The Economic and Social Reivew, Vol. 13, No. 3, April 1982, pp. 205-216
A Note on a Proposed Census-based
Irish Social Class Scale for
Epidemiological Health Research
AILEEN O'HARE*
Medico-Social
Research Board,
Dublin
Precis: The social class/prestige scales currently used in Irish research are exmained and considered
unsuitable for epidemiological research as they are not census-based. The historical development of
Socio-Economic Groups in Ireland is outlined and a Social Class Scale based on such groupings is
proposed.
I OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS
T
here are four occupational classifications c o m m o n l y used i n Ireland for
research purposes, the British Registrar General's Social Class Scale, the
Market Research Scale, the Hall Jones Prestige Scale and the Irish census
socio-economic group classification.
The British Registrar General's Social Class Scale
This scale used b y the Registrars General for England and Wales, Scotland
and, w i t h m i n o r changes, for N o r t h e r n Ireland, was first employed i n the
analysis and p u b l i c a t i o n o f the 1911 Census o f Population for England and
Wales. I t was the w o r k o f T . H . C . Stevenson, the chief medical statistical
officer i n the General Registry Office, L o n d o n . Based o n occupation he
devised an ordinal scale o f five social class groupings.
* I would like to thank Dermot Walsh, Aideen O'Connor, David Rottman and the Referee for their
helpful criticisms on earlier drafts of this paper.
The scale currently i n use is as follows:
1 Professional etc. occupations
2 Intermediate occupations
3 Skilled occupations — (N) = n o n manual, (M) = manual
4 Partly skilled occupations
5 Unskilled occupations.
The scale at its inception was probably a social class one i n the sense that
the income derived f r o m the occupations coded was the deciding factor of
position o n the scale. However, today occupations are grouped i n t o social
class categories i n terms of their general standing i n the c o m m u n i t y . "This
criterion is naturally correlated w i t h , and its application conditioned b y ,
other factors such as education and economic environment, b u t i t has no
direct relationship t o the average level o f remuneration o f particular occupa­
t i o n s " (England, 1970, p. x ) . Therefore the classification should more
accurately be described as a social status rather than a social class scale.
This scale is frequently used in medical research i n Ireland p r i m a r i l y
because i t is o f long standing and has demonstrated a relationship between
class and health status. I n comparative research the use of the same social
class scale has obvious advantages. B u t for survey w o r k in Ireland the use of
a British Scale has disadvantages, such as its lack o f correspondence w i t h
Irish demographic and occupational features.
A good example is that o f farmers. Whereas the British occupational guide
distinguishes between employers and own-account workers w i t h o u t employees
i n industry and commerce, i t does n o t do so for the farming group. I n Ireland
farmers, farmers' relatives and farm managers are an i m p o r t a n t section o f
the p o p u l a t i o n , comprising 20 per cent i n 1 9 7 1 . They also range f r o m far­
mers w i t h farms of large acreage and high valuation to own-account workers
in receipt o f "farmers' d o l e " . T o assign such a heterogeneous group to one
class, as is required b y the coding procedure of the British Registrar General's
Scale, does not reflect Irish social class differences w i t h i n the group. N o r is
epidemiological investigation possible through the use of the British scale as
there is no correspondence between Irish census p o p u l a t i o n data and the five
classes used i n the scale.
1
The Market Research
Scale
A n o t h e r social class scale c o m m o n l y used i n Ireland is a Market Research
one. Here occupation is the determinant o f class and a sample o f Irish census
occupations is used as a glossary aid to coding.
1. Further information available from the Market Research Bureau of Ireland Ltd., Dublin.
The following class categories are used:
A Upper middle class
B
C
C
D
E
F
M i d d l e class
L o w e r middle class
Skilled w o r k i n g class
Other w o r k i n g classes
U n e m p l o y e d — o n the dole
50+ Farmers w i t h 50 acres or more
5 0 - Farmers w i t h less than 50 acres; farm labourers etc.
