Greek Migration
Policy and the
Response to Irregular
Migrants and Asylum
Seekers
Caitlin Katsiaficas, Project Associate
@Bridging Europe
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
Greek Migration Policy and the Response to Irregular Migrants
and Asylum Seekers
By Caitlin Katsiaficas
The flow of migrants into Greece has increased in recent years and has drawn significant
attention from the media, politicians, and human rights groups. In a shift over the past two
decades, Greece, a historic country of emigration, now serves as the gateway for many
migrants into Europe. Greece is now the major point of entry for irregular migrants and
asylum seekers from Africa and Asia.1 The large influx of migrants over a relatively short
period of time presents several challenges, including the presence of large numbers of
unauthorized migrants, the need to process numerous asylum claims and provide protection
where applicable, and massive backlogs in the immigration system. At the same time, Greece is
suffering from a prolonged recession, and budgets in Greece and across the European Union
have shrunk as a result, making it even more difficult to address the arrival of migrants and
administer the immigration system.
Greece is a key transit and destination country in the EU. The number of incoming migrants
continues to rise in 2014; in the first half of the year, 23,000 migrants were detected along the
Greek-Turkish border, compared to 3,000 for all of 2013.2 All signs point to a continued flow of
significant numbers of migrants trying to enter Greece and Europe. Greece’s migration policy
has improved, but much remains to be done in order to establish an effective immigration
system. This paper will focus on programs and policies in Greece regarding irregular migrants
and asylum seekers, as these are the most common types of migrants arriving in the country. It
will outline migration policies and the context in which migration is occurring, as well as
1
2
International Organization for Migration 2014.
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 3.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
Page |1
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
provide recommendations as to how these policies can be improved to create a more effective
immigration system.
MIGRATION TO GREECE
Once a country of emigration, Greece became a destination for immigrants in the early 1980s,
with a small number of people coming from Africa, Asia, and Poland to work in the
construction, agriculture, and domestic service sectors. Migration increased significantly after
the fall of communist regimes in neighboring countries, particularly Albania and Bulgaria. In
1991, there were an estimated 167,000 immigrants in Greece, out of a population of
10,259,900.3 In addition to the collapse of neighboring governments, Greece’s membership in
the European Economic Community, which it joined in 1981, and subsequently in the EU,
made Greece an attractive destination. Another contributing factor was an increase in the
standard of living in the country. Higher levels of education among Greek youth led to a need
for seasonal and other jobs to be filled by immigrants, as many Greeks no longer wanted them.
By the first half of the 1990s, Greece became host to a considerable number of arriving
migrants. In 2001, Greece was host to over 762,000 immigrants.4 The 2011 census found that
there were 912,000 immigrants; 199,000 of whom were EU citizens and 713,000 of whom were
third country nationals. Albanians formed the largest group of immigrants at 480,000, followed
by Bulgarians at 75,000 and Romanians at 46,000.5 Immigrants are estimated to comprise
approximately 9-10% of Greece’s population.6
3
Kasimis 2012.
Triandafyllidou 2009, p. 2; Kasimis 2012.
5
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 6.
6
IOM 2014; Angeli 2013, p. 1.
4
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
Page |2
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
Immigrants as Percentage of
Total Population
Total population
Immigrant
population
Composition of Immigrant
Population
EU citizens
Third country nationals
Source: Triandafyllidou 2014
Between 2009 and 2012, the majority of irregular migrants and asylum seekers traveling to
Europe entered the EU through the land border between Greece and Turkey along the Evros
River. In 2011, 90% of all unauthorized migrants entered Europe via Greece.7 Migration flows
to Greece have been influenced by immigration enforcement actions conducted by other
Member States; strict policies in Spain and Italy, for example, resulted in flows shifting toward
7
IOM 2014.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
Page |3
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
Greece. The presence of authorities in certain areas of the Greek border has also resulted in
shifts in where migrants attempt to enter Greece. In 2013 and 2014, sea routes in the
Mediterranean and to a lesser extent the Aegean have been more popular; increased border
control measures played a large role in this change.8 The number of migrants detected crossing
the border illegally has increased. During the first seven months of 2014, 15,104 irregular
migrants were arrested on the Greek-Turkish land and sea borders, an increase of 144% from
2013.9
Many migrants entering Greece hope to reach and settle in other countries in northern and
western Europe. For example, according to the European Agency for the Management of
Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member States of the European Union,
also known as Frontex, many Syrian asylum seekers arriving in Greece prefer to apply for
asylum in other Member States, where they receive more support.10 Despite the fact that many
migrants view Greece as a transit country, it is host to a significant immigrant population. A
considerable number of these immigrants are unauthorized. Greece sees two main types of
irregular migrants: those newly arriving in Greece and those who had previously come to the
country and have since lost their legal status, particularly due to unemployment, because they
are unable to renew their stay permits. Due to the influx of unauthorized migrants into Greece
and the Dublin Regulation that stipulates that countries of first arrival are responsible for
processing asylum claims, Charalampos Kasimis calls Greece the “‘storehouse’ of illegal
immigration” in Europe.11
IMMIGRATION POLICIES
Border Control
8
Kasimis 2012; Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 3.
