaimersof
performance,”excusehimfrom“fullcompetenceandthusfullresponsibilityinrecounting
thetale”(Bauman191).WhatisperhapsmostinterestingaboutBauman’swork,however,
isnotthatheacknowledgesthatthesedisclaimersofperformanceexist,butratherthathe
citesthesourceofthisdiscordasan“emergentproductof[his]casting[Mr.Bush]inthe
roleoforalnarrativeperformer,and[Mr.Bush’s]ownambivalenceaboutassumingthat
responsibility”(Bauman191).Withinmyownresearchitcanbeseensimplyinthewords
manyoftheintervieweesusetocodetheirresponses,suchasthemodifyingand
equivocatingterms,“I’mprettysure,”“Ithink,”“Probably,”“Personally,”and“Iguess”(NP
101)(NP104)(NP115)(NP106)(NP108).Others,likeSam,astudentatalocaluniversity,
whoclaimtounderstandsomesemblanceofseriousnesssurroundingthereligionwhile
notfullygraspingthebasisofwhatitisaswecanseefromhisstatementssuchas
“Paganismisafaiththatbelievesthatyoucancommunicatewithspiritsafterphysical
deathI’mprettysure,”areabitmorehonestwhenaskedquestionsabouthowtheywould
pictureatypicalwitch:“theterm[…]definitelyconjuresupimagesofcartoonsforme.Not
onespecificonebutjusttheimageofthepointyhatandtheblackdressandallofthat,ya’
know?”(NP111).Withinhisresponseweseealackofmodifyingtermsandnegation,ina
waythatcreatesasenseofalackofdeceit.Inthisway,theactofinterviewingitself,anda
disagreementabouttheroleseachwillplay,madetheseinteractionssomewhat
unsuccessful.Icastmyinformantsintheroleofprimaryinformer,whetherornottheyfeel
thattheypossessenoughknowledgetobeuptothetask.
However,manyotherscholarsinthefieldofLinguistics,Sociolinguistics,and
Anthropology,addressthesituationdifferently.Forinstance,KatherineEwing,aCultural
65
AnthropologistandReligiousStudiesscholarclaimsthatonly“identifyingunderlying
patterns,semanticconnections,andregularitiesthatplayasignificantroleinthe
negotiationofmeaning…ignoreskeyaspectsoftheinteractiveprocess,”(Ewing90).Ewing
arguesforamorepersonalanalysisoftheseinstancesofdiscordancewithinspeechacts,
claimingthatthemainfocalpointaroundwhichanyactisperformedistocreate,sustain,
ordisruptrelationships.Whensomethinglikeaninterviewisperformed,themetalanguage
ofwhatisbeingsaidrevolvesaroundtherelationshipbetweenthespeakerandhearer.
Ewingarguesforamorepsychoanalyticapproach,inwhicheventhethoughtsand
feelingsoftheintervieweraretakenintoaccount.This,Ibelieve,isamoreadvantageous
approachforthetypeofresearchwhichIconduct.Regardlessoftheleveloffamiliarity
withthetopicorsituation,Ewingclaimsthatthereisalevelofcontextualizationandan
understandingofmetacommunicationthatisintuitive.This“metacommunication”or
communicationaboutcommunication,workstomanagetheroles,expectations,and
feelingsofbothpartiesduringaninterview.Forexample,whenBauman’sMr.Bushclaims
thathecan’tremembertheendingofhisstorybutgoesontospeculate,Mr.Bushis
performinganinstanceofmetacommunicationinordertomanagetheexpectationshe
feelsBaumanhas.Contextualization,whichistheunderstandingofsubtextsand
backgroundinformationinvolvedwitheitherpartyorthesituationathand,furtherworks
toalterthelandscapeoftheperformanceofinterviews.Mr.BushunderstoodthatBauman
wasaFolkloristandthatBauman’sgoalwastounderstandthesestoriesandthewaysthat
theyweretold.Whilethisisnotovertlysaid,thisisacontextualizationofhisinterviewer
thataffectsthewayheactswithinthesituation(Bauman187).
Theseinstancesofcontextualizationandmetacommunication,however,canfogthe
lensofthetruethoughts,feelings,andexperiencesoftheinterviewer.ToEwing,
66
“interactionisalwaysaprocessofnegotiation,[therefore]datagatheringinvolves
managingmistrust,disinformation,blindspots,[and]politics”(Ewing90).While
anthropologiststoday,accordingtoEwing,certainlyrecognizethisandunderstand
knowledgetobe“constructedandpositional,”sheclaims,asAntoniusRobbendoes,that
anthropologistssimplydon’thaveatheoryofconcealment.Thistheoryofconcealment,ifit
existed,would“transformtheseobstructionsintoadeeperculturalinsight”(Ewing91)
(Robben74).WhileIdonotpurporttoconstructageneraltheoryofconcealment,
throughoutthisanalysisIformabetterunderstandingofthewaysinwhichthis
concealmenthasfunctionedwithinmyownresearch.
WhileBaumanprimarilyassociatesthisformofanalysiswiththeperformanceof
Folklore,Iwouldarguethatthisapproachcanbeextremelyusefulinregardstothe
analysisofinterviewwork,specificallyintheroleofthehearerandsociallyconstructed
reality.Thisideaisalsoasalientoneintermsofwhetherornottheseavoidancescanbe
accuratelytermeddeceitful.Whiletherearevaryingdefinitions,StevenNachman,inhis
article“LiesMyInformantsHaveToldMe,”describesalieasa“falsestatementoraction,”
andanythingthatis“meanttogiveafalseimpression”(Nachman536).Underthese
outlines,thesedefensivetendenciesofinformantstospeculate,avoid,andembellishwould
certainlyqualifyaslies,howeverIamstillleftfeelingthatthetermdoesn’tfit.Perhapsthis
isbecauseofthecolloquialunderstandingthatmostliesaretoldwiththeintenttotellsuch
alie,whereasthespeechactsinvolvedininterviewssuchasdisclaimersofperformance
arenotintendedtodeceivethelistenerbutratherareinanattempttobemoreaccurate.
Forinstance,James,thelocaluniversityprofessormentionedaboveclaimedearlyoninthe
interviewthathehadnorealknowledgeofthereligion,andyetinactualitywasmuchmore
informedthananyotherinformantIcameacross(NP118).This,doesnotmeanthathe
67
consciouslyliedtomeinordertoperformadeceitfulaction.Itishighlyplausiblethat
Jamesdidnotfeelthattheinformationhedidpossesswasenoughtoconstitute“real
knowledge,”orthathesimplywasunsureofhowaccuratewhathehadexperiencedbefore
was.Clearlythen,thetermlieseemsliketoonegativeatermforwhatisreallygoingon
behindthesurface.
Miall,Pawluch,andShaffiroutlineahelpfulsetofcriteriaintheirworkDoing
Ethnography:StudyingEverydayLifeinwhichaninterviewermaybeabletoknowwhena
face-savingdeceptionactisoccurring.ThisresonatesagainwithBauman’saforementioned
workintheLaHaveislands.“Accounts,”thesectiondetails,“arelikelytobedeceptive
when…thespeakerdemonstratesalackofconvictionabouthisorherownassertionsby
usingavarietyoftechniques”(Miall,etal.81).Thetechniques,whichcanbeseeninmy
ownresearchwhichIwilloutline,include“modifyingorequivocatingterms,denialor
negations,abjuration,weakenedassertions,andstalling.”Forexample,amodifyingor
equivocatingtermwouldbesomethingalongthelinesof,“Iguess,”“Ithink,”“I’mnotsure,
but…”“Apparently,”and“Maybe.”Theuseofthesetermsallowthespeakerto“evadethe
risk”ofcommitment.Denialandnegationarealsoseeninthe“defensivemechanismthat
disavowsordeniesthoughts,feelings,wishes,orneedsthatcauseanxiety”(Miall,etal.82).
3.2.2 MyOwn“Liars”
ExamplesofthesemethodswithinmyresearchonPaganismareseenregardlessof
informants’knowledgeofthesubject,age,gender,orsocioeconomicbackground.Despite
thefactthatonlyoneofmynon-Paganinformantshadbeenacquaintedwithapracticing
Pagan,eachinformantconveyedtomeaclearideaofwhattheythoughtwitchcraftwould
68
be.WhiletheyusedthetechniquesoutlinedbyMiall,Pawluch,andShaffirtoavoid
responsibilityanddiscomfort,itisimportanttoacknowledgetheshortcomingsofthiskind
ofinterview,whichdealswithasensitivetopic.Religionisperhapsoneofthefewthingsin
thisworldthatapersonisallowedtobelievewithouthavingtoprovidealogicalbasisfor
thatbelief.Beliefofthiskindliesoutsideofexplanation,andthepeoplewhoholdsuch
beliefstypicallydonotfeelobligatedtoexplaintheexactreasonsofwhytheydo.
Furthermore,Religionistypicallyconnectedtohighlypersonalexperiences,andiswidely
understoodasapersonalchoicebymostreligions.Atthesametime,religionisthebasis
forquiteafewpopularlydiscriminatoryviews(likehomophobia),andthesefeelingscanbe
extremelypersonalanddifficultforthemtoexplain.Itwouldbenaïveofme—likeBleek
explained—toassumethatIcanmeetwithapersonIhavenevermetbeforeandexpect
themtobecompletelyopenandforthrightaboutasensitivetopiclikediscriminationfor
bothnon-PagansandPagansalike.
