MargaretCavendish’sTheBlazingWorld(1666),EarlyModern
Feminism,andFemaleFriendships
ResearchThesis
Presentedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforgraduationwithresearchdistinction
inEnglishintheundergraduatecollegesofTheOhioStateUniversity
by
KaylorMontgomery
TheOhioStateUniversity
April2016
ProjectAdvisor:ProfessorElizabethKolkovich,DepartmentofEnglish
Montgomery 1
MargaretCavendish(1623-1673),waseducatedinareasfitforladies;however,it
wasduringtheCivilWarwhenshetrulyblossomed.AsaRoyalist,Cavendishwasforced
fromEnglandtoFranceasanattendanttoQueenHenriettaMaria.Whileinexile,Cavendish
metherhusband—WilliamCavendish,DukeofNewcastle.Cavendishgarneredmuch
attentionfromcontemporaries;manywomendescribedheras“eccentric”inthewaysshe
actedoutsideofthesocietalnormsforladies.Inalettertoherhusband,MaryEvelyn—wife
toafoundingmemberoftheRoyalSociety—writes,“AtlastIgrewwearyandconcluded
thatthecreature[MargaretCavendish]calledachimerawhichIhadheardspeakof,was
nowtobeseen,andthatitwastimetoretireforfearofinfection;yetIhope,assheisan
original,shemayneverhaveacopy.NeverdidIseeawomansofullofherself,so
amazinglyvainandambitious”(92).Anextraordinarywomanwhowasnotafraidtostand
uptoauthorityforwhatwasright,MargaretCavendish’slifewasfilledwithadventureand
friendshipsthatmustbeexplored.
Femalefriendships,realandfurtive,oftheearlymodernperiodprovideanavenue
intounderstandingtherealityforwomenwritersandhowwomengrappledwithpowerin
asocietyagainstthem.Manymalewriters,liketheirmedievalcounterparts,praisedmale
friendshipsbutdemeanedfemalefriendships.Thesemendeemedwomenunfitforany
agencyintheirworld.Nevertheless,thepublicationofMargaretCavendish’sutopiannovel
TheBlazingWorldin1666defiedthesemalevoices.Throughthedevelopmentoftwo
femalecharactersinrolesthatwouldhavebeentypicallymale-orientedandby
empoweringthetwocharacters,Cavendishrejectsthemalevoicesofthetimeperiodand
Montgomery 2
presentsarealityforwomeninthetimeperiod:womencouldhandlefriendshipswith
otherwomen,andwomencouldfindpowerwithinthosefriendships.
PreviousworkonTheBlazingWorldhasfocusedonthetext’sscientificandutopian
aspects.TheBlazingWorldwaspublishedatthebeginningoftheEnlightenment
movement,atimeofscientificgrowth.WhenCavendishpublishedTheBlazingWorld,she
appendedittoherbookObservationsUponExperimentalPhilosophy,anonfiction
explorationofnaturalphilosophy.InObservations,Cavendishexploresvariousideason
naturalphilosophyalongwithherexperienceswiththeRoyalSocietyduringhervisitin
1667(Bell,Parfitt&Shepherd43).Thesecondpartofthepublication—TheBlazing
World—isfiction.Inthe“TotheReader,”Cavendishexplainsthat“byreasonmostLadies
takenodelightinPhilosophicalArguments,Iseparatedsomefromthementioned
Observations,andcausedthemtogooutbythemselves,thatImightexpressmyRespects,
inpresentingtoThemsuchFanciesasmyContemplationsdidafford.TheFirstPartis
Romancical;theSecond,Philosophical;andtheThirdismeerlyFancy;or(asImaycallit)
Fantastical”(sig.A3v).ItisCavendish’shopethatherideasonnaturalphilosophycan
spreadfurtherthroughthisworkoffictionandinfluenceafemalereadership,asshe
addressedthispartto“allNobleandWorthyLadies.”Furthermore,Cavendishexplainsthat
mostwomen,unlikeherself,donotenjoy“PhilosophicalArguments.”Cavendishworksa
multitudeofargumentsintoherstorythat,ifplainlyrevealed,mightnothaveinterested
herfemalereadershipinthewaythatshewanted.Cavendish,therefore,hopedtoinfluence
womenreadersintojoiningherinthepursuitofknowledge.Cavendishhopedtobuilda
societyoutofthereadership—asocietyofwomenhelpingwomenandaddingtoscientific
discourseinaninclusivemanner.
