SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF DROUGHT IN THE SEMI-ARID
SAHEL: A REVIEW
1
ABDULLAHI, HASSAN GANA, 2MICHAELA.FULLEN, 3DAVID OLOKE
1
Department of Biological Sciences, Yobe State University, Damaturu, Nigeria.
Faculty of Science and Engineering, The University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
1,2
Abstract—Drought in the Sahel is a feature which affects different aspects of peoples’ lives and their environment,
including the mortality of people and livestock. Lack of proper infrastructure also triggers effects on socio-economic
activities. Severe drought and natural resource constraints triggered by water scarcity in the world’s drylands, in addition to
rapid population growth, acute poverty and drought coping conditions, contribute to hunger, social conflicts and
environmental degradation. Sahelian rainfall declined ∼20-30% towards the end of the 20th century; the 1970s droughts
(‘Great Drought’) showed different severity across the region. In 2011 severe drought struck Somalia, causing a
humanitarian crisis which affected over 10 million people, 2 million among them were malnourished children, leaving
380,000 refugees in Kenya. This research is a review of socio-economic effects of drought in Sahel to make
recommendation for Yobe state, Nigeria.
Keywords—Africa, Drought, Environment,Sahel region, Socio-economic activities.
Wallace (1991) used 10-150N latitude which was
based on the growing period (60-150 days), whereas
Ba et al. (1995) used 9-300N.
Every region has different spatio-temporal features
which influence climatic processes. It is necessary to
generate fixed threshold values to assess drought,
regardless of climate change influences (Agnew and
Chappell, 1999). Over the past five decadesclimate
conditions and drought patterns have shifted. Drought
is a major issue affecting the food security and living
conditions of over 2 billion people residing in
drylands, which forms 41% of the global land surface
(Solh and Marteen, 2014).
DROUGHT
Socio-economic drought is deficiency of precipitation
that is insufficient to meet human demands (Wilhite,
2005). Drought is a naturally recurring climatic
feature that occurs in every climatic region (AMS,
1997). Drought has direct and indirect impacts on
people and the environment, but is difficult to define
and understand due to its invidious nature.
Differences in hydro-meteorological variables, socioeconomic factors and high water demand around the
world have resulted in several definitions of drought
(Trambauer et al., 2013; Udmaleet al., 2014). This
research aims to investigate the socio-economic
effects of drought in Yobe State, Nigeria.To achieve
the aim, literature on the socio-economic effects of
drought in Africa and around the world were
reviewed
and
make recommendations
for
ameliorations.
Environmental problems in the Sahel
Many people have suffered from drought events in
the 1980s, which produced millions of environmental
refugees in the Sahel (Agnew and Warren, 1996).
However,
there
are
differences
between
environmental problems and changes. Environmental
problems also have two major aspects, impacts of
people upon the environment and impacts of the
environment on people. Any change in physical
environmental condition can cause environmental
problems (Olsson, 1993). Usually environmental
problems in the Sahel are also considered cultural and
economic, as they are triggered and created due to
socio-economic activities. Socio-economic activities
cannot be detached from environmental problems, as
they simultaneously interact (Agnew and Warren,
1996).Despite peoples’ lifestyle adjustment during
drought, it difficult for them to withstand severe
events. During severe events without assistance from
outside (relief) people do not consider environmental
conservation important, due to their struggle for
survival. However, drought triggers environmental
stress and resource degradation. Severe drought and
natural resource constraints triggered by water
scarcity in the world’s drylands, in addition to rapid
Effects of Drought in the Sahel
The Sahel region is referred to as the ‘desert edge’
which constitutes the West African arid countries,
ranging from Chad to Senegal. Some also include
Sudan (Agnew and Chappell, 1999). Sivakumar and
Wallace (1991) used the maximum growing days
(150) to define the region. Kandjiet al. (2006) defined
the Sahel as the semi-arid transition region which lies
between the Sahara Desert to the north and equatorial
Africa towards the south; it extends from the Indian
Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean. The region is
characterised by high rainfall variability and is one of
the most environmentally degraded places in the
world. Countries in the region include Senegal, Chad,
Mali, Nigeria, Niger, Burkino-Fasu, The Gambia,
Guinea, Togo and Benin (Sivakumar and Wallace,
1991). Location of the Sahel is mostly understood by
it longitude and latitude, where different studies gave
different figures and demarcations. Sivakumar and
Proceedings of Academics World 8th International Conference, Dubai, UAE, 13th November 2015, ISBN: 978-93-85832-47-5
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Socio-Economic Effects of Drought in the Semi-Arid Sahel: A Review
population growth, acute poverty and drought coping
conditions, contribute to hunger, social conflicts and
environmental degradation (Solh and Marteen, 2014).