Transparencyoftheethnographerisessentialsurroundingthetopicofdeceitful
informants,astheyare“themselvesliarswhentheydonottellthewholetruthaboutthe
wayinwhichtheycollectedtheliesfromtheirinformants”(Bleek).Itmayverywellbethat
thewaysinwhichIquestionedmyinformantswastheverythingthatcausedthemto
fabricatetheirresponses.AsItypicallyusedphrasinglike“howwouldyouunderstand…”
and“ifyouweretopicture…”thisleftroomforinterpretationabouttheleveltowhichthey
wereexpectedtotellthetruthandtheleveltowhichfabricationwasacceptable.
Regardless,theinformantsmadethechoicetodisclaimtheirperformancesregularlyasa
waytolessentheirresponsibility,whichisnotrelatedtothesequestionprompts.
Inaccuracyofreportingisacommonproblemdealtwithinmanyresearchprojectsthat
dealwithsensitivetopicssuchasreligionandpersonalopinionsascanbeseenfrommy
69
workabove.RegardlessofwhetherornotIamresearchingthetopicofreligion
scientifically,itremainsatypicallyunscientific,personal,andemotionalexperiencefor
manythatmaybedifficulttorelateinthissetting.
However,despitethesesetbacks,oneofthebiggestinferencesIhavebeenableto
makethroughtheinspectionofmyresearchistheaffectofsocialdesirabilitybiasonmy
informants.Socialdesirabilityisbasicallyunderstoodasthetendencyofintervieweesto
reportinaccuratelyonsensitivesubjectsinordertoportraythemselvesinamorepositive
light(Fisher303).Thisisaconciseandclearexplanationofthefaceworkthatisinvolved
indisclaimersofperformanceandhowitfunctionswithinalargercontext.Specifically
relatingtomyresearch,Socialdesirabilitybiasaffectsmyinformantsbecausebeing
discriminatoryintoday’ssocietyisgenerallylookeddownupon.AsIamclearly
conductingresearchonthediscriminationagainstPagans,itseemsthatthesubjectsmay
haveatendencytounderplaytheirfeelingsaboutthesubject(denial),orformideaswhere
nonetrulyexistedpreviously(fabrication)justasMr.Bushfabricatedtheendingofhis
storyforBauman(Bauman189).Inanefforttolessenanyanxietyaboutprovidingvaluable
informationtome,astheinterviewer,itisquitepossiblethatthesesubjectsmaybe
fabricatingopinionsandembellishingonattitudesthatpreviouslywerenotasstrongor
concretelyfelt.Forexample,althoughonenon-Paganclaimsthatshehasneverheardof
Paganismbeforethisinterview,shestillattemptstoarticulateheropinionsonthereligion,
bysayingthingssuchas“magicisdefinitelyrelatedtodevilworshipandstuff.Iwouldn’t
relateittoanythinggoodreally,butIdon’tbelieveinitsoit’shardtosay,”and“whenI
thinkofawitchIpictureacreepyoldladywithalongnose,warts,maybegreenskin.She’d
haveapointyhatandrideabroomstick,andshe’dbeugly,forsure”(NP102).Itisnot
clearfromwherethisparticularpersongetsheropinions,orhowtheyarefabricated,butit
70
isinterestingthatalthoughsheclaimstoknowlittletonothingaboutthesubject,shestill
relatedratherstronganddetrimentalopinions,suchasthoserelatedintodevilworship.
This,however,couldworktheotherwayaround.Perhapsitisnotthatsheknows
nothingaboutthesubjectandholdsnoopinionssurroundingthetopic,butratherthatshe
usesthedisclaimerofknowinglittleaboutthesubjectasadefensemechanismforany
questionsthatareaskedinthefuturethatmaystumpher.Insteadofinaccuratelyreporting
opinions,itispossiblethattheintervieweeinaccuratelyreportstheextenttowhichthey
arefamiliarwiththesubjectasadisclaimerofperformance.AsImentionedabove,James
usedasimilartactic.Whenoriginallyintroducedtothetopicthatwewouldbediscussing,
heclaimedthathe“didn’tknowtoomuchaboutitatall”butastheconversation
progresseditturnedoutthathewasactuallywellversedinthePaganholidays,knew
generallywhattheydid,knewtheexactdateofafewofthemsuchasOstaraandthe
summersolstice,andhadevenmetaPaganinhispersonallife(NP118).Thedefense
mechanismutilizedhasbeenoutlinedbythescholarsmentionedpreviously,andis
employedinordertolessentheresponsibilitythattheinformanthaswithinthis
performanceandtolessentheinformant’sresponsibilitytoperformhisorherrole.
Thefactthattheyfeeltheneedtolieatallmayprovidevaluableinsightsintohow
theyconceptualizethetopicandhowtheyunderstandtheirrelationshiptome,the
interviewer.Whereasaclosefriendmightbeabletosaytomeinconversation“Ireally
havenoideawhatthatis,”duringaninterviewthiskindofresponsewouldmostlikelybe
seenastheirinabilitytofulfilltheroleasinformation-giver.Inordertokeeptheirego,
confidence,andsenseofselfintact,theseinstancesofself-editing,modification,
equivocation,anddenialarenecessary.Astheycannotrelyonme,astheinterviewer
seekinginformation,toassistinthemaintenanceoftheir“face,”agreateramountof
71
pressureisfelttodecreasethepossibilityofembarrassment.ItisinthesewaysthatIhave
formedanunderstandingoftheinterviewasanactofperformance,aswellasthe
disclaimersofperformanceinvolvedwithintheact.BlendingSociology,Psychology,
Linguistics,andAnthropologyisextremelyintellectuallyrewarding,andfurtherwork
couldbedone,ifIwerequalified,throughpsychoanalysisofmyinformantssurrounding
theiranxietiesofrolefulfillment,inadequacy,anddiscrimination.
Thisapproachcanbealsoappliedtomyresearchconductedwithmembersofthe
Pagancommunity.Theirresponses,whichwillbediscussedinthefollowingchapter,mimic
thissenseofdesiretofulfillaperformanceandreactionstosocialpressures.Whileinstead
ofneedingtopresentaversionofthemselvesthatissociallydesirableinthattheydonot
discriminate,Pagansareaffectedinthattheymayfeelaneedtoseemlikeaviablesourceof
informationandarespectedinformantbyprovidingmewithrelevant,powerful
experiencesandopinions.However,beforedelvingtoodeeply,Imustfirstdiscusswhat
exactlyitisthatthesePagansaresayingandhowtheirresponsesfitintoalargerpicture.
72
4.0
CHAPTERFOUR
4.1
UNCOVERINGTHECYCLEOFDISCRIMINATION
Overthecourseofthisproject,atcoffeeshops,esotericstores,PaganPrideFestival,public
parks,rituals,andpaintingclasses,Ihavebeenabletointeractwithandbetterunderstand
animpressivelywidearrayofPagansandtheintricaciesoftheirexperiences.My
informantshaverangedinage,socioeconomicstatuses,andbeliefs,fromthe20-year-old
studentwhopracticeseclecticPaganism,tothe59-year-oldnurseandlocalstoreowner
whopracticesFaeryWicca.Thisdiversityisoneofthecommunity’sproudestfeatures,asI
havementionedpreviously,anditiswheretheylocateoneofthecommunity’sgreatest
strengths:adaptabilityandopenness.Formanyofmyinformants,thediscriminationthey
describedtomewasnotsomethingthatcouldbereportedtothepolice,ortakenupwitha
humanresourcesrepresentative,butrathersmaller,moreordinaryoccurrencesthatmade
theirlivesmoredifficultorunsatisfying.Becauseoftheseinstances,orhearingofsuch
instancesfromtheirpeers,myinformantstailoredtheirbehaviortoavoidsuch
occurrencesandthusseeminglymaketheirliveseasier.Theymodifytheirbehaviorin
workenvironments,withtheirfamily,andontheInternetinordertoavoidbeingbothered
bytheinconvenienceofreligiousdiscrimination.Thediscriminationmanyofthemfeelis
notsomethingtobeactivelyaddressedbutrathertobedealtwithquietly.
Throughmyconversationswithmembersofthecommunity,ithasbecomeclear
thatjustastherearemultiplefuelsfordiscrimination,therearealsomultiplewaysin
whichthesePagansrespondtoandexperiencetheseattitudes.Thiscontributestothecycle
ofmutualreinforcementforthiskindofdestructiverelationshipofsecrecyandignorance
73
betweenPagansandnon-Pagans.Pagansperformvariouspreemptivestrategiesasabuffer
fromexperiencingoutward,violent,anddisruptivediscrimination.Thesestrategiesinclude
secretkeeping,downplayofemotionalresponsestoevents,andcompartmentalization.