V e r y often i n the reporting o f findings, Classes A , B and C are combined
under the broader groupings o f white-collar workers, and Classes C , D and
E as blue-collar workers. The farming group is generally k e p t separate. Cate­
gories A t o E are scaled i n prestige, n o t i n economic, terms as, for example,
lower middle class are higher o n the scale than C even t h o u g h they may n o t
earn as m u c h m o n e y . However, the classes in toto can more accurately be
regarded n o t as social-class b u t as socio-economic groupings because o f the
separate categorisation o f farmers.
1
2
1
2
2
The Hall-Jones Scale of Occupational Prestige for Males
This scale is based p a r t l y o n the findings o f a survey o f 1,000 representative
British males, each asked t o ascribe his o w n occupation, and p a r t l y o n the
judgement o f expert sociologists (Hall and Jones, 1950, p p . 31-55).
I t has seven categories o f social status as follows:
Class 1 Professionally qualified and high administrative
Class 2 Managerial and executive ( w i t h some responsibility for directing
and i n i t i a t i n g policy)
Class 3 Inspectional, supervisory, and other non-manual (higher grade)
Class 4 Inspectional, supervisory, and other non-manual (lower grade)
Class 5 (a) r o u t i n e grades o f non-manual w o r k
(b) skilled manual
Class 6 Manual, semi-skilled
Class 7 Manual r o u t i n e .
The scale has been w i d e l y used, i n particular b y social researchers i n Great
B r i t a i n . I n Ireland i t is the o n l y scale on w h i c h serious evaluative w o r k has
been done, principally b y sociologists, t o make i t relevant to an Irish situation.
Hutchinson (1969) i n his D u b l i n studies used a m o d i f i e d version o f this
scale. MacGreil ( 1 9 7 7 , p . 594) adapted i t t o include farmers (and thus devised
a seven p o i n t ordinal and n o m i n a l classification) females and " p a r t i c u l a r l y
Irish occupational preferences and designations".
Whelan (1980) i n his analysis o f the e m p l o y m e n t conditions and j o b
satisfaction o f D u b l i n male full-time employees (farmers and agricultural
workers were excluded) used a m o d i f i e d Hall-Jones scale w h i c h create an
extra category by separating the (a) and (b) parts o f Class 5 "routine grades
of n o n - m a n u a l " and "skilled m a n u a l " (see Moser and H a l l , 1954). His find­
ings concurred w i t h views previously expressed b y Goldthorpe and Hope
( 1 9 7 4 , p p . 5-6) that the Hall-Jones classification cannot be regarded as a
prestige or status scale in the sociological sense. Its main value lies i n dif­
ferentiating between the socio-economic aspects of the different occupa­
t i o n a l strata. Interestingly, Whelan ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 41) uses four objective socio­
economic groups formed b y collapsing the eight category Hall-Jones classi­
fication. His occupational sample using these categories corresponded very
closely t o the census d i s t r i b u t i o n for D u b l i n , again excluding agricultural
occupations, (see p p . 143-144). This being so i t makes better sense to use
combinations o f the Irish census socio-economic groupings and the accom­
panying comprehensive coding guide, w h i c h enables the objective allocation
of occupations t o each category. The Hall-Jones type o f coding guide, on the
other hand, covers o n l y a fraction o f existing Irish occupations, w h i c h pre­
sents considerable coding d i f f i c u l t y and u n r e l i a b i l i t y .
I I T H E I R I S H SOCIO-ECONOMIC G R O U P C L A S S I F I C A T I O N
The Irish Socio-Economic G r o u p classification is n o t an ordinal scale (as
is the British Registrar General's social-class scale) b u t a n o m i n a l grouping o f
occupations. The first census held in Ireland was i n 1 8 2 1 . A l t h o u g h early
censuses collected i n f o r m a t i o n o n occupations, the data were framed on the
English m o d e l , inappropriate for Ireland and resulting i n a high percentage
(over 50) o f persons being placed i n the "unspecified" group.
I t was n o t u n t i l the Irish Census o f Population i n 1951 (Ireland 1954,
V o l . 3) that national data b y social group were given, b u t no explanatory
notes were provided as t o h o w the occupations were grouped and o n what
basis.