1999/2001; drought costing an estimated US$2.5
billion.
Structural problems in Africa have increased over the
past decade due to drought, leading to decreased crop
yields and impoverishment, unemployment and
migration (Bhavnaniet al., 2008; UN, 2008;
Scheffranet al., 2012). The slow onset of the disaster
causes most economic losses, as it is difficult to
predict where exactly the disaster will affect. Impacts
of drought may increase in the future (Dai, 2011;
IPCC, 2007; Sheffield et al., 2012; Kusangayaet al.,
2014; Solh and Maarten, 2014). Population increase
in the region will worsen projected conditions.
Increased drought severity can cause social conflicts
and civil war. Numerous international organisations
and programmes, such as the ‘Millennium
Development Goals’ (MDG), ‘Eradicate Extreme
Poverty and Hunger,’the ‘European Commission
Humanitarian Aid Programme’ (ECHO) and the
‘Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations’ (FAO) prioritise drought mitigation in
Africa. In 2009 ∼€53 million was allocated to
mitigate the impacts of drought in Somalia, Uganda
and Kenya (Bhavnaniet al., 2008).
High soil porosity and high temperatures cause high
drainage and evapotranspiration rates, respectively.
Thus, droughts recur and water bodies often dry up
after the short rainy seasons (Lean, 1995). Drought
decreases agricultural land productivity, which affects
food supply to urban areas. Many people migrate to
urban areas due to the impact of drought. Population
growth and migration from rural to urban areas
increases stress on water and other natural resources.
In the past three decades, there have been efforts by
governmental and non-governmental organisations,
for example the ‘Organisation of African Unity’
(1963-2002) and the ‘African Union’ (2002-present)
to address the issues of drought and desertification in
Africa (Msangi, 2004). The effort was introduced due
to the 1968-1973 droughts where affected areas
included East, Sahelian and Southern Africa. It was
the first time in the continent where ecological
degradation received full attention from national
governments. In Africa, droughts are mostly regional,
rather than general, disasters. Habitat fragmentation,
destruction and loss endanger the survival of much
flora and fauna and thus damage biodiversity (Wood
et al., 2000).
Ethiopia has faced severe droughts in recent years
and this recursonce every 10-15 years. Recently it has
recurred every five to six years (Edossaet al., 2010),
with consequent decreased agricultural output. The
1888/89 drought caused famine and ∼90% animals
died (Edossaet al., 2010). In 1984 severe drought
caused loss of livestock and crops. For example,
Wollo Province had 61% and 94% loss, respectively
(Little et al., 2006). In 1974 and 1984 over 325,000
people died in Ethiopia and the Sahel due to drought
(UN, 2008). Drought is usually described as a natural
phenomenon; vulnerability of water resources
Effects of drought in Africa
Africa is mostly known for its two environmental
issues, namely desertification and drought (Agnew
and Chappell, 1999). The continent has one of the
harshest climate conditions in the world (Sivakumar
and Wallace, 1991). There are three regions in Africa
where drought is dominant; these are the KalahariNamib region, Sudano-Sahelian region and
Mediterranean Africa. Short-term and long-term
effects of drought and resource degradation are
severe in regions with acute poverty, which includes
the West African Sahel. The Sahelian region is
considered the most affected region with one of the
most unpredictable climates in the world (Batterbury
and Warren, 2001) (Figure 1). Sahelian
rainfalldeclined by ∼20-30% towards the end of the
20th century; the 1970s drought (‘Great Drought’)
exhibited variable severity (Batterbury and Warren,
2001).