Eachofthesestrategiestypicallyworkintandemwithoneanother,andarevisiblein
nearlyallofmyinformants.Oneinformant,a40-year-oldbusinessowner,describedthe
tensionthatcomeswithbeingamemberofaminorityculturewhichleadstosecret
keeping.“AlthoughthepeoplewhoIhavetoldhavebeenverysupportive,Istilllivemylife
atthecostofacertainparanoia.NooneatmyoldjobknewwhatIgotuptoduringfull
moons,evenwhentheyengagedmeinreligiousconversations.Iwasapublicagnosticand
aprivatepagan.Myfamilyalsoremainsignorantforharmony’ssake”(P227).Manyother
informantscontinuetheinsularsecrecybyonlysocializingwithPagans.Thisisatypeof
compartmentalizationinwhichtheykeeptheirsocialandreligiousidentitycompletely
separatefromtheircareer,family,andevenroommates.InformantslikeKaren,a49-yearoldartistwithaPhDinarthistory,maintaincompletelyseparateFacebookprofiles,“one
forfamilyandarthistoryfriendsandanotherforallofmypaganfriendswhoIassociate
withmoreoften”(P220).NineotherinformantsmentionedtheuseofaseparateFacebook
profiletoconnectonlywithPagansaswell(P201)(P211)(P212)(P221)(P222)(P225)
(P226)(P227)(P230).Agapsuchasthis,betweenone’sPaganidentityandone’s
“everydaylife”createsabifurcatedrealitywithinherlifeandmanyothers—thePaganhalf
oftheirlivesandtherestofit,insomecases,nevercomingintocontactwitheachother.
Thisideaofabifurcatedsenseofrealitycreatesthepotentialforfeelingsofunfulfillment
andserioustensionsofidentity.Inadditionto,thesesecretkeepingand
compartmentalizationstrategies,informantsalsoexhibitaminimizationoftheiremotional
responsestoinstancesofdiscriminationwhichtheyhaveexperienced,inwhichtheyuse
74
phrasessuchas“Iwasn’tsurprised,really,”“Theyseemtofindmethreateningforsome
reason,”andevendescribingtheiraggressorsas“Batshitcrazyevangelicaltypes”(P201)
(P215)(P219).Indiminishingtheiroutwardemotionalvulnerabilitytotheactsof
discriminationagainstthem,theyarerejectinganyvalidationofsuchopinionsaswellas
attemptingtoprotectthemselvespsychologically.Likesecretkeepingand
compartmentalization,downplayingemotionalresponsesmakeslivingthelifeofaPagana
littleeasier.
4.1.1 InterviewingandEffects
Theseresponsesandstrategies,asImentionedattheendofthepreviouschapter,are
affectedinmanyofthesamewayswithintheinterviewprocessasnon-Pagansare.Justas
non-Paganswerelikelytobeaffectedbytherolesthatareinculcatedintotheprocessof
interviewing,itisalmostinevitablethatPaganswouldbelikelyaffectedaswell.WhilenonPagansfeltpressuretoprovidemewithdetailed,knowledgeableanswers,andtopresent
themselvesasnon-discriminatory,Pagansperhapsfeltevenmorepressuredtoprovideme
withvaluablematerialasitwasclearthattheircommunitywasthemainfocusofthis
research.Itseemsthatwithinmyideaofthethreecoredefensestrategies(mainly
downplaying),pressurestoproduceanimageofacommunitythatisstrong,andanoutlook
thatismaturecertainlycomeintoplay.Itishighlylikelythatmanyofmyinformantsfelt,in
someway,theneedtopresenttomeacommunitythatwassecureanddeveloped,andin
thiswaymanyofthenegativeattitudesandlessresilientresponsestowardsbeing
discriminatedagainstwereunderrepresented.Moreover,manyofmyinformants
presentedalevelofself-deceitthatcontradicteditselfwithinthespanofafewsentences,
75
asIwilladdressingreaterdetaillaterinthechapter.Thefactthatapersoninonesentence
canbeexplainingthattheydon’tthinkthediscriminationisthatbad,andthenextrelatea
storythatincludesablatantactofprejudiceissurprising,althoughunderstandable.In
ordertodealwithtopicssuchasdiscrimination,membersofthecommunityoftenfind
waystoeitheravoidencounteringtheideaalltogether(bycreatingseparateFacebook
pages,keepingtheirreligionasecret,etc.)orwaystomakeitseemoutwardlyliketheyare
notaffectedemotionally.Insayingthingslike“it’snoneoftheirbusiness,”“allofthese
ignorantpeopleknownothingabout[Paganism],”and“Igaveuponpopculture’sopinions
agesago,”theyareplacingthemselvesabovethe“uninformedandunintelligent”masses(P
204)(P206)(P220).Thisformofconfidenceandpridecanbeconsiderednotonlya
copingmechanismbutalsoaformofself-comfortanddeceit.Inconvincingthemselvesthat
thepeoplewhodiscriminateagainstthemareneitherassophisticatedornoras
enlightenedastheyare,theyplacethemselvesoutsideofthediscriminatorsrealmof
influence.
Aswewillseefurtherinthechapter,thesedefensemechanismsagainst
discriminationofferinsightsintohowPagansconceptualizetheirrelationshipwiththe
worldaroundthem,andalsohowtheyconceptualizetheirownidentities.Lookingathow
self-deceitcomesintoplayprovidesadeeperoutletforanalysisthatmaynotbeinitially
visible.Inmorefullyunderstandingtheprocessofinterviewinganditseffectsonmy
informantsIamabletonotonlygetabettersenseofwhatliesbeneaththesurface,butalso
whatkindofsocialpressuresmayaffectthesituationatlarge.
4.1.2
CreatingaCycleofIgnorance
76
UnbeknownsttomanymembersofthePagancommunity,thesestrategiesthatare
intendedtobufferdiscriminationcaninadvertentlyendupfuelingthekindof
discriminationthatIamparticularlyinterestedin:thenon-legal,culturalattitudesthat
affecttheireverydaylives.Becausethesediscriminatoryattitudesarefueledbyignorance,
thespaceofwhichisfilledbyinferencesandattitudesderivedfrompopularcultureand
religiousreferencesIhaveoutlinedpreviously,thesepreemptivestrategieshelpto
maintainthelevelofignorancewhichisrootedinmainstreamsocietywhichlargelydoes
notofferanypositive,visibleexamplesofthereligionofPaganism.Thesestrategiescanbe
seeninalmosteveryinformantthatIhavespokenwith,whetherornottheyareactively
awarethattheyareinvolvedinthem.Whileitseemseasytoremedythesituationbysaying
“justtelleveryone,then!”thisanswerisalotmorecomplicatedthanitmayseematfirst
glance.Infact,mostPagansseemtobecomfortablewiththefactthattheylivepartoftheir
livesinsecret,statingthatit’seasier,andnotanyoneelse’sbusiness.Anotherproblemthat
onemayrunintowhenaddressingasolutiontothecycleofdiscriminationisthatthere
simplyisn’tabigenoughcommunitytowarrantanymassattentiontothereligionasa
whole.
WhileitisundeniablethatthePaganpresenceinthePittsburghareaisstrong,given
theattendanceateventssuchasPaganPrideFestivalandvariouspublicritualsthatIhave
attended,ofthe38informantsthatIinterviewed,13preferasolitarypracticeratherthan
asapartofagroup.UnlikethewayinwhichonecanwalkdownFifthAvenueinPittsburgh
andinthespanofonemileseefivechurches,thetypeofPaganpresencewithinthecity
limitsisnearlyinvisibleduetothewaysinwhichPagansprefertopractice.
Simultaneously,whatareseenarethevariousesotericshopsaroundthecity,boasting
nameslike“HocusPocus,”astorejustoffofthesameFifthAvenuethatisteemingwith
77
churches.Whilemanypassersbywillneversetfootintheseestablishments,thejudgment
ismadeonstorefrontsalone.Oneonlyhastohearthenameofthelocalstore“Hocus
Pocus,”toconjureupimagesofthe1993children’sfilmofthesamenamefeaturingthree
dubiousanduglywitcheswhoareburnedaliveinthefilm.Itisintheseinadvertentways
thattheabsenceofpositive,religious-orientedmaterialforthegeneralpublicbecomesa
seriousproblem.
Regardlessoftheirage,occupation,orsocioeconomicstatus,thisattitudeseemsto
persist.Theoccupationsofmyinformants,whileheavilyweightedtowardthehealthcare
field,alsoincludeamemberoftheArmy,atrafficcontrolcrewleader,aprofessional
engineer,severalteachersinvariouslevelsofeducation,twomembersofthefinanceand
accountingprofession,anauthor,andaPhDholderinarthistory—amongmanyother
eclecticlivelihoods.Outofthe38informantsIinterviewed,12identifiedasbeinga
memberofthehealth-careprofessionincludingbehavioralhealththerapy,nursing,mental
healththerapy,andmedicalsocialwork.Afterinquiringaboutthestratificationtowards
health-careoccupations,onewomannamedMaggie(a53-year-oldbehavioralhealth
therapist,workingforasocialworkcompany)statedthatitwasbecauseofherbackground
inWiccathatshefeltsuchastrongpulltowardsbeingapartofthehealingprocessof
others.Maggie,whostartedoffasapsychotherapistandmovedtowardsthesocialwork
sideoftheoccupation,saidthatwhileherspiritualitymakeshermoresensitivetobeing
affectedbythenegativeenergiesthatcomewiththiskindofwork,heracuteabilitytobe
in-tunewithothers’emotionsthatshederivesfromherPaganrootsmakesherthe
therapistthatsheistoday.Othershaveexpressedsimilarfeelingssurroundingthecareof
othersanditsconnectiontofundamentalaspectsofPaganism.