eKathimerini 2014d. Increased detections can help explain migration flows but can also be seen as indicative of
law enforcement actions and resources.
10
Frontex 2014, p. 49.
11
Kasimis 2012.
9
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
Page |4
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
Management of the country’s large land and sea borders has been and continues to be a major
challenge for Greece’s migration policy. Greece’s location at the southeastern edge of the EU
has made it a commonly used route for those seeking to reach Europe. For geographical
reasons, Greece, along with other countries in southern Europe, has experienced higher
numbers of irregular crossings than other European destinations. Except for the GreekBulgarian border, all of Greece’s borders are also external EU borders, making border control
both more formidable and more important.
Migration flows into Greece have mainly been through the Greece-Turkey land border, to the
Greek islands in the Aegean Sea, mainly Lesvos and Samos, and through the northern Greek
land border, largely via Albania.12 In 2010, 90% of all migrants detected for entering illegally
came through Greece, compared to 75% in 2009 and 50% in 2008.13 Activities related to border
control compose the largest portion of migration management expenditures. In the period from
2008 to 2013, 55% of funds were spent on border control, 30% on return policies and programs,
and 15% on the asylum system.14 Illegal entry into and stay in Greece are considered a crime;
punishment for this offense can include a minimum three-month prison sentence and a fine.
However, the most common punishment is administrative deportation.15
The first law aimed at regulating immigration into Greece was in 1991; it worked to increase
border control and make it more difficult for migrants to enter Greece and work in the country
legally. However, despite the implementation of these harsh measures, this did not decrease the
influx of migrants.16
In 1998, Greece established a Border Guard Force (Synoriofylaki). It is tasked with detecting,
arresting, and returning irregular migrants. Border guards are located along the borders and
12
Frontex 2014, p. 36.
Kasimis 2012.
14
Angeli et al. 2014, p. 5.
15
Council of Europe 2014, p. 34.
16
Triandafyllidou 2009, p. 8.
13
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
Page |5
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
also in areas with large populations of irregular migrants. Greece has worked on increasing
border controls over the past several years, particularly since 2007. Frontex has conducted
activities in Greece since 2006, and has increased its presence in the country over the past
couple of years.17 Operation Poseidon, a joint operation, is one of the largest Frontex programs
in the Mediterranean. The first time that Frontex deployed a Rapid Border Intervention Team
(RABIT) was in Greece as part of Operation Poseidon. Faced with the continuing arrivals of
large numbers of migrants as well as pressure from the EU, Greece established Operation
Shield (Aspida) in 2012. This operation moved 1,800 border guards to the Evros River region,
conducted surveillance, and strengthened passport controls. Additionally, a fence was built
along the Greek-Turkish land border to deter irregular migration.
Greece has been criticized for a number of activities relating to its border management and
immigration system, including illegal pushbacks of boats, refoulement across the Evros River
border, poor detention conditions, and its use of detention, particularly for asylum seekers. In
addition to human rights concerns, as Anna Triandafyllidou writes, “…the systematic use of
any detention, let alone an indefinite one, cannot live long as a policy tool to manage the
irregular migrant population in Greece, because it is—to put it rather simply—in violation of
existing obligations.18 Detention facilities on the Greek islands, such as Lesvos, have been
identified as particularly bad. Concerns about the asylum process, including the use of border
guards to screen for asylum claims, have also been raised. This fall, the Council of Europe’s
Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment (CPT) issued a report that found that there have been no improvements since
recommendations were given two years ago. The report cited problems including mistreatment
during arrest by police, overcrowding, subpar detention conditions, and an acute shortage of
prison guards.19
17
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 20.