Montgomery 3
Thedevelopmentofherutopiaiscauseformuchinvestigation.Scholarssuchas
MarinaLeslie,LeeCullenKhana,andRachelTrubowitzhavediscussedtheworkintermsof
theutopiangenreandwhetherandhowmuchCavendishbreaksawayfromthegenreand
ifso,howmuchsheactuallydoes.RachelTrubowitzdescribestheutopiangenreby
writing,“Formoststudentsofthegenre,theutopiacelebratestheattempttorationalize
humanculture.[J.C.Davis]describestheutopiaas‘distinguishedbyitspursuitoflegal,
institutional,bureaucraticandeducationalmeansofproducingaharmonioussociety’;for
JamesHolstun,theutopiais‘theexperimentalsitefortheformationofanewcultural
order…ahumanorganizationofspacethatwillfollowfromhumanreason’”(qtd.in
Trubowitz230).InCavendish’swork,readersseethedevelopmentofanabsolute
monarchywithawomangivenabsolutecontrolbyherhusband.Moreover,readersseea
friendshipemergebetweentwomainfemalecharactersthatestablishespowerinareas
thatarenotseeninEnglishsociety.Thereadersarepresentedwithaharmonioussociety
intheBlazingWorld,especiallywiththeEmpressatthehelm.1Cavendishismakinga
statementaboutwomen’sagencyinpolitics,andsheequallyisspeakingonbehalfoffemale
friendshipsandthepowerwomenfindinthem.
Cavendish’sTheBlazingWorldisthestoryofawomanwhoiskidnappedbecauseof
herbeauty.ThemenwhokidnaphertakehertotheNorthPole,andwhiletheydiefrom
theextremecold,theLadysurvivesandfindsaportalthroughtoanewworldtitledthe
“BlazingWorld.”InaworldpopulatedbymanyspeciesfromBearMentoWormMen,these
1Nevertheless,theparticularsofthestoryarewhatattractscholarstotheorizeaboutthe
reasonsbehindit.ScholarsareespeciallyintriguedbythewaysinwhichCavendish
referenceshercontemporaries,andscholarsattempttounderstandheruseintheways
thattheEmpressmovesthroughouttheBlazingWorld;throughtheEmpress’everymove,
scholarsarestilldebatingwhethersheisalignedwithhercontemporariesforthetropesof
theutopiangenreorwhethersheisdefyingthetropessetbythemalecontemporaries.
Montgomery 4
menpresenttheLadytotheEmperor,whoimmediatelywishestomarryherbecauseof
herbeauty.Aftermarriage,theEmpressisgivenabsoluteruleoverthekingdom,andshe
focusesthatpowerfirstonscientificdiscovery.Aftersheissatisfiedwiththeoriginal
findingsofthescientists,theEmpressdecidesshemustspeakwithspiritstocreatea
Cabbala.AccordingtotheOxfordEnglishDictionary,aCabbalahasatwo-folddefinition;
thefirstdefinitionis“Thenamegiveninpost-biblicalHebrewtotheoraltraditionhanded
downfromMosestotheRabbisoftheMishnahandtheTalmud”whilethesecond
definitionis“Towardsthebeginningofthethirteenthcent.a.d.appliedtothepretended
traditionofthemysticalinterpretationoftheOldTestament”("Cabbala|Kabbalah,n”).The
mysticismappliedtotheCabbalamakesconceptitselfariskyidea;inearlymodern
England,iftheCabbalawenttoofarintomysticism,itcouldhavebeenlabeledasheresy.
Thespirits,meanwhile,suggesttheDuchessofNewcastle(MargaretCavendish)asthe
perfectspirittoaideher.Atthispoint,thefriendshipbetweentheDuchessandthe
Empressbecomestheforefrontofthestory,andtheirfriendshipultimatelyiswhathelps
endawar.Whatmakesthisworksointriguing,however,isthefocusplaceduponthe
womenandtheirroleswithinthestory.Theirroleswithinthisutopiaultimatelydepart
fromwhatmanymalevoicespresentedas“idealwomen”forthetimeperiod;ontopof
that,theutopiangenrepresentstheideathatCavendishwishedforwomentobein
positionsofpower,especiallywithinpolitics,andthatwomen’spowercouldgrowthrough
theirfriendshipswithoneanother.