I n the 1 9 6 1 Census of Population (Ireland 1964, V o l . 3, p . v) there were
explanatory notes relating to the classification o f social groups. "The social
group o f each gainfully occupied person was decided b y his or her occupa­
t i o n , or, i n some cases, b y a c o m b i n a t i o n o f occupation and e m p l o y m e n t
status. Retired persons were classified t o the social group corresponding t o
their former occupation, while other non-gainfully occupied persons were
classified t o the social group o f the persons o n w h o m these were deemed
dependent". A detailed list showing the allocation o f occupations t o social
groups was given, together w i t h changes since the 1951 Census.
I n 1966 the p o p u l a t i o n was classified according t o "socio-economic g r o u p "
instead o f the former "social g r o u p " , on the basis o f occupation or i n some
cases b y a c o m b i n a t i o n o f occupation and e m p l o y m e n t status (Ireland 1969,
V o l . I V ) . The 11 categories plus a residual one were similar t o those used i n
1 9 6 1 . The change was simply one o f nomenclature: the changing o f "social
g r o u p " t o that o f "socio-economic g r o u p " . The same 11 categories were
used in the 1971 Census (Ireland 1975, V o l . I V ) , as follows:
0 Farmers, farmers' relatives and farm managers
1 Other agricultural occupations and fishermen
2 Higher professional
3 L o w e r professional
4 "Self e m p l o y e d , employs others" and managers
5 Salaried employees
6 Intermediate non-manual
7 Other non-manual workers
8 Skilled manual workers
9 Semi-skilled manual workers
X Unskilled manual workers
Y Unspecified
For the first time socio-economic group was described as containing occupa­
tions "considered generally similar as regards the level o f skill or educational
attainment r e q u i r e d " . Changes also occurred i n the 1971 census. The main
one was the allocation o f retired persons t o the "unspecified" category,
w h i c h greatly increased its numbers over the 1966 figures. Certain occupa­
tions were re-classified. Questions concerning occupation were n o t asked i n
the 1979 census o f p o p u l a t i o n .
2
I l l A PROPOSED I R I S H S O C I A L CLASS S C A L E
I n a study o f mental illness b y the Medico-Social Research Board a
social class scale, based on the existing Central Statistics Office (CSO) socio­
economic groupings, was devised to see whether a relationship existed
between social class and treated rates for mental illness i n three geographically
defined study areas. Occupation was used as an index o f class. The value
scaled was n o t exclusively income derived f r o m occupation, b u t as i n the
Weberian t r a d i t i o n (see R u n c i m a n , 1969, p . 47) consideration was given to
"opportunities for u p w a r d m o b i l i t y , advantages i n k i n d , provisions for retire­
ment and security o f e m p l o y m e n t " . These class criteria are more easily
quantified than considerations o f social status or standing i n the c o m m u n i t y .
A class scale seems more appropriate to Irish society w h i c h , unlike B r i t a i n ,
has l i t t l e t r a d i t i o n o f a hierarchy o f status. The view expressed b y Weber
(see G e r t h and M i l l s , 1948, p . 190) almost 100 years ago on the class situ­
ation is still valid today that the "possibility o f a style o f life expected for
members o f a status group is usually conditioned economically".
The three basic requirements o f a scale are that i t :
2. It is proposed to return to the practice of assigning retired people to their former occupational cate­
gory in the analysis of the 1981 census data.
1 Fulfils the research purpose, i n this case, an epidemiological investiga­
tion;
2 Is reliable, i n that occupations encountered can be coded to the scale
categories;
3 Is valid and measures w h a t i t purports t o .
As far as the first requirement is concerned, b y using combinations o f the 11
Socio-economic Groups (SEGs) one ensures that baseline census data are
always available. SEG i n f o r m a t i o n is obtainable b y District Electoral Division,
the smallest geographical u n i t used b y the CSO.
The CSO classification o f occupations for 1971 (latest available) lists
approximately 7,200 different occupations assigning each t o one o f the 135
occupational u n i t groups and to one o f the 11 SEGs. By using this index i t
is possible t o code w i t h reliability the occupational data from any study to a
social class category. I t also ensures high inter-rater reliability between
coders. This index is updated at every full census.