78
However,inhealthcare,anindustrythatseemsnaturallytailoredtothenurturers
andhealersofthePagancommunity,themembersofthisprofessionhavefeltthestrongest
pushbackfromtheircolleaguesregardingreligion.Infact,aninsightfulstudydoneby
KimberlyKirnertitled“HealingCommunity:PaganCulturalModelsandExperiencesin
SeekingWell-Being,”outlinesveryclearlythebarriersthatarepresentedtoPaganswithin
thehealthcarefield(Kirner).Inmyopinion,however,thisisnotsurprising.Barringretail
workers,cashiers,andfoodservicepersonnel,registerednursesmadeupthelargest
percentageofworkersintheUnitedStatesaccordingtonationalemploymentprojections
from2012-2022(U.S.BureauofLaborStatistics).Withemploymentnumbersnearing3
million,itisnosurprisetomethattensionswouldbepresentforaminorityculturebased
onthestatisticallyinevitablediversityofbackgroundsfoundwithintheprofession.
Althoughdiversityleadstoahigherdegreeoftoleranceinmanycases,tolerancemustfirst
beprecededbyaleastsomelevelofunderstanding,whichthePagancommunityis
typicallynotafforded.
4.2
THEPAGANPERSPECTIVE
4.2.1 LisaandTara
OnelongtimememberofthePagancommunity,Lisa,whohasbeeninthehealthcare
professionasanurseforthelast20yearsandamemberofthePagancommunityforjust
aslong,statedinresponsetothequestionofhowshethinksherco-workerswouldreactto
79
herbeingopenaboutherreligionthat,“theywouldsuffermetodie.Theywouldprobably
sprinkleholywateronme.Attheveryleast,Iwouldriskbeingostracizedinmysmall,
religiousworkplace,”(P201).Incontrast,herdaughterTarawhoisalsoamemberofthe
Paganreligion,whowaspreviouslyateacherandisnowenlistedinthemilitary,statedthat
herexperiencewasdifferent:“atmycivilianjob[asanelementaryschoolteacher],they
wouldn’tcare,Idon’tthink.Theywould—andhaveinthepast—justbrushoffthevague
commentsImakeas‘Oh,that’sjustTarabeingweirdagain,withallhertattoos.’Whereasin
themilitary,Ibelievetheirattitudesaremoreonthelinesof‘whatever,Idon’treallyknow
whatthatisbutgoodforyou.’OneSergeantMajor,though,oncemadeacommentwhen
goingthroughthereligioustolerancespielwhenwejoinedaboutsacrificingchickenswhen
talkingaboutPaganisminaveryderogatoryway,”(P202,2015).Tara’sresponsepresents
aclearexampleofthetypeofdownplayingthatexistsinmanyPagansresponsesto
discriminatoryattitudes.TaradescribedherideaoftheattitudestowardsPaganismwithin
themilitaryasverynonchalant,eventhoughdirectlyafterthissheprovidedaclear
exampleofatimewhenahighrankingofficialmadeaderogatoryremarkagainstthe
religion.Eveninthefaceofadirectdiscriminatoryremark,Taramaintainstheattitudethat
discriminationismoreofanon-issuewithinhercareer.TheattitudeoftheSergeantMajor
isaperfectexampleofthesortofsensationalistviewsofPaganismthatexistinalmost
everycornerofAmericansociety.Intriguingly,thisattitudecomestothesurfaceevenin
themidstofaconversationthatoccursduetothefactthatthemilitaryrecognizes
Paganismasarespectedreligion.Thisfurtherprovesmyargumentthatwhilemovescan
bemadeonalarger,legalscale,thesechangesinnowayreduceeverydayinstancesof
discriminationthatgoundertheradaroflegalactionandcontinuetodiminishthequality
oflifeformembersofthereligion.
80
Bothwomentouchedontheideaofthevisibilityoftheirreligion,andwhileTarafelt
comfortablewithhavingtattoosofbroomsticksandcauldronsonherbody(playingthe
popcultureimagesagainsttheirrealsymbolicmeaning),Lisafeltonguardatwork
wearingasmallpentaclering.Although,accordingtoLisa,thehospitalsheworksfor
officiallyrecognizesPaganismasareligionandthusshewouldbesafefromdiscrimination
withinthelegalrealm,itisthesmaller,everydaytensionsofdiscriminationthatcontinue
toaffectherregardlessofacknowledgementinthefineprintoflegalpaperwork.Sitting
withthesetwowomenandlisteningtotheirstoriesinconversationwithoneanotheratthe
verybeginningofmyresearchmadeitapparentthattherewereverydifferenttypesof
reactionstodiscriminationatplay,evenjustwithintheirworkenvironments.Whilethe
questioncertainlyallowedforspeculation,Lisa’sfear,andthestrongwordsthatsheused
shouldnotbeunderestimated.Tara’sattitudesurroundingherPagantattoosand
idiosyncraticstylechoiceswashighlightedinasinglesentence:“Imakethechoiceto
presentmyselfthatwaysoI’mmakingthechoicetoallow[thosereactions],”(P202,2015).
ItseemsthatTara,inacceptingheridentityasaPagan,isinherentlyacceptingthe
discriminationthatitpresents.PerhapsthisispartofthereasonwhymanyPagansseem,
onthewhole,relativelyunperturbedwiththediscriminationtheyfaceintheirdailylivesas
theyhavealreadycometoacceptthatit“comeswiththeterritory.”
4.2.2 Matt
Anotherinformant,Matt,a26-year-oldwhoispursuingadegreeincriminaljusticewhile
workingonalocaluniversitycampus,hasexperienceddiscriminationandpracticed
avoidancetechniquesinwaysunlikehispeers.ForMatt,hismostsalientexperienceswith
81
discriminationhavebeenwithintherealmofhisfamily’sandhometowncommunity’s
extremereligiousbackground.TheareainnortheasternPennsylvaniainwhichMattgrew
upwasmadeupofanextremelyhighpercentageofCatholics,andMatthimselfwasforced
toattendCatholicChurchandCatechismuntiltheageof18.
Asahomosexualteenager,thisenvironmentwasdestructivetohissenseofself,and
hestillliveswithitseffectstoday.Growingupinsuchanenvironmentcultivatedastrong
willwithinhimtopushbackagainstthesekindsofattitudes,beginningwithhomophobia
heexperiencedinhighschool,andrecentlyinvolvingdiscriminationagainstPaganismin
hisSpiritualistchurch.WhenIaskedwhetherornothefeelsthattheviewsheaccepted
previouslyaffecthimtoday,hewentontoexplainhisfirstoutwardactofrebellionagainst
hisreligiouspeers.Hisupbringing,hesays“openedmyeyestotruehatred,to
brainwashing…itopenedmyeyestoalotanditmademealotstronger”(P210).When
Mattbegantobeconfrontedbyhisdevoutlyreligiouspeersinhighschoolforbeinggay,he
decidedtoembracetheaccusationsandusetheirfearsashisdefense,turning“gothic,”and
playingintohispeers’rumorsthathewaspossessedbythedevil.“Ithoughtitwasso
funny,andIwouldgouptopeopleandbelike‘thedevilsaidhehatesyou.’[Laughter]”
Insteadofpassiveavoidancetechniques,Mattusedtheexactoppositebehaviortoreclaim
hisidentitydespitethejudgmentofhispeers.Althoughheneverbelievedhewasevillike
hispeerssaid,heusedthisasfueltoreaffirmhissenseofpowerinthesituationathand
andshifthisagencyinthesituationfrompassivetoactive.
Thissortofbehaviorcanbeseenagainwhenheisconfrontedwithasimilar
situationathisSpiritualistchurchinPittsburgh.Spiritualism,asMattexplainedtome,is
“moreofaphilosophy.It’saboutcommuningwithpeoplewhohavepassedovertothe
otherside.Itdealsheavilywithmedium-shipandtalkedtodeadpeople.”Althoughthis
82
seemslikeacommunitysimilartoPaganisminitsembraceofthemysticalandmagical,“it’s
becomeChristian-basedandalotofpeopleinthecommunityareChristians,”accordingto
Matt.InitiallyheldbackfromopeninguptothiscommunityabouthisPaganleaningsby
theirstrongChristiantiesbecausehedidn’t“wanttorufflefeathers,”hequicklyaddedthat
hedecided“weshouldrufflefeathers”(P210).Thus,hewenttothepastorofthechurchto
explainthathehadbeenattendingWiccanritualsandtakingclassesonthesubject.His
pastorwaswelcomingandopen-minded,invitingMatttohostaneventatthechurchto
introducethemembersofthechurchtohisreligion.Aftertheevent,Mattreceivedstrong
backlashwithinthecommunityforhisPaganbeliefs:
Thiswomancomesuptomeandsays‘So,whatareyou?’ andIwaslike,‘Whatdo
youmean?’andshesays‘Well,areyouaChristian?’andIexplained‘WellIthinkthat
sayingthatI'maChristianwouldbeverylimiting,I’machildoftheearth,Iidentify
withaspectsofeveryreligion.Ijustidentifyalittlebitmorewithpaganism.SoI
wouldsaythatIam,ifyouwanttoputtermsonit,I'maPagan.’Andshelooksatme
andshegoes,‘Wellyoucan'tbeaPaganandaSpiritualist.’andIwaslike"Ohreally?