TheimportanceoffriendshipandfemalecollaborationisillustratedinCavendish’s
ownlife.Inordertopublishhermanuscripts,Cavendishandotherwritershadtorelyon
printers.Printingitselfbecameapopularbusiness,andduringthetimeofthepublication
Montgomery 5
ofObservationsUponExperimentalPhilosophy,femaleprinterswerebecomingmore
common.Manywomenwerewidowswhoinheritedthetradeupontheirhusband’sdeath,
althoughmanywomenwereinvisiblefromofficialrecords.Intheappendix,ABiographical
DictionaryofEnglishWomenWriters1580-1720writes,
RelianceontherecordsoftheStationers’Company,the‘official’faceofbook
tradehistory,ismisleading:womenwereexcludedfrompositionandpower
withintheCompany,anditisusuallythenamesofthemalemembersofbook
tradefamilieswhichappearinCompanyrecords.TheCompanydid,however,
concedeanumberofvaluablerightstowomen:stationers’widows,for
example,wereallowedtobindapprenticesandtoholdsharesinthe
Company’scopyrightmonopoly,theEnglishStock…Throughoutthecentury
womenarefoundenteringcopiesintheStationers’Register;taking,
transferringandfreeingapprentices;beinginvestigated,harassed,finedand
imprisonedbytheauthoritiesforillegalor‘seditious’activities;andentering
intotradepartnerships.Thechaosinthebooktradeduringandafterthe
CivilWarbenefitedwomenaswellasmenprinters,publishersand
booksellers,andofthe300orsowomenidentifiedasconnectedwiththe
tradeduringourperiod,mostwereactiveafter1640.(288)
Womenbegantoappearmorerapidlyintheprintingindustryinthelate1660s,increasing
theirvisibilityandpowertoinfluencepopularopinion.ObservationsUponExperimental
Philosophywaspublishedin1666andthenrepublishedin1668.ThatmeansthatAnne
Maxwell,theprinterforObservationsandallofCavendish’slaterwork,becameaprinterin
atimewhenwomenthemselvesweregainingmoreapparentopportunitiesinthebusiness.
Montgomery 6
TheworkrelationshipthatmusthaveexistedbetweenCavendishandAnneMaxwelloffer
moreinsighttowardsthewaythatwomenoperated.
Whiletheircompanionshippresentsnewideasthatmustbeexplored,theworld
Cavendishwroteinwasalsoaninterestingtime.Asaresultofthebeginningofthe
Enlightenment,logicandscientificthoughtbecamethepopularmodeofpresentingnew
ideas.Addingsomethingtothescientificcommunitywasavaluedactivityamongtheelite,
andCavendishwantedtoparticipateinthiscommunity.Oneofthegoalsofthe
Enlightenmentwassocialprogressandrationalreformofsociety.Thustheperiod’sgenres
inspiredhopefulness;theideaofsocialharmonyandhowtoachievethatwassomethingto
strivefor.Utopiasofferedreadersthoseworlds,andwhilecertaintropeswereestablished
inthegenreofthework,Cavendishherselfdefiedthosetropestofurtherherownideas.
Cavendish’sstorypresentsaninclusivesocietydrivenbywomenthatdefiestheideals
presentedinconductmanuals,andherstorypresentsabiggerscaletotherealityof
womenandfriendships.TheBlazingWorldcanbeunderstoodasadeclarationforwomen
andpower.
GenreandTheBlazingWorld
Theutopiangenre,muchlikeconductbooksofthetimeperiod,aimedtopresent
ideasforhowsocietyshouldprogress.Therefore,Cavendish’sutopiansocietyhasintrigued
scholars.RachelTrubowitzwrites,“…Cavendish’scomplexengagementwiththeutopian
paradigminBlazingWorldresultsinarevisionoftheutopiangenrethatisatonce
culturallysubversiveandpoliticallynostalgicand,assuch,uniquelyaccommodatesher
constructionoffemalesubjectivityinimperialterms”(229-230).Trubowitzarguesthat
Cavendish’sdeparturefromtheutopiangenrereflectsbackonpoliticalviewpointssuchas
Montgomery 7
absolutismwhileembracingfeminism.OtherscholarsapproachCavendish’sdeparture
fromthetropesoftheutopiangenredifferently.LeeCullenKhannafocusesonhow
Cavendishdefiestheutopiangenrethroughitsdepictionsofwomeninvariouspowerful
positions:
[T]hepointatwhichgenreandgenderintersectintherepresentationof
utopiandesireisinthelocusofdiscursiveauthority.WhenSocratesand
Thrasmyachusdebatethenatureofjustice,orThomasMoreandRaphael
Hytholodayargueabouttheroleofphilosophyinpoliticalpractice,theideal
socialordersthatemergeinthetextdifferdramaticallyfromthosearising
fromtheconversationoftheEmpressoftheBlazing-Worldand‘Honest
MargaretNewcastle’…(15)
Byintroducinganinclusivesocietythatembracesgenderequally,Cavendishcompletely
altersutopiannorms.Cavendish’sutopiahasgenderatthecenterbyincludingawoman
liketheEmpresswithextensivepower.Thisideaisespeciallyimportantinthecontextof
femalefriendships.Assomethingthatwaslookeddownuponcontemporarymalewriters,
thefactthattheEmpressandDuchessformabondthathasenoughpowertoendawar
backintheEmpress’homeworldisimportant.Thisfriendshipleadstoaninclusivesociety
thatrejectstheexclusivitythatwasapparentinapatriarchalworld.