The validity o f the scale poses problems. Ideally each of the dimensions
of the value scaled (viz: income; opportunities for u p w a r d m o b i l i t y ; advan­
tages i n k i n d ; provision for retirement, and security o f e m p l o y m e n t ) should
receive a relative weight to yield a score for each social class category. T h e n a
sample o f occupations w i t h i n the category should be randomly selected
from the general p o p u l a t i o n to check that they meet the pre-determined
score or score range o f the category. I f the raison d'etre o f such a scale
gained acceptance i n Ireland, considerable investigation w o u l d be required
to validate the criteria used. Useful w o r k o f this nature associating income
and fringe benefit rewards t o Irish occupations has been done b y Whelan
(1980).
The proposed social class scale comprises six mutually exclusive groups
as follows:
Social Class Scale
Social Class
Scale
1
SEG
Code
Description
of
occupations
2
Higher professional
3
4
0
L o w e r professionals
Employers and managers
Farmers w i t h land valuation o f
£ 1 0 0 or more
Per cent of 1971
population
3.00
10.11
5
0
6
8
0
7
9
1
Salaried employees
Farmers w i t h land valuation o f
£ 2 0 and under £100
11.93
Intermediate non-manual workers
Skilled manual workers
Farmers w i t h land valuation o f
under £ 2 0
37.32
Other non-manual workers
Semi-skilled manual workers
Other agricultural occupations
and fishermen
20.30
X
Unskilled manual workers
8.66
Y
Unspecified
8.22
The census occupational u n i t groups assigned t o each class is shown o n
pp. 213-215.
Farmers were divided o n the basis o f land valuation because this informa­
t i o n is collected b y the Census office. The figure o f £100 was selected as
one cut-off p o i n t because farmers w i t h that valuation and over were liable
to income tax. The lower figure o f £ 2 0 was selected as farmers w i t h land
valuation below £ 2 0 were eligible for the "farmers' d o l e " i n 1976, when the
scale was devised.
I n Social Class 1, are the "higher professional" occupations, o f judges,
doctors, architects etc., comprising three per cent o f the 1971 p o p u l a t i o n .
Social Class 2, contains the combined " l o w e r professional" occupations
such as, those o f teachers, nurses, actors and librarians, those o f "selfemployed, employs other and managers" and "farmers w i t h land valuation
of £100 and over". T h e y make up 10 per cent o f the p o p u l a t i o n .
I n Social Class 3 are "salaried employees" o f senior rank and "farmers
w i t h land valuation o f £ 2 0 t o under £ 1 0 0 " — 12 per cent o f the p o p u l a t i o n .
T o date i t has been customary t o maintain a distinction between manual
and non-manual workers, b u t farmers w i t h the security o f their farms and
the financial and other advantages accruing t o t h e m under the EEC could
legitimately be combined w i t h "salaried employees" o f senior rank.
Social Class 4 , contains the highest percentage, 37, o f the 1971 p o p u l a t i o n .
I t includes "intermediate non-manual w o r k e r s " such as, stationmasters, com­
mercial travellers, clerks, typists, gardai; "skilled manual w o r k e r s " , such as,
builders, plumbers, electricians and "farmers w i t h land valuation of under
£ 2 0 " . Some o f the reasons for c o m b i n i n g these occupations are the current
high wages paid t o skilled manual workers and their o p p o r t u n i t y for u p w a r d
m o b i l i t y f r o m , for example, electricians or builders t o employers. Farmers
always have the security o f their land w h i c h compensates for their lower
income vis-a-vis other occupations i n that category. I t w o u l d be possible t o
sub-divide this SEG as i n Britain i n t o non-manual (SEG 6) and manual
(SEG 8 and 0 ) . Whelan (1980, p . 126) stressed the importance o f maintain­
ing the d i s t i n c t i o n o f manual and non-manual categories. His study findings
showed that while skilled manual workers' average gross weekly earnings
were somewhat higher than those o f routine non-manual workers, the dis­
t r i b u t i o n o f fringe benefits such as sick pay, pension and incremental scale
favoured the non-manual workers rather than the manual ones.