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 21.
19
eKathimerini 2014a; Council of Europe 2014.
18
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
Page |6
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
Whereas the Greek-Turkish land border was more frequently used, sea crossings to Greek
islands have become the main way migrants attempt to reach the country. This is because
migratory routes have shifted in response to policies and authorities at the border. In 2008 and
2009, the sea borders received large numbers of arrivals, while in 2010 and 2011 the land
border saw a large influx. The construction of the fence along the Greek-Turkish border
resulted in increased numbers of people crossing to the south at the Evros River. By 2012, the
number of arrivals dropped due to increased enforcement at the Greece-Turkey land border.20
The number of migrants arriving at the Greek Aegean islands from Turkey has since increased
and has spiked in 2014, from a little over 2,500 in 2013 to around 22,000 in the first eight
months of 2014.21 The number of migrants apprehended along both the land and sea borders
have increased significantly from 2013 to 2014.22 Triandafyllidou calls it an example of the
‘hydraulic principle,’ in that when more migrants cross at land borders fewer do so via sea
borders, and vice versa.23 Migratory routes have shifted rather than declined in response to
stricter border controls.
Irregular migration
In addition to an increased presence of authorities to detect and return irregular migrants at
the border, Greece has worked to identify irregular migrants within the country. Almost half of
the immigrant community in Greece is unauthorized.24 Operation Xenios Zeus was established
in 2012, around the same time as the launch of Operation Shield, to conduct stop and search
activities aimed at identifying irregular migrants and arresting them for possible return to their
countries of origin. The operation focused on areas with heavy concentrations of unauthorized
migrants. Around 65,000 people were checked from August to December 2012, just over 4,100
of whom were arrested after they were found to be in Greece illegally. This operation has been
20
Angeli et al. 2014, p. 1; Triandafyllidou 2013, p. 60.
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 8.
22
eKathimerini 2014d; Frontex 2014, p. 63.
23
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 8.
24
Kasimis 2012.
21
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
Page |7
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
heavily criticized for arbitrary detention and ethnic profiling.25 In July 2014, it was integrated
into the standard operating procedures of the Greek police and renamed Operation Theseus.26
Asylum
Greece has seen a large influx in the arrival of asylum seekers attempting to reach Greece as
well as other Member States; it is the main entry point into the EU for asylum seekers from
Africa and Asia. The large number of asylum seekers has overwhelmed the system and has led
to paperwork backlogs and human rights concerns.
Asylum Applicants, EU-28, January 2013-2014
Source: Eurostat
25
26
See Hu a Rights Watch’s Unwelcome Guests.
Angeli et al. 2014, p. 9.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
Page |8
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
Greece’s asylum system has been widely recognized as problematic. It system has been
characterized by a host of problems including difficulties with access to applications, poor
quality of asylum decisions, problems with the asylum interview process, insufficient asylum
training for authorities, and subpar detention conditions. One scholar called the Greek asylum
system “basically non-functioning leaving thousands of asylum seekers trapped in Greece,
without documents, without assistance and without the means to make a living.”27 The
European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has ruled that “migrant detention in Greece
generally constitutes ‘inhuman and degrading treatment’.”28 As a result of the poor conditions
experienced by asylum seekers, and the ECHR ruling, several Member States no longer return
asylum seekers to Greece.
In 2011, Greece adopted a new law regarding asylum. Law 3907/2011 established an Asylum
Service, a First Reception Service, and an Appeals Committee to improve the management of
the asylum system. This law integrated various EU directives on reception and return. It also
made the important steps of creating new standards for the initial reception of unauthorized
migrants and the processing and adjudication of asylum applications and removed the asylum
committees from the control of the Greek police. First Reception Centers are responsible for
referring incoming asylum seekers to the asylum office, which is to receive and process asylum
applications, hold interviews, and decide on applications within 30 days. The Asylum Service
opened in June 2013, after a two and a half year delay. The first of the First Reception Service
centers opened in March 2013, near the Evros River on the Greece-Turkey border.29 The 2011
law also provides for two new types of permits for unauthorized migrants and asylum seekers.