AlthoughKhannaarguesthatCavendish’sinclusivesocietybreaksfromthegenre,
othersargueagainsttheidea.MarinaLesliearguesthatalthoughCavendishaltersthe
utopiantropesthroughherwork,shealso“seeksinclusioninmaleliteraryand
philosophicalcanons,andinordertogainrecognitionshemustalsobetosomedegree
recognizablewithinsuchcanons”(7).Cavendish,inLeslie’sargument,seekstheapproval
Montgomery 8
fromsuchmalevoicesasmuchasshefightsagainstthosevoices.Lesliepresentssome
explicitexamples—suchastheuseoftheromanticgenreandthewayinwhichherwork
reflectsShakespeare’sTheTempest;andthewayhertitleandstoryplacementreflects
FrancisBacon’sNewAtlantis—toshowhowCavendishdabblesintropesestablishedby
othermalewriterswhilealsobreakingfromthem.AccordingtoLeslie,theuseoftheutopia
genreissolooselydefined;therefore,herworkisnotanymoreoutsideofthenormforthe
genrethananyotherwork:
Renaissanceutopiasdrawonavarietyofliterary,historical,theologicaland
philosophicalforms,including,butnotlimitedto:saturnalia,travelogue,
Platonicdialogue,naturalphilosophy,and‘historical’accountsofasecular
goldenageorasacredparadise…Utopianfictionhasremainedremarkably
unconstrainedbyafixedsetofformalfeatures.Moreover,insofarasitisthe
customofutopiannarrativestorejectortransformtheirliteraryprecursors,
Cavendishisnowheremoreorthodoxautopianthaninherrevisionsof
others’utopianmodels.(7)
Leslie’sbaseargumentdoesfollowTheBlazingWorld,anditiseasytoseehowthework
matchesupwiththenormsthatsheisdescribing.TheBlazingWorldisaworldthatislikea
sacredparadise,anditdoeslookcriticallyatnaturalphilosophy.Cavendish’sneedtobe
acceptedbythemalewritersofthegenre,accordingtoLeslie,isstrikingthough.Despite
Leslie’sargument,Cavendish’sreferencestoothermalecontemporariescanalsobe
interpretedinanotherway;likeKhannaargues,shereferencesmalecontemporariesasa
waytodeviatefromtheformandshowthatsheisdifferentfromothercontemporaries.
Montgomery 9
Afterall,inorderforonetodeviatefromagenre,onemustunderstandthegenreinwhich
theyarewriting.
Leslie’sarticledoesprovidestrongevidenceforCavendish’suseoftheutopiagenre
inherwork.However,likeKhannaargues,theimportanceplacedupongenderin
Cavendish’sworkcannotbeignored.WhileitisdeemedimportantthatCavendishis
referencingothermalewriters’worksthroughoutthestory,itcouldsimplybeareference
orevenbeattemptsatparody.ElizabethScott-Baumanngivesanexample.Inherarticle,
shereferencestheanimalmeninTheBlazingWorld.Shesaysthattheanimalmendepicted
intheBlazingWorldareinfactparodiesofmenCavendishmetwhilevisitingtheRoyal
Society(67).ByparodyingthemenfromtheRoyalSocietyinherwork,Cavendishcritiques
themenfortheirexclusionofwomenandtheirscientificapproaches.Althoughshehad
beeninvitedintothemale-exclusivesociety,sciencewasstillveryexcludedfromwomen.
Therefore,itstandstoreasonthatCavendishmusthavedisagreedwithhowexclusivethe
RoyalSocietywasandhowadversetheyweretowomen’sideas.IfCavendishcanparody
menintheRoyalSocietyinsuchasignificantway,thenitisalsopossiblethatthe
referencesthatLeslieispointingoutarealsoparodies.Ontopofthat,Cavendishcouldhave
beenusingthoseparodiestofurtherdistanceherselfawayfromhermalecontemporaries.