Social Class 5, 20 per cent o f the p o p u l a t i o n , contains "other non-manual
w o r k e r s " ; "semi-skilled manual workers", such as, coal, gas and chemical
workers, textile workers, and "other agricultural occupations and fishermen".
Our reason for according a lower class position t o the "other non-manual",
category than t o the skilled manual group is that i f the occupations were
coded using the British Registrar General's Glossary o f Occupations, almost
60 per cent w o u l d be considered either semi- or unskilled manual. This
"other non-manual" category contains an extremely varied group o f occupa­
tions ranging f r o m school matrons, cooks and air hostesses to domestic
workers, street vendors and hawkers, and was the most difficult to scale.
I t comprises 10 per cent o f the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n and placing these occupa­
tions i n the Social Class 5 category misclassifies about four per cent o f
the p o p u l a t i o n .
The final, Social Class 6, group consists o f "unskilled manual workers",
examples o f w h i c h are labourers and navvies. They make up nine per cent o f
the p o p u l a t i o n .
A major constraint i n the construction o f this Social Class Scale was the
existing census occupational or socio-economic categories and their corres­
p o n d i n g p o p u l a t i o n figures. I t was n o t possible to interfere w i t h these group­
ings i f study findings were t o be rated.
O u t p u t f r o m the 1981 Census o f Population should be able t o provide,
o n request, i n f o r m a t i o n o n SEG and farmers' valuation for the Irish District
Electoral Divisions cross tabulated b y age, sex and marital status. Representa­
t i o n t o this effect has already been made t o the CSO as lack of such detail
f r o m the 1971 census created problems for the investigation o f social class.
A question concerning the employers' number of employees should be
asked at the n e x t census o f p o p u l a t i o n . This i n f o r m a t i o n w o u l d then allow
for employers w i t h 25 or more employees t o be placed i n Social Class 1.
Their income, and payment i n k i n d , w o u l d justify their inclusion w i t h the
higher professional group.
Consideration should be given t o the elimination o f the "other non-manual
w o r k e r s " Category (SEG 7) and the re-distribution o f occupations t o more
appropriate categories (the allocation o f a dual code to these occupations
w o u l d get around the problem o f comparison w i t h former years).
I t is n o t denied that the Social Class Scale j u s t described could be improved
w i t h the discussion and co-operation o f the Central Statistics Office, re­
searchers and social scientists.
I n conclusion, "epidemiologists and other socio-medical scientists may
take c o m f o r t that, in the past, simple and crude methods have yielded rich
results. Insistence o n perfectly valid and reliable measures can o n l y paralyse
research" (Susser and Watson, 1 9 7 1 , p . 123). A census-based Social Class
Scale is urgently required for health research i n Ireland.
Social class groups in proposed scale and the Irish CSO occupational
groups assigned to them
Social Class 1
Professed clergymen and nuns
Other religious occupations
University professors and lecturers
Medical practitioners
Dental practitioners
Engineers
Surveyors and architects
Chemists and other scientists
Accountants
Judges, barristers and solicitors
Veterinary surgeons
Professional workers (n.e.s.)
Social Class 2
Teachers
Nurses
Pharmacists and dispensers
Other medical workers
A u t h o r s , journalists and editors
Actors, entertainers and musicians
Painters, sculptors and commercial
artists
Social workers
unit
Technical and related workers
(n.e.s.)