Accordingtowho?Accordingtoyou?Okay,that'sfineIrespectyouropinion,but
here'salistofpaganspiritualist…"andIgaveheralist…andsheresponded,‘WellI
justdon'tthinkthatyoucandothis.EveryonehereisChristian.’AndI'mlike‘Well
that'sfine,butyouhavetounderstandthatweliveinapluralisticsocietyandI
wouldn'tjoinagroupiftheywerestrictlyChristian.Italkedtothepastoraboutit
andshesaid‘it'sfinethatyou'relikethisandweaccepteveryone.’But,there'sstill
thislike,conservativewave…It'ssolimitingandIwaslikeshocked.Idon'tliketo
fightwithpeopleoverstufflikethat.It'swaytoohardandyoucan'tconvincepeople
tochangetheirbehavior. Theperspectivedefinitelychanged[afterthat].The
dynamicdefinitelychangedandImeanpeopleweretalkingaboutme,callingme
‘dark’(P210).
Throughoutthedescription,Mattspokeconfidentlyandanimatedly,pausingonlytofind
waystoelaborateonthesituationfurther.Afterthisincident,Mattwasinspiredtotakea
morediplomaticstanceasPaganwithinhiscommunity,explainingthathewouldnever
wanttomakeanyonefeel“pushedoutorcrucifiedinasense.”WhenIinquiredabout
whetherthatwassimilartothewayhewasmadetofeelbytheSpiritualistcommunity,he
explainedthathedidn’t,andexplainedthat,“EvenifIdid,Iwouldn’tcare.I’mverystrong
83
inwhatIbelieveinandI’mabletohavetheseconversationsandtheseargumentsina
politicalanddiplomaticway…becauseI’veresearchedthisandI’mnotgoingtobackdown
fromit”(P210).ItseemsthatMatt’supbringingmadehimfearlessinsomeaspectsofhis
experienceasaPaganandinfightingthediscriminationagainstitwithinhisreligiouslife
asbothaSpiritualistandaPagan.However,itisquitepossiblethattheseinstancesaffected
himmuchmorethanheleton.Althoughheclaimedthathewas“shocked,”atthewoman’s
response,hegoesontosaythathewasnotaffectedinanyway.Thisperhapspresentsan
instanceofself-deceitbydownplayinghisemotionalresponse.
Interestingly,despitehispurportedfearlessness,Mattwasoneofthemostadamant
ofmyinformantsaboutbeingcompletelyanonymousduetofearsabouthisfuturejob
prospectswhichmayreaffirmmyaforementionedclaimofself-deceit.Itseems
counterintuitivethatsomeonewithsuchastrongsenseofidentityandwilltofightagainst
misunderstandingwouldbesoadamantaboutkeepinghissecrecyinregardtohisjob.It
seemsthatforMatt,therearesomerealmsoflifethatare“untouchable”intermsof
negotiatingandmitigatingdiscrimination.Forhim,hisjobincriminaljusticewasanonnegotiableareaofhislifewherehecouldnot,andwouldnotputhimselfintheposition,to
betransparentabouthisreligiousbeliefs.Whilemanyotherinformantsenthusiastically
encouragedmetoincludetheirrealnamesandpersonaldata,Mattwashesitant,even
inquiringaboutwhereIkeptmyinformationandhowsafelyitwasstored.Whilethis
meticulousnesscouldsimplybeasymptomofhiscriminaljusticebackground,italso
showsjusthowdifferentlyhehandlesthesesituationsfromhisreligiouslifetohis
occupationallife.Insteadoffacingallaccusationsheadon,andevenusingthemagainsthis
accusersashehasinthepast,hechoosestogotoallmeasurestoavoideventhepossibility
ofsuchasituationinrelationtohisprofessionallife.PerhapsthisisbecauseMattholdsthe
84
widelyacceptedbeliefthatoneshouldn’tbringtheirreligionintotheworkplace,however
ifthatwereso,therewouldn’tbesuchaneedtohidehisidentityratherthananeedforhim
simplynottobringitupintheworkplace.Asbackgroundchecksaretypicallyrequiredfor
membersofthecriminaljusticesystem,thissuggeststhatassomeonewhowasgoingtobe
enteringthefieldasafull-timemembersoon,hefeltthiswouldbedetrimentaltohis
chancesatsecuringaposition.However,workandreligiouslifearetwoverydifferent
realms,andthusitisnotsurprisingthatMattwouldfeelmorecomfortableopeningup
aboutsomethingtohispeerswithinhisreligiouscommunity,asitseemsmoreappropriate
tohim.
Mattprovidesanexampleofthewaysinwhichthecompartmentalizationofhis
Paganidentityhasaffectedhislife.Evenwhenhedecidestobreakdownthewallbetween
hisSpiritualistidentityandhisPaganidentity,therepercussionsheexperiencedserveas
anotherreasonwhythePagancommunitywillcontinuethispractice.Matt,intellinghis
storyofdiscriminationtohisPaganpeers,undoubtedlyreinforcestheirreasoningabout
whycompartmentalizationisuseful.OneofthemaingoalsofmanyPagansseemstobeto
avoidthissortofbacklashfromtheirpeersinotherpartsoftheirlives,and
compartmentalizationachievesthisgoal.
4.2.3 Janet
WhiletheexperiencesofLisa,Tara,andMatthaveallexemplifiedthewaysinwhich
discriminationmaybeseenonamundanelevel,Janet(amiddle-agerealestateworker)
experiencedmoredetrimentalconsequences.WhenJanetfirstbegantoidentifyasaPagan,
shedecidedlystayed“inthebroomcloset,”acommonexpressionamongPagansfor
85
keepingone’sreligiousidentitylargelysecret.HerfamilyisfundamentalistChristian,and
manyofherfriendsoutsideofthePagancommunityareChristianaswell.However,as
timewenton,JanetbegantofeelmorecomfortablelivingwithherPaganidentityand
decidedthatitwastimetostartacceptingherselfpublicly.Tohersurprise,herimmediate
familyacceptedher,evendefendingheragainstthediscriminationofothermembersof
theirfundamentalistcommunity:
WhenItoldmymom,shewasprettyaccepting.Shewasreallyupset,youknow,
becausesheprobablyfeelsthatI’mgoingtohell,butherultimateresponsewasthat
oflove,notofhate.Ireallyappreciateherforthat.Theothermembersofher
communityfoundoutsomehowthough,andonewomanshoweduponmymom’s
doorstepthedayaftertalkingabouthowIwas“withthedevil,”andaccusingmy
momofhousingevil.Thewomanwouldn’tevencrossthedoorwayshewassoafraid
ofme(P236).
Althoughhermotherdefendedher,Janetexplainedthattherewasalsoalotofshamethat
beingaPaganbroughtherparents.Afterthis,shedecidedtokeepherreligiousidentity
private,inpartduetothebacklashagainstherparents,andinpartduetothefearthatone
daysomeonemightshowupatherdoorstep,nothermother’s.
Astimewenton,thatmomentbegantofeelfarawaytoJanet,andshebegantofeel
morecomfortablebeingopenaboutherreligiousidentity.“AsIgrewupmore,IfeltthatI
wassurroundedbyamoreopenmindedcommunitywithinPittsburgh,andIfeltmore
comfortablepostingthingsonFacebookandbeinganactivememberofthecommunity”(P
236).Ittookalotofcouragetodecidethatshewouldbeopenwithherpeersabouther
religion—somethingmanymembersofthecommunitycouldnotdo—andshewasproud
tobeabletodoso.Inherconfidence,however,cameoneofthemostdamagingactsof
discriminationthecommunityhasfelt.Havinganestablishedcareerworkinginalocalreal
estateoffice,Janetbegantobeopenwithherpeerswheneverthesubjectofreligioncame
up.Theirreactions,Janetexplained,werevaried,butforthemostpartnoonehadsaid
86
anythingdirectlyderogatorytoher.“Icouldtelltheyweretalkingaboutmebehindmy
backthough.Thingsgotawkwardafterthat,butIneverexpectedwhatwaseventually
coming.”Oneday,asJanetwasusingthecopieratworktomakecopiesofaflierforan
upcomingeventinthePagancommunity,herbosswalkedbyandaskedheraboutwhatit
was.
Thenextday,withoutanywarning,hecalledmeintohisofficeandfiredmefor
‘improperuseofofficefacilities.’Now,thisguyisasuperChristian,andIknowfora
factthatitwasmorethanjustusingthecopier.Peopleintheofficeusethecopierfor
smallpersonalstuffallthetime,andnoonehaseverevengottenwrittenupforit.
Lookingback,IwishIhadhadtheconfidencetodosomethingaboutit,butatthe
timeIwasjustsobeatendownandshockedbyitthatIjustpickedupmystuffand
left(P236).
Whenaskedwhetherornotshereportedtheincidenttohumanresources,Janetexplained
thatherimmediatereactionwassimplytonottocallanyfurtherattentiontoherself.“I
didn’tthinkanyonewasgoingtogivemethetimeofdayaboutit,becausenoonereally
respectedthatpartofmeinthefirstplace”(P236).Janet’sexperienceandsubsequent
reactionistheamalgamationofdecadesofinadvertentdiscriminationandsuppressionof
Paganidentity.Followingthisevent,Janetrevertedtoheroldwaysofsecrecy,“afterthat,I
tendtokeepmyreligiouspreferencestomyself.IlovemyselfandmyidentityasaPagan
butitisnotworthittometoexperiencesuchbacklashandlosswhenIcouldjustavoidit
altogetherbynotsayinganything”(P236).Evenwhenshebegantoanswerquestions
whenwefirstmetinabackcornerofalocalcoffeeshop,herresponseswerehushedand
self-conscious.Therewasvisibletensionforherinrelatingtheseeventstoastrangerand
sheseemedtobeconsciousofbeingoverheard.Herstoryisanotherthatfuelsthedesire
notonlyforherself,butforthebroaderPagancommunityinPittsburghaswell,tokeep
theirreligiouslifeprivate,unfortunatelycontributingtothecycleofignoranceand
subsequentprejudice.