Fig 1.Areas affected by drought in West Africa (Source:
UNRA, 2012).Pink areas indicate drought zones, while red
circlesdenote malnutrition zones(Source: UNRA, 2012).
Many natural disasters affect people in Africa, but
drought has the most negative impact in terms of the
number of people affected (Sergio et al., 2012). The
disaster has also caused epidemics and land
degradation across Africa. Drought is among the
natural disasters that have caused highest mortality in
Africa.Between 1974-2007 ∼450,000 people died
due to drought (Sergio et al., 2012). In 2011 severe
drought struck Somalia, where it caused a major
humanitarian crisis which affected over 10 million
people, 2 million among them were malnourished
children, forcing 380,000 refugees into Kenya (Sergio
et al., 2012). One-third of Africa is described as
‘desertified’ and ∼73% of agricultural lands are
degraded. In Africa, drought and floods account for
∼80% of mortality and natural hazards account for
~70% of economic losses (Bhavnaniet al., 2008). In
Zimbabwe in 1990/1991 GDP dropped by 11% due to
drought. The situation was similar in Kenya in
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Socio-Economic Effects of Drought in the Semi-Arid Sahel: A Review
(ground-water and stream-flow) due to human
activities further escalates drought severity.
consumption needs when shortfalls occur (Pandey et
al., 2007).
Impacts of drought on income and coping
strategies in semi-arid regions
People in rural communities within developing
countries are at risk of income shocks due to effects
of climate variability and extreme events (Kinsey et
al., 1998). Income fluctuationslead to unstable
agricultural output, which in turn affects crop prices
(Kinsey et al., 1998). Associated pests and crop
diseases also alter yields. This situation leaves poor
households in most communities in debt due to
increased crop prices. Many households in
developing countries succeed in reducing income
shock, but usually this does not compensate for all
lost income.
Adaptive strategy
Severe storms and droughts have killed people, but
usually drought is not an instant killer, as it manifests
and develops slowly and there are different ways to
cope with it. For example, short-term measures
include supply of drinking water to affected victims,
but long-term strategies are migration and changes of
livelihood and these are considered as adaptive
strategies. However, drought coping strategies vary
according to culture, traditions and socio-economic
situations (Singh and Byjesh, 2014). Deforestation,
climate change and population growth play vital roles
in drought coping strategies in semi-arid Bangladesh
(Habibaet al., 2012). Communities in semi-arid
regions mostly depend on rain-fed agricultural
farming systems. Changes in livestock, crop varieties,
crop combinations and land-use changes arethe main
strategies for rural communities in semi-arid regions
to cope with drought (Alam, 2015).
In the Sahel, the usual coping mechanism is to use
livestock as a buffer, to compensate for lostincome
and food shortages (Fafchampset al., 1998).
However, not all livestock sales compensate for
income shock and crop losses. During the worst
droughts some households and farmers sold their
livestock to compensatefor income shock, but only
15-30% of the loss can be compensated (Fafchampset
al., 1998). Households destabilise their consumption
patterns to save for drought uncertainties.
Coping with adverse weather events is not new;
throughout history there have been extreme
conditions and people usually find ways to cope
(Tideman and Khatana, 2004). There are different
mechanisms to deal with drought, specifically
adaptive strategies or risk reduction (Pandey et al.,
2007). If risks can be decreased, coping strategies are
divided into ex-ante and ex-post (Pandey et al.,
2007).
Famine and drought
Drought and famine are considered one by many.