Oneofthemale“contemporaries”thatLesliearguesCavendishreferencesis
Shakespeare.ForthecomparisonofShakespearetoCavendish’sTheBlazingWorld,Leslie
writes,“[They]similarlybeginwithathwartedrapeandatempest…[I]nbothtextsthe
femaleroleiscentraltopoliticalconsolidationinthenewworldandthepossibilityof
restorationintheoldworld.Cavendish’sboldestrevisionissimplytomakethewomanthe
agentaswellastheinstrumentoftheseprocesses”(13).Lesliearguesthatthedifferenceis
Montgomery10
thefactthatthefemalecharactersaregivenmoreagencythaninTheTempest;however,
thisstilldeviatesfromthenorm.ThefriendshipsbetweentheEmpressandtheDuchess
reinforceswomen’sagency.Withseveralfemalecharactersattheforefrontofthisnovel,it
isclearthatCavendishismakingapositivestatementfortheagencyofwomen.The
Empress,afterherhusbandgiftsittoher,rulesthekingdomonherown.Shedecideshow
herpeoplecanbetterthecommunity,andshedecideshowtoenterawar.Shemustalso
dealwithanyconsequencesheractionbrings;however,asitisinautopia,the
consequencesarenotdireasthoseinreality.Infact,whentheEmpresschangessomething
inthesocietyforthebetter,herpeoplerejoice.HerfriendshipwiththeDuchessgrowsina
positivemannerastheybothhelpfurtherthedevelopmentofherutopia.Accordingto
Khanna,“…[T]histextestablishespermeabilityandcreativityastextualstrategiesfor
empowerment.Theprincipleofpermeabilityblursthoseverycategoriestakenas
normativeindominantdiscourse…[T]histechniqueworkstotransgressbordersoften
usedtoexcludewomenandeliminatedifference.Additionally,therepresentationof
creativityinCavendish’stextempowersfemalecharactersandgesturestowardthe
potentialagencyofreadersaswell”(24).Theuseoffemalefriendshipsgivesthewomen
agencythatisnotavailableintextswrittenbymen.Thisismadeclearinthetextwhenthe
EmpressreliesontheDuchessforcounsel.Thenarratorsays,“ThentheEmpressdeclared
toherthegrievanceandsadnessofhermind,andhowmuchshewastroubledandafflicted
attheNewsbroughtherbytheImmaterialSpirits,desiringtheDuchess,ifpossible,to
assistherwiththebestcounselsshecould,thatshemightshewthegreatnessofherlove
andaffectionwhichsheboretoherNativeCountrey”(232).TheEmpressmustdecide
alone—doessheinvadeandstopthewarfromhappeningornot—andtheagencysheuses
Montgomery11
inthissituationissignificant;shedoesnotmerelyaskforherhusband’sadviceasthe
conductmanualswrittenbymenteach,butshewaitsfortheDuchesstohelpcounselher.
Theirfriendshipisgivenjustasmuchimportanceashermarriage,andthatpowermustbe
realized.
TheprimacyoftheDuchess’advicecanalsobeseeninanotherscene.Afterthewar
isfinishedandtheEmpressisheadedbacktotheBlazingWorld,sheandtheEmperor
discusswiththeDuchessbuildingatheaterthatwouldhousetheplaystheDuchesswrites.
Thediscussionofartinthispart,Khannaargues,reflectsanotherinclusionthatisnotoften
seeninutopias.Khannawrites,“Thisattentiontotheartist,theembraceoftheimaginative
principleinestablishingpositivesocieties,soundsastrikingnewnoteintheutopiangenre
atthispointinitshistory.Thefearoftheartistpervasiveindominantutopianthoughtis
tiedtoaperceivedthreattosocialorder,truth,anddiscipline.Women’sutopianfiction,on
theotherhand,mayempowertheimaginativeprincipleforthesamedangerousreason”
(28-9).ThisisimportantbecauseofthesuggestionofwhatCavendish—andotherfemale
writersofutopianfiction—havetoworkagainst.Whilemaleutopianwritersfearthe
“artist”personabecauseofthedisruptiveideas,femaleutopianwritersembracethose
artistsforthesamereason.FemaleutopianwriterslikeCavendishembraceinclusion
becauseofwhattheyfacedinearlymodernsociety.Mostfemalewriterswroteunder
pseudonymsorevenpublishedanonymously.ThefactthatCavendishpublishedherworks
andhadhernameattachedtoherworkswascourageous.
ThewaysinwhichCavendishdevelopedherutopiabreakswiththetropesforthe
genreatthetime,andthosebreaksallowformoreinclusioninwaysthatincludethe
Empress’relationshipwiththeDuchess.Theirfriendshipbringsanamountofpowerthat