87
4.3
ACOMMUNUALRESPONSE
Thesestoriesofdiscriminationcyclethroughthecommunity,andeventuallybecomeapart
ofthecommunalnarrativesurroundingdiscriminationandthewaysinwhichoneshould
addressit.StoriessuchasJanet’sandMatt’sreinforcethedesiretocompartmentalize
themselvesandjustifiessecretkeeping.AsthecommunityofPaganswithinPittsburghis
relativelysmall,itisinevitablethatstoriessuchasthesearewidelyknown,andhavebeen
referencedbyseveralotherinformantsnotincludingtheinformantsdiscussedabove(P
201)(P204)(P221).SeveralPagansmakereferencetotheseinstancesasreinforcement
andexplanationwhenaskedaboutwhytheyprefertokeeptheirreligiousidentityprivate.
Maggie,themiddleagedhealthcareworkingmentionedabove,mentionednotjustonebut
bothMatt’sandJanet’sstorieswhenexplainingwhyshefelttheneedtokeepherreligious
lifeprivate.“Iheard[Janet’s]storyandIwasjustappalled.Ican’timagewhatIwoulddoin
hersituation.Evenhearingherstorymakesmeafraidforsomethinglikethattohappento
me.”AnotherinformantusedMatt’sstoryasawaytoexplainChristianity’sholdon
mainstreamculture:
Christiancriticismsshouldn’taffecthiminthosesituationsbecauseasanAmerican
hisfreedomofreligionisguaranteed.Butthey’resooftentreatedasvalidbysociety.
Obviously,theircriticismsofPaganismareatbestuninformed,buttherealitiesof
Americansocietymeanwehavetodealwiththesecriticismsheadonlike[Matt]did,
evenifitsunfair.Oursocietyissobiased,weareatoddswithapowerfulandvocal
segmentthatmakestheirspiritualandtheologicalcriticismsofussomethingwedo
havetoanswer,againstourwill.WearenotChristians,orevenmonotheists.That
shouldnotbeaproblem.Butweareoccasionallyforcedtoactlikeitisone,andthat
it’sourresponsibilitytoaccommodate(P227).
ThisinformantastutelyechoesthestakesofsuchdiscriminationdiscussedinBarnerBarry’sworkaswellasmyownandhowitisunderstoodanddealtwithbyaPagan.Italso
88
outlinesthebeginningsoftheprocessesofdownplayingemotionalresponses.Itisclear
thatnotonlydootherPagansusethesestoriesasreinforcementfortheiravoidance
behavior,buttheyarealsoserveasatouchstonefromwhichothersdefineandunderstand
theirownviewpointsondiscriminationevenwhentheyhavenotexperiencedanydirectly
themselves.ItisthusthatnoteverymemberofthePagancommunitymustexperiencean
actofoutwarddiscriminationinordertofeeltheneedtousethedefensestrategies
consideredearlierandmaintainthecycleofmisinformationandprejudice.
Thedeepironywithinthissystemofcauseandeffectisthatoftenitistheir
avoidancestrategiesthattheyconsidermostdetrimentaltotheirwellbeing.Ononehand
theydonotwanttohavetokeeptheirlivessecretnorfeelthat,inaperfectworld,they
should;andontheotheritisexactlytheperpetuationofkeepingtheirexistenceasecret
thatsustainstheignorancethatfuelsdiscriminationsurroundingPaganism.Itseemsthat
thereisnowayto“win”formanyPagansinthePittsburgharea.Iftheydonotwanttoface
immediateoutwarddiscriminationandostracizationintheirdailylives,theymustkeep
theirreligionasecret;however,indoingthistheyaredirectlyfuelingfurther
discriminationwhethertheyareawareofitornot.Sinceignoranceandmisinformation
are,farandaway,themostpertinentfuelofmoderndiscriminationagainstPaganismand
thecauseofsuchatensesocialclimatesurroundinglivingasaPagan,theinevitable
solutionseemstobeinformation.Contrarily,however,multipleinformants,likeMatt,have
describedsituationsinwhichtheyattemptedtoinformthosewhodiscriminateagainst
them,onlytocomeheadtoheadwiththeseeminglyunarguabletrumpcardofreligious
ideology(P203)(P227)(P236)(P238).Mattprovidesadirectexampleofexactlyhow
andwhyprovidinginformationtothemassesdoesn’talwayssolvetheproblemof
discrimination.Therootsofreligiousandculturalideologygrowmuchdeeperthan
89
knowledge,andoftenareimpervioustonewinformationandwaysofthinking.Itisforthis
reasonthatmanyPaganslikeLisa,Tara,Matt,andJanet,nowavoidtheideaofinforming
themassestocreategreatertoleranceinfavorofaquieterexistence.Storiessuchasthese
enforcethisideologywithinthecommunityandthuscementthecycleofignoranceinits
place.
5.0
CONCLUSION
Theexperiencesofbothnon-PagansandPaganshaveprovidedinvaluableinsightsinto
whatliesbeneathoutwarddiscriminationandhowitaffectseachcommunity.Initially,
whenIbeganthisstudy,Ihadnoideathatthereevenwasan“underneath,”ofwhichto
speak.Beforetrulystartingtounderstandthedelicatebalanceandcyclethatlieinfrontof
me,Iexpectedtoseeacut-and-drypathfrommediasourcesandreligiousimageryto
misunderstandingtodiscriminationandthustotheseveredetrimentofPagansatlarge.
However,whatbecameapparentlyshortlyafterspeakingwithseveralPagansinthe
Pittsburghcommunity,wasthattheywereperformingactionsthatactuallyincreased
misunderstandingandtheprevalenceofmisinformation.Thetangledwebofactionand
reactionanchorthecycleofdiscriminationinplace.Whilemyassumptionsaboutthe
sourcesofmisinformationfornon-Paganshadbeenpartiallycorrect,whatIcouldnothave
understoodbeforeconductingthisresearchwasthatanequallylargesourceof
misinformationwasPagansthemselves.
Whiletelevisionshows,movies,books,aswellasreligiousoutletssuchasreligious
textsandreligiousinstruction,remainattheforefrontofsourcesformisguidedopinions
regardingPaganism,whatallowstheseoutletstomaintaintheirstrengtharethedefensive
90
mechanismsofthePagancommunity.Religiousinfluencesandmediaimageryarewhat
initiatethemisinformationandthusdiscrimination,howeverthecycleofdiscrimination
uncoveredinthisstudyiswhatperpetuatesthisclimateofmisunderstanding.Pagans;
actionssuchashavingseparateFacebookaccountsfortheirPaganidentity,keepingtheir
religiouspreferencesasecret,andoutwardlyminimizinganyemotionaleffectthat
instancesofdiscriminationmayhave,allcontributetopromotingacycleof
misunderstandingandmisinformationthatcementsthediscriminationofnon-Pagansinits
place.AsBarner-Barrylaysoutinherwork,inorderforareligiontoberespectedand
avoiddiscrimination,itmust—attheveryleast—bebothvisibleandunderstood.Dueto
thedefensemechanismsofPagans,theseprerequisitescannotbefulfilledleadingtothe
cyclethatremainsinplacetodayofsecrecyandmisinformation.Thecycleisfurther
cementedinplacebythefactthatmostPaganshesitatetorecognizetheirdefense
mechanismsasdetrimentaltotheirwell-beingandlifestyle.Actionssuchashavingtwo
separateFacebookprofilesorkeepingtheirfamiliesunawareoftheirreligiouspreferences
arenotconsideredextremelystressfulorharmful,butratheraremostoftenseenasa
somethingthatmakeslifeeasier.