The first is for those who have been given a decision to return but who cannot be returned. The
second is for those who have lived in Greece for 12 years or more, especially if they have done
so continuously for the past 10 years; this permit is for special circumstances. As of summer
2013 there was a backlog of 45,000 pending asylum applications in the old system. The backlog
27
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 3.
Human Rights Watch 2011, p. 1.
29
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 18.
28
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
Page |9
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
in the previous system persists but much progress has been made, and the government hopes to
process the remaining cases by the end of 2014.30
Regularization Programs
Despite increased border controls and efforts to identify irregular migrants residing in the
country, Greece continues to play host to a large population of unauthorized immigrants. One
reason for this is that, traditionally, many immigrants have entered illegally and legalized their
status over time. Additionally, due to the Greek migration system, in which one must show
proof of employment in order to obtain or renew a residence permit, those who lost their jobs
became unauthorized. Thus, most immigrants in Greece are or have been unauthorized at some
point. Over 900,000 people have participated in the three regularization programs implemented
by the government.
The first legalization program was legislated in 1997 under Presidential Decrees 358/1997 and
359/1007 and was implemented the following year. Over 370,000 people took part in the
program and received a temporary residence permit (a white card). Of these, just under 213,000
continued on to obtain a permanent residence permit (green card). Overall, fewer than half of
the immigrant population was registered as part of this program.31
Immigrants were given another opportunity to regularize their status in 2001 provided they
met certain conditions under Law 2910/2001. To be eligible, immigrants needed proof of
residence for at least one year before the law went into effect. This program lasted longer than
planned due to weak infrastructure, a complicated bureaucracy, and other issues. Around
400,000 immigrants were regularized as part of this program.32
30
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 4.
Kasimis 2012.
32
Kasimis 2012.
31
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
P a g e | 10
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
In 2005, Law 3386/2005 included another program to regularize immigrants who had lived in
Greece as of December 31, 2004. This law also simplified the residence permit process and
integrated EU directives regarding long-term residents and family reunification, among other
measures. Knowledge of Greek language, history, and culture was listed as a requirement for
regularization. Around 150,000 people applied for permits under this program.33 The 2005
program had many of the same problems as its predecessor, and Law 3536/2007 was
introduced in 2007 to make it easier for some to apply for permits.
These multiple regularization programs have been necessary because people continue to
migrate to Greece illegally but also because many immigrants in Greece repeatedly see their
status shift between legal and illegal. This is due to complicated and lengthy procedures to
obtain or renew a stay permit.34 Close to half of the immigrant community in Greece is
unauthorized. Greek regularization policies have been criticized as an example of the failure of
Greek migration policy, due to the fact that several regularization initiatives were conducted
but there are still large numbers of unauthorized migrants in Greece.35
There have been no regularization programs since 2005. The 2008 European Pact on
Immigration and Asylum stipulates that such programs should not be used as a tool for
migration management. While nonbinding, the Pact has influenced EU migration policies. In
the place of regularization programs, Greece established an invitation system. However, this
has only effectively addressed the management of seasonal migration from surrounding
countries; large numbers of irregular immigrants continue to arrive in the country.36
Citizenship
For many years, the naturalization process in Greece was long, expensive, and complicated. It
was a realistic option for few besides those of Greek ethnicity from the former Soviet Union.
33
Kasimis 2012.
Triandafyllidou 2009, p. 10.
35
Kasimis 2012.
36
Triandafyllidou 2013, p. 58.
34
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
P a g e | 11
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
Other migrants were eligible to apply after residing legally in the country for 10 of the
previous 12 years. Due to restrictions, through 2006, less than 100 became Greek citizens each
year. Numbers increased in 2007 to 2009 due to eased restrictions on citizenship for ethnic
Greek Albanians; around 44,750 people became Greek citizens during this time. 37 A more
liberal citizenship law (Law 3838/2010), enacted in 2010, made it easier for those born in
Greece or who had arrived at a young age to apply for citizenship, decreased the number of
years of residency required, and granted local political rights to third country nationals who
had a long-term stay permit and had lived in the country for five years or more, among other
measures. However, this law was annulled in 2013.