Usually in semi-arid regions famine is triggered by
prolonged drought (Speranzaet al., 2008). The
relation between drought and famine persists in SubSaharan Africa (SSA), water scarcity and insufficient
vegetation also contributes to drought and famine.
Faminesand food crises negatively impact rural
livelihoods and living conditions. Rural communities
struck with prolonged drought find it difficult to
produce sufficient crops to meet immediate demands.
This situation makes communities unable to build
buffers for future drought resistance. Rural
communities in SSA are food insecure, regardless of
whether drought occurs or not, but drought further
worsens conditions (Antwi-Agyeiet al., 2012;
Speranzaet al., 2008).
Ex-ante
Risk coping strategies mitigate risk of income
shortfall due to climatic variability. It is also referred
to as ‘income smoothing strategy’ or ‘reducing risk
exposure.’ This is designed to reduce risk, but it is
costly in terms of forgone opportunities. Farmers
living in drought prone areas modify their production
strategy to provide self-insurance during drought or
shortfalls (Shiferawet al., 2014).
Yobe State and effects of drought
Yobe State is among the 36 states of Nigeria. The
State was created on 27 August 1991 and covers of
47,153 km2, with a population of over 2.4 million
people (YBS Report, 2010). In the study area,
desertification and drought are the main
environmental issues and the region has long dry
seasons, recurrent drought, skeletal soil and sparse
vegetation cover (Dabi and William, 1999; Obi,
2012).In turns, this has many socio-economic and
environmental effects. People in the State depend on
the natural environment, due to problems of
unemployment and poverty and agriculture is the
only way people can cater for their basic needs (YBS
Report, 2010).
Ex-post
Risk coping strategies reduce losses that occur due to
shortfalls in agricultural production, which reduces
consumption by farmers’ if they are unable to meet
the deficit by other means. This is to control shortfalls
in agricultural output (Pandey et al., 2007; Shiferawet
al., 2014). Cash saving, borrowing, liquidating assets,
relying on charity and permanent migration are the
usual mechanisms to cope with production shortfalls.
For this strategy, farmers are expected to save during
normal and better crop yield periods to meet
Discussion
Droughts affect the environment and peoples’
livelihoods in the Sahel. The region is characterised
Proceedings of Academics World 8th International Conference, Dubai, UAE, 13th November 2015, ISBN: 978-93-85832-47-5
57
Socio-Economic Effects of Drought in the Semi-Arid Sahel: A Review
by unpredictable climatic conditions.Rain-fed
farming is the main agricultural system and source of
income and this leads to environmental challenges.
For decades, droughts have caused numerous socioeconomic and environmental crises in the Sahel,
especially in the semi-arid and arid zones.Decreased
rainfall in the second half of the 20th Century led to
particularly severe droughts. Climate change and
increased temperatures have played vital roles in the
impact of drought, causing high mortality rates for
both humans and livestock. Most drought coping
strategies compensate for ≤40% of total losses.
Developed countries have other compensation
strategies, for example relief and insurance for
drought victims. Many developing countries,
including those in the Sahel, have no system in place
to compensate drought victims. Persistent drought
without proper intervention and understanding leads
to famine which causes malnutrition and death.
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
Conclusions and recommendations for further
work
Drought and its consequences are particularly severe
in semi-arid regions. It is important to understand the
impactsof drought, which ripples through many
sectors and aspects of human life andecosystems.
This disaster has caused loss of lives and yields in
many regions around the world.Most coping
strategies compensate for only a small portion of total
losses. There needs to be a holistic approach to
mitigate the effects of drought on socio-economic
activities. Furthermore, the scarcity of data in Yobe
State, the study area makes it difficult to produce a
plan for the amelioration. This research therefore
seeks to further investigate the socio-economic
effects of drought in Yobe State, Nigeria, with the
view to engendering the development of a sustainable
drought effect mitigation system.
[15]
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[19]
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