Uncoveringthis“cycleofdiscrimination,”however,doesnotmeanthatIhavebyany
meanssolvedtheproblem.Thebiggestobstacletoasolutionliesinthefactthatmany
Pagansfindanotableamountofcomfortinbeingabletoperceivablyguardthemselves
fromthediscriminationofothersasImentionedabove.AsbeingaPaganiseasily
concealed,theeaseofcreatingthiscomfortdoesnotoftenoutweighthediscomfortof
puttingoneselfintoharm’sway.Furthermore,manyperceivethereligioustolerance
climateoftheirareatobeoflittleimmediateconcern.Therearenomodernwitchhunts,
thereisnoprotestingatlocalPaganfestivalsandevents—infactsomePagansmaynever
91
faceanysortofoutwarddiscriminationthemselvesiftheyperformthesedefense
mechanismswellenough.PerhapsifthePagancommunityasawholefeltmore
immediatelythreatenedbythepossibilityofdiscrimination,thiscyclewouldbemore
readilyaddressed.ManyPagansareevenignorantofthepolarizedopinionsofmembersof
thePittsburghcommunityatlarge,thinkinginsteadthatbecausetheremaybefewpeople
whodiscriminateagainstPaganismoutwardlyintheirdailylives,thattheremustthusbe
relativelylittlenegativelypolarizedopinionssurroundingthetopic.However,because
manynon-PagansdonotevenknowthatPaganismandWitchesexistinreality,theydonot
takethetopicseriouslyandthusdonotrealizetheyarediscriminatingagainstarealgroup
ofpeoplethatexistwithintheircitywhentheyholdtheseideasandprejudices.Iamalso
leftwiththequestionofwhetherornotthenon-Pagancommunitycanbeevensaidtobe
activelydiscriminating,asonecouldarguethattheyarenoteventalkingaboutthereligion
atall,butratherasourceoffiction.Myimmediatesolutionistounderstandtheseactions
notnecessarilyasimmediatelyoutwardlydiscriminatory,butratherpossessingthe
distinctpotentialfordiscrimination—thekindthatsentencedDamienEcholstodeath.The
disconnectbetweenthegravemisunderstandingsofnon-Pagansandthecomplacencyof
thePagancommunitywillbeadifficultobstacletotraverseshouldthedesiretoendthis
cyclecometobe.Thesedefensemechanisms,coupledwiththenaturalelementofsecrecy
anddecreasedvisibilitythatisinherenttothereligion,makeanyimprovementsinthe
reputationofPaganismwithinthecommunityofPittsburghextremelydifficult.However,
thisdoesnotmeanthatthecyclecouldnotbeendedifsignificanteffortwasexerted
towardsagreatersenseofunderstandingandtolerance.Certainly,witheffortstomakethe
communitymorevisibleandtoeducatemembersoutsideofthePagancommunity,a
greatersenseofrespectwouldbefostered.Unfortunately,however,itisinevitablethat
92
somediscriminationwouldstillexist,becauseunlikesimplemisinformationthatmaybe
easilyremediedlikethatwhichiscausedbythemedia,thediscriminationrootedin
religiousbeliefssuchasChristianityaresodeeplyingrainedthateducationaleffortscould
nottotallyrectifythesituation.
Infurtherstudiesofthistopic,Ifeelthatanunderstandingofthecycleandits
effectswouldbeincreasedwithamoredevelopedpsychoanalyticalapproach,intermsof
bothanalyzingtheprocessofinterviewingandhowitaffectsresponsesfrominformants,as
wellashowthecyclemaintainsitselfandaffectsthecommunityasawhole.Further
researchneedstobedonetouncoverhowPagansunderstandthiscycleandhowthey
conceptualizeboththeirdefensivetechniquesandthecomforttheyprovide.Comparative
studiesshouldbedonetodiscernhowmuchournationalculturecomesintoplaywithin
thecontextofdiscrimination,religioustolerance,andtheparticularcycleofdiscrimination
inquestion.Althoughadireneedtoendsuchacyclemayneverpresentitself,an
awarenessoftheeffectsofeachgroup’sactionswouldbebeneficialtobothpartiesinthat
itallowsthemtobetterunderstandtheideologicalworldwithinwhichtheyliveandthe
consequencestheiractionscause.Whilethissystemofreinforcedignorancemaynotseem
immediatelyharmfultomany,thisexactignoranceiswhatsentencedDamienEcholsto
deathin1994.WhilesomeprogresshasbeenmadesinceDamien’sverdictwasreached
some20yearsago,ashisappealwasacceptedandhewasreleasedfromprisoninthelast
10years,myresearchshowsthattherootsofsuchdiscriminationremaininthenon-Pagan
communityatfullforce.However,amovementtogaingreatervisibilityandrespectfor
Paganismanditsmanyformswithinthelargercommunitycouldbeexactlywhatisneeded
tobreakthecycle.WithgreaterawarenessandunderstandingofPaganismasareligion,it
ispossiblethatafatesuchasDamien’smayneveroccuragain.
93
94
APPENDIXA
SAMPLEPAGANINTERVIEWMATERIAL
Statement:Youwerechosenasaparticipantinthisinterviewbasedonyourinvolvement
inthegreaterPagancommunityofPittsburgh.Yourthoughtsandopinionsareincredibly
valuableinconductingthisstudyandIthankyouforvolunteeringyourtime.Pleasemake
sureyoureadovertheconsentformcarefully,andaskanyquestionsthatyoumighthave.
Afteryouhavereadandsignedtheconsentformwewillbegin.Ihaveafewquestionsin
particularIwouldliketoaskoverthecourseofthisinterview,butfreespeechisalsohighly
encouraged.Pleasedonotfeelobligedtoansweranyquestionthatyoudonotwishto
answer.Iunderstandthatreligionisasensitivetopicformanypeople.
Q:Canyoutellmebrieflyaboutyourbackground,andhowlongyouhaveresidedin
Pittsburgh?
Q:HowlonghaveyouidentifiedwiththePaganCommunity?
Q:Howwereyoufirstintroducedtothisreligiousmovement?
Q:Didyouhaveanypreconceivednotionsaboutthereligion?
Q:Doyoufeelthatthesenotionswereinaccurate?Towhatdegree?
Q:HowdoyouperceivePaganrepresentationinpopularculture?
Q:Areyousatisfiedwithhowyourreligionisrepresentedbypopulartelevisionshows,
movies,literature,andnewschannels?
Q:Doyouhaveaparticularexamplethatbotheredyou,ifany?
Q:Doyoubelievethattheserepresentationshaveaffectedthegeneralattitudestowards
Paganism?
Q:Doyouthinktheseattitudeshavegottenmoreorlessaccepting,orremainedthesame
overthetimethatyouhavebeenaPagan?
Q:Canyoubrieflytellmeyourunderstandingofanyhistoricaltensionsthatexistforthe
religion?
Q:DoyoufeelthatthishistoricalcontextaffectsthePittsburghcommunity?Ifso,inwhat
ways?
Q:Haveyoupersonallyexperiencedanydiscriminationbasedonreligion,eitherinyour
workplace,inyoursociallife,orotherwise?
Q:Ifyes,didyoureporttheseinstancestotheproperauthorities?
Q:Haveyouchangedthewayinwhichyoupracticeyourreligionduetoanytensionyou
mayhaveexperiencedbasedonyourinvolvement?
Q:Doyougenerallyfeelcomfortabletellingyouracquaintancesthatyouareamemberof
thePagancommunity?Howaboutyourcoworkers,friendsorfamily?
Q:Basedonyourpersonalknowledge,doyoufeelthatPittsburghanditsvarious
communitiesareacceptingofPaganism?Ifno,why?
Q:DoyouknowanyoneelseinthePagancommunitywhomightbewillingtospeakwith
me?Wouldyoufeelcomfortableprovidingmewithinformationtocontactthem?
APPENDIXB
95
SAMPLENON-PAGANINTERVIEWMATERIAL
Statement:Youwerechosenasaparticipantinthisinterviewbasedonyourinvolvement
inthePittsburghcommunity.Yourthoughtsandopinionsareincrediblyvaluablein
conductingthisstudyandIthankyouforvolunteeringyourtime.Pleasemakesureyou
readovertheconsentformcarefully,andaskanyquestionsthatyoumighthave.Afteryou
havereadandsignedtheconsentformwewillbegin.IhaveafewquestionsinparticularI
wouldliketoaskoverthecourseofthisinterview,butfreespeechisalsohighly
encouraged.Pleasedonotfeelobligedtoansweranyquestionthatyoudonotwishto
answer.Iunderstandthatreligionisasensitivetopicformanypeople.
Q:Canyoutellmebrieflyaboutyourbackground,andhowlongyouhaveresidedin
Pittsburgh?
Q:DoyouidentifywithanyreligiouscommunityinPittsburgh?
Q:Ifyou’recomfortable,wouldyoumindtellingmewhichcommunitywithwhichyouare
involved.
Q:HaveyoueverbeenacquaintedwiththeideaofPaganism?
Q:TowhatdegreedoyoufeelyouhaveknowledgeofPaganism?
Q:Whatisyourunderstandingoftheword“witchcraft?”
Q:Ifyouweretoguess,whatmightbeatypicalwitch?
Q:Basedonyourpersonalknowledge,howwouldyoudescribethepracticeofWitchcraft
orPaganism?
Q:Doyoufeelthatwitchcraftisgenerallybenevolent,harmful,orneutral?
Q:DoyoubelievethatthePittsburghcommunitywouldbeacceptingofthisreligion?Why
orwhynot?
Q:Canyoubrieflytellmeyourunderstandingofanyhistoricaltensionsthatexistforthe
religion?
Q:HowmuchofyourideasofwitchcraftandPaganismdoyouthinkcomefromits
portrayalinthemedialikeTVshows,movies,ornewsmedia?
Q:IfafriendorfamilymemberidentifiedwithPaganism,doyoufeelthatwouldnegatively
affectyourattitudestowardsthem?
Q:DoyouknowanyoneelseinthePittsburghcommunitywhomightbewillingtospeak
withme?Wouldyoufeelcomfortableproviding mewithinformationtocontactthem?
96
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adler, Margot. Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers, and
Other Pagans in America. New York: Penguin, 1979. Print.
Bauman, Richard. “Disclaimers of Performance” in Responsibility and Evidence in Oral
Discourse. Judith T. Irvine and Jane H. Hill eds. New York:  Cambridge
University, 1992. Press. p 182-196
Bond, George C., and Diane M. Ciekawy. Witchcraft Dialogues: Anthropological and
Philosophical Exchanges. Athens: Ohio U Center for International Studies, 2001.
Print.
Bleek, Wolf. "Lying Informants: A Fieldwork Experience from Ghana." Population and
Development Review 13.2, 1987. p. 314-22. Web.
Crowley, Aleister. Magick in Theory and Practice. New York: Dover Publications, 1976.
Print.