A New Migration Code
In April 2014 a new Migration Code, Law 4251/2014, was passed. This new law details
policies regarding the entry, stay, and integration of migrants from non-EU countries. It
reflects previous Greek laws and also incorporates EU legislation. However, refugees, asylum
seekers, and EU citizens are not covered by this Code.
The new law stipulates six types of stay permits: work/professional permits, temporary stay
permits, humanitarian permits, study permits, training/volunteering permits, family
reunification permits, longer-term permits, and permits for victims of human trafficking or
smuggling.38 It also provides opportunities for migrants who have lived in Greece for 10 years
or who have had a stay permit in the past to regularize their status. Under this new law those
who have submitted a complete application to obtain or renew a stay permit receive a
certification, in effect a temporary stay permit, which is valid for one year. This is a significant
development, as many have lost their legal status due to delays in the bureaucracy of the permit
process. Additionally, those who were born in Greece or who have completed six years of
schooling by the time they are 21 can apply for a five-year stay permit, which can be renewed
every five years. The law also provides some opportunities for those who entered the country
37
38
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 25-6.
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 5.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
P a g e | 12
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
legally and have since lost their status to regain it. This new law has introduced several
improvements in the immigration system. However, it, and Greek migration policy in general,
has also been criticized as focusing on migration management without recognizing that
immigration has altered Greek society and demographics.39
CURRENT CONTEXT
Political instability and violence in the Middle East as part of the ‘Arab Spring’ have had a
significant impact on migration flows to Greece since 2011, leading to a spike of asylum seekers
trying to reach Greece or other EU countries via Greece. Additionally, a considerable number
of economic migrants previously residing in North Africa, particularly in Libya, had to leave
when violence erupted. The conflict in Syria, now in its fourth year, continues to force large
numbers of Syrians to seek refuge abroad, including in Europe. In 2013 and 2014, Syrians have
been the largest nationality arriving at Greece’s borders. Part of the challenge in managing
migration flows, and those of asylum seekers in particular, is that they are a result of external
events that Greece and the EU cannot control.
The financial crisis has severely impacted Greece’s economy and society, and has had important
implications for migrants already in and arriving at the country. Budgets for state services such
as welfare, healthcare and education have decreased considerably. The cost of patrols, centers,
bureaucracy, and other items necessary for the immigration management system are high. Due
to a shortage of funds, Greece has had to depend to a considerable extent on the EU for funding
of its migration management activities. From 2008 to 2013, costs associated with asylum and
irregular migration management cost at least €500 million. Over 75% of this was financed by
the European Commission, Frontex, and Norway, Lichtenstein and Iceland in cooperation with
the Commission.40 However, Greek officials have expressed the need for additional financial
support from the EU to cope with the influx of migrants.41 The EU has also had to trim
budgets. It has recently reduced the amount of money allocated to Frontex. Frontex has also
39
Triandafyllidou 2014, p. 5.
Angeli et al. 2014, p. 5.
41
eKathimerini 2014b.
40
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
P a g e | 13
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
been faced with decreased funding in individual Member States. These budget cuts have
impacted the ability of the organization and national border agencies to conduct activities.42
Unemployment rates continue to be very high; in 2012, 25% of native Greeks and 35% of
immigrants were unemployed. This marks a significant departure from the past; immigrants
experienced almost full employment until 2008. Jobs in industries commonly occupied by
immigrants, particularly construction, have decreased. Additionally, the return of native
Greeks to jobs they had left, such as those in tourism and manufacturing, has further impacted
immigrants in the country. 43 As a result of the prolonged crisis, some immigrants have chosen
to leave Greece.
Employment and income have decreased among those born both in and outside of Greece.
Competition for jobs has increased. These trends have contributed to increasing antiimmigrant sentiment and “attention to immigration as a growing threat to the cohesion of
modern Greek society.”44 Triandafyllidou notes that, while immigration has never received
much public support, public opinion has declined.45 In recent years, support for far-right, antiimmigrant parties as well as racist attacks have been on the rise.
CONCLUSION
In the last two decades, over 1 million migrants have entered Greece, a significant departure
from the past.46 Yet, Greek immigration policy is widely viewed as reactive in nature and
inadequate in addressing the—admittedly myriad—challenges. Policies have largely focused on
regularization programs as a way to address the large unauthorized immigrant population in
the country, as well as those designed to deter and return irregular migrants. Greece has made
progress in the past couple years in improving its immigration system and has worked to
42
Frontex 2014, p. 66.