Proprietors (self employed, employs
others) and managers i n wholesale
or retail trade
Garage proprietors (self employed,*
employs others) and managers
Proprietors (self employed, employs
others) and managers — Service
Workers
Senior officials — Civil Service and
Local A u t h o r i t y
Directors, managers and company
secretaries
Farmers and farmers' sons, daugh­
ters and other relatives, assisting
on the farm, w i t h land valuation
of £ 1 0 0 or more
Social Class 3
Inspectors and supervisors
A i r c r a f t pilots, navigators and flight
engineers
Ships' officers
Commercial travellers and manufac­
turers' agents
Insurance agents
Insurance brokers and financial
agents
Auctioneers, valuers and other sales­
men
A r m e d forces — commissioned
officers
Farm managers, market gardeners
and nurserymen
Farmers and farmers' sons, daugh­
ters and other relatives assisting
on the farm, w i t h l a n d valuation
of £ 2 0 and under £ 1 0 0
Social Class 4
Clerks
Typists
Proprietors (self employed, w i t h o u t
employees) i n wholesale or retail
trade
Garage proprietors (self employed,
w i t h o u t employees)
Shop assistants and barmen
Proprietors (self e m p l o y e d , w i t h o u t
employees) — Service workers
Garda sergeants and lower ranks
Draughtsmen
A r m e d forces — other ranks
Mine and quarry workers
T u r f workers
Telephone installers and repairers
Linesmen and cable jointers
Electricians and electrical fitters
Radio and television mechanics
Fitters and mechanics
Vehicle builders and assemblers
Plumbers and gas fitters
Sheet metal workers
Structural metal and metal plate
workers
Welders and cutters
Machine t o o l setters and operators
Precision instrument and watch and
clock makers
Goldsmiths, silversmiths and jewel­
lery makers
Carpenters, joiners and cabinet
makers
Sawyers and w o o d w o r k i n g
machinists
Other woodworkers
B o o t and shoe makers (factory)
B o o t and shoe makers and repairers
( n o t factory)
Other leather and leather sub­
stitute workers
Weavers and related-workers
Bleachers, dyers and finishers
Tailors and dressmakers
Cutters
Upholsterers and coach trimmers
Millers
Bakers, pastrycooks and biscuit
makers
Makers o f beverages
Compositors, m o n o t y p e and l i n o ­
type operators
Printers (so described)
Printing press operators
Other paper and p r i n t i n g workers
Glass and ceramics workers
Workers i n metal manufacture
Workers i n rubber and rubber pro­
ducts
Craftsmen (n.e.s.)
Builders, contractors and clerks o f
works
Bricklayers
Masons and stone cutters
Plasterers
Other tradesmen
Painters and decorators
Crane and hoist operators
Earth moving and other construc­
t i o n machinery operators
Foremen and supervisors o f manual
workers
Railway engine drivers
Sailors
Farmers and farmers' sons, daugh­
ters and other relatives assisting
on the farm, w i t h land valuation
o f under £ 2 0
Social Class 5
Signalmen and level crossing keepers
Porters and ticket collectors
Drivers o f buses
Drivers o f other road passenger
vehicles
Drivers o f roads goods vehicles
Bus conductors
Postmen and post office sorters
Telephone, telegraph and radio
operators
Other transport and c o m m u n i c a t i o n
workers
Warehousemen and storekeepers
Roundsmen
Street vendors, hawkers and news­
paper sellers
Housekeepers and matrons o f
schools, etc.
Chefs and cooks
Waiters and waitresses
Maids and related workers
Barbers and hairdressers
Caretakers
Watchmen and related workers
Hospital and w a r d orderlies, hospital
porters and attendants
Other service workers
Sportsmen and related workers
Other electrical and electronic
workers
Other engineering and related trades
workers
Spinners, doublers, winders and
reelers
Knitters and k n i t t i n g and hosiery
machine operatives
Sewers, embroiderers and machinists
Other textile and c l o t h i n g workers
Makers o f sugar and chocolate
confectionery, jams and jellies
M i l k processors and makers o f dairy
products
Meat curers, canners and preservers
Other makers o f f o o d
Makers o f tobacco products
Makers o f paper and paper products
Coal gas and chemical workers
Workers i n plastics
Other workers i n other products
Stationary engine operators, boiler
firemen and stokers
D o c k labourers
L o r r y drivers' helpers
Messengers
Packers and bottlers
Charwomen and office cleaners
L a u n d r y workers, d r y cleaners and
pressers
Agricultural labourers
J o b b i n g gardeners, groundsmen and
gardeners' labourers
Other agricultural workers
Foresters and forestry labourers
Social Class 6
Labourers and unskilled workers
(n.e.s.)
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