Davies, Owen. Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford UP, 2011.
Print.
Davis, Derek, and Barry Hankins. New Religious Movements and Religious Liberty in
America. N.p.: Baylor UP, 2003. Print.
Davidsen, Markus Altena. "What Is Wrong with Pagan Studies?" Method & Theory in
the Study of Religion 24.2 (2012): 183-99. Web.
Echols v. State, 326 Ark. 917, 936 S.W .2d 509. Supreme Court of Arkansas. n.p. n.d.
1996. Web. 03 Mar. 2015.
Ewing, Katherine Pratt. "Revealing and Concealing: Interpersonal Dynamics and the
Negotiation of Identity in the Interview." Ethos 34.1, 2006. p. 89-122. Web.
Fig. 1. Gustafson, Scott. Who’s the Fairest of them All? Digital image. The Art of Scott
Gustafson. N.p., 2013. Web.
Fig. 2. Gustafson, Scott. Hansel and Gretel and the Witch. Digital image. The Art of
Scott Gustafson. N.p., 2013. Web.
Fig. 3. Gustafson, Scott. Snow White, the Witch and the Apple. Digital image. The Art of
Scott Gustafson. N.p., 2013. Web.
Fisher, Robert J. "Social Desirability Bias and the Validity of Indirect
Questioning." Journal of Consumer Research 20.2 (1993): 303-15. Web.
Gibson, Marion. Witchcraft Myths in American Culture. New York: Routledge, 2007.
Print.
97
Goodall, Janet, Emyr Williams, and Catherine Goodall. "Pagan Prayer and Worship: A
Qualitative Study of Perceptions." The Pomegranate: International Journal of
Pagan Studies 15.1-2 (2014): 178-201. Web.
Harvey, Graham. Contemporary Paganism: Religions of the Earth from Druids and
Witches to Heathens and Ecofeminists. New York: New York UP, 2011. Print.
Higginbotham, Joyce, and River Higginbotham. Paganism: An Introduction to EarthCentered Religions. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications, 2002. Print.
Hutton, Ronald. "Finding a Folklore." The Pomegranate: International Journal of
Pagan Studies 1.12 (2000): 4-14. Web.
Hutton, Ronald. Pagan Britain. New Haven: Yale UP, 2013. Print.
Hutton, Ronald. "The Status of Witchcraft in the Modern World." The Pomegranate:
International Journal of Pagan Studies 9.2 (2007): 121-31. Web.
Hutton, Ronald. The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft.
Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999. Print.
Johnston, Hannah E., and Peg Aloi. The New Generation Witches: Teenage Witchcraft
in Contemporary Culture. Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2007. Print.
Jorgensen, Danny L., and Scott E. Russell. "American Neopaganism: The Participants'
Social Identities." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 38.3 (1999): 325.
Web.
Kermani, S. Zohreh. Pagan Family Values: Childhood and the Religious Imagination in
Contemporary American Paganism. N.p.: NYU, 2013. Print.
Kirner, Kimberly D. "Healing Community: Pagan Cultural Models and Experiences in
Seeking Well-Being." The Pomegranate: International Journal of Pagan
Studies 16.1 (2014): 80-108. Web.
Kripke, Erik. Supernatural. Warner Bros. 2005. Television.
Lewis, James R. "Becoming a Virtual Pagan: “Conversion” or Identity
Construction?" The Pomegranate: International Journal of Pagan Studies 16.1
(2015): 24-34. Web.
Linder, Douglas O. "The West Memphis Three Trials (1994)." The West Memphis Three
Trials (1994). University of Missouri Kansas City, n.d. Web.
Magliocco, Sabina. Witching Culture: Folklore and Neo-Paganism in America.
Philadelphia, PA: U of Pennsylvania, 2004. Print.
98
Miall, Charlene, Pawluch, Dorothy and Shaffir, William. Doing Ethnography: Studying
Everyday Life. Toronto: Canadian Scholars, 2005. Print.
Nachman, Steven. “Lies My Informants Told Me.” Journal of Anthropological Research
40.4, 1984. p. 536-555. Web.
Noonan, Kerry, and Sarah M. Pike. "Review: Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves:
Contemporary Pagans and the Search for Community." Western Folklore 61.1,
2002. p. 97-. Web.
"NP 101." Personal interview. 10 July 2015.
"NP 102." Personal interview. 18 July 2015.
“NP 103.” Personal interview. 30 July 2015.
"NP 104." Personal interview. 3August 2015.
“NP 105.” Personal interview. 3 August 2015.
"NP 106." Personal interview. 1 September 2015.
“NP 107.” Personal interview. 1 September 2015.
"NP 108." Personal interview. 2 September 2015.
“NP 109.” Personal interview. 3 September 2015.
“NP 110.” Personal interview. 4 September 2015.
"NP 111." Personal interview. 7 September 2015.
“NP 112.” Personal interview. 11 September 2015
“NP 113.” Personal interview. 14 September 2015.
“NP 114.” Personal interview. 26 September 2015.
"NP 115." Personal interview. 11 October 2015.
“NP 116.” Personal interview. 11 October 2015.
“NP 117.” Personal interview. 23 October 2015.
"NP 118." Personal interview. 9 November 2015.
“NP 119.” Personal interview. 10 November 2015.
“NP 120.” Personal interview. 8 January 2016.
99
“NP 121.” Personal interview. 13 January 2016.
“NP 122.” Personal interview. 15 January 2016.
“NP 123.” Personal interview. 28 January 2016.
“NP 124.” Personal interview. 29 January 2016.
“NP 125.” Personal interview. 11 February 2016.
"P 201." Personal interview. 14 May 2015.
"P 202." Personal interview. 14 May 2015.
“P 203.” Personal interview. 28 May 2015.
"P 204." Personal interview. 1 June 2015.
“P 205.” Personal interview. 3 June 2015.
"P 206." Personal interview. 5 June 2015.
“P 207.” Personal interview. 11 June 2015.
"P 208." Personal interview. 18 June 2015.
“P 209.” Personal interview. 2 July 2015.
“P 210.” Personal interview. 2 July 2015.
"P 211." Personal interview. 9 July 2015.
“P 212.” Personal interview. 3 September 2015
“P 213.” Personal interview. 3 September 2015.
“P 214.” Personal interview. 9 September 2015.
"P 215." Personal interview. 30 September 2015.
“P 216.” Personal interview. 2 October 2015.
“P 217.” Personal interview. 3 October 2015.
"P 218." Personal interview. 24 October 2015.
“P 219.” Personal interview. 29 October 2015.
100
“P 220.” Personal interview. 5 November 2015.
“P 221.” Personal interview. 5 November 2015.
“P 222.” Personal interview. 21 November 2015.
“P 223.” Personal interview. 23 November 2015.
“P 225.” Personal interview. 30 November 2015.
"P 226." Personal interview. 17 December 2015.
“P 227.” Personal interview. 18 December 2015
“P 228.” Personal interview. 20 December 2015.
“P 229.” Personal interview. 21 December 2015.
"P 230." Personal interview. 7 January 2016.
“P 231.” Personal interview. 8 January 2016.
“P 232.” Personal interview. 11 January 2016.
"P 233." Personal interview. 13 January 2016.
“P 234.” Personal interview. 18 January 2016.
“P 235.” Personal interview. 29 January 2016.
“P 236.” Personal interview. 4 February 2016.
“P 237.” Personal interview. 7 February 2016.
“P 238.” Personal interview. 7 February 2016.
Pearson, Joanne, Richard H. Roberts, and Geoffrey Samuel. Nature Religion Today:
Paganism in the Modern World. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 1998. Print.
Pike, Sarah M. Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves: Contemporary Pagans and the Search
for Community. Berkeley, CA: U of California, 2001. Print.
Practical Magic. Dir. Griffin Dunne. Perf. Sanda Bullock and Nicole Kidman. Warner
Bros., 1998.
Rowling, J. K. Harry Potter Series. London: Little, Brown, 1997. Print.
101
Scarboro, Allen, Nancy Campbell, and Shirley A. Stave. Living Witchcraft: A
Contemporary American Coven. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994. Print.
United Kingdom. Home Office. Hate Crimes, England and Wales, 2013 to 2014. By
Byron Creese and Deborah Lader, Ed. Kevin Smith. London: Crown Copyright,
2014. Print.
United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics. 2011 Census – Local Characteristics on
Ethnicity, Identity, and Religion for Output Areas in England and Wales. By Cal
Ghee. London: Crown Copyright, 2011. Print.
U.S. Department of Justice. "Hate Crime Victimization, 2004-2012." Bureau of Justice
Statistics. Office of Justice Programs, 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2014.
Walker, Wren and Gwen Thompson. "The Wiccan Rede." The Witches' Voice. Witchvox,
16 July 2000. Web. 16 Mar. 2015.
Weller, Paul, PhD. “A Decade of Continuity and Change in Religion and Belief,
Discrimination and Equality.” Religion and Belief, Discrimination and Equality in
England and Whales: Theory, Policy, and Practice (2000-2010). University of
Derby. 2012. Web.
Wilby, Emma. Cunning Folk and Familiar Spirits: Shamanistic Visionary Traditions in
Early Modern British Witchcraft and Magic. Brighton: Sussex Academic, 2005.
Print.
The Wizard of Oz. Dir. Victor Fleming. MGM, 1939.
York, Michael. "Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion." Sociology of
Religion 65.3 (2004): 313. Web.
102