Triandafyllidou 2013, p. 56.
44
Kasimis 2012.
45
Triandafyllidou 2013, p. 62.
46
Kasimis 2012.
43
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
P a g e | 14
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
integrate EU conventions and directives. However, many challenges remain to the
implementation of a migration management system that effectively protects the rights of
migrants and benefits the host country.
The formidable challenges of decreasing backlogs, providing the appropriate services and
protection, and other measures necessary to form an effective migration policy are further
complicated by the current economic and political context. As budgets decrease due to the
prolonged financial crisis, the numbers of migrants arriving in Europe continue to increase, as
does anti-immigrant sentiment. In this challenging climate, it is more difficult to develop the
capacity and political will to cope with the influx of migrants. Furthermore, external factors
beyond Greece’s control, particularly international political events, have proven themselves to
impact Greek society considerably via migration flows.
All signs point to continued, significant flows of irregular migrants and asylum seekers to
Greece and the EU. Frontex predicts in its 2014 Annual Risk Analysis that large numbers of
irregular migrants will continue to attempt to reach Europe in the eastern Mediterranean and
that more will need assistance via search and rescue operations and/or asylum. 47 Despite the
difficulties, Greece must work to improve its immigration system and to meet its obligations to
uphold human rights and provide protection to asylum seekers.
RECOMMENDATIONS
 A combination of shifts in migratory routes and large influxes of irregular migrants and
asylum seekers further strain resources and facilities and complicate a response by the
state. This necessitates flexibility in addressing migratory flows. While challenging,
this is important. Not only does it impact Greece’s ability to detect incoming migrants,
it also helps assure that migrants are received in suitable conditions and receive the
appropriate services. Furthermore, high levels of pressure, if not met with adequate
resources, can increase the chances of migrants arriving in Greece undetected and
47
Frontex 2014, p. 9.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
P a g e | 15
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15



48
49
traveling onto other Member States.48 Thus, this issue should be of concern not only to
Greece but to the EU at large.
Whereas EU directives and Greek legislation stipulate that the use of detention should
be limited in duration and in scope, this is not necessary implemented in practice.
Detention has been a common tool used to manage irregular migrants, and detention
has exceeded the 18 months allowed in EU directives. In addition, detention conditions
have been found by the ECHR to and various human rights groups to be inadequate,
and Greece has been criticized for detaining asylum seekers. Alternatives to detention
should be expanded, particularly the use of Screening and First Reception Centers, to
identify migrants and provide information and other assistance where applicable. A cost
assessment found that the use of Screening and First Reception Centers and Open
Accommodation Centers are migration management tools that are as or more costeffective than detention. Additionally, they comply with EU law and are a better
solution for asylum seekers and vulnerable migrants such as unaccompanied children
and families.49 If Greece is going to detain migrants, it needs to do so only when
appropriate and in suitable conditions that conform with EU standards. More frequent
use of alternatives to detention, especially those that are less costly, could both improve
detention conditions for others and free up funds for other use.
Further streamlining the permit application and renewal process will decrease the loss
of status due to bureaucratic delays. While the recent issuances of certifications are
progress, they are band aids and do not solve the root cause of the problem—that the
system is currently unable to process permit applications within an adequate period of
time.
Many of the problems mentioned in this paper, including insufficient capacity and
conditions of detention centers, staffing shortages, and bureaucratic backlogs, could be
alleviated with additional resources. Greece does not have the capacity to provide
sufficient resources for these activities on its own, particularly in the face of increasing
Frontex 2014, p. 63.
Angeli et al. 2014, p. 10-12.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
P a g e | 16
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
migration flows and the current economic environment. As a country that has a large
external border, Greece’s geography has made it a magnet for migrants and has led the
country to receive a larger portion of arrivals than other Member States, despite the fact
that it lacks sufficient capacity to respond to the needs of such influxes of migrants.
While the EU does fund a large portion of Greece’s migration management budget, the
continuation and expansion of ‘burden sharing’ across Member States is important to
improving the country’s immigration system and by extension that of the Schengen
area.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
P a g e | 17
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
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Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
P a g e | 18
EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 15
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe
Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs,
with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed
are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is
associated.
Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net)
© Bridging Europe 2014
P a g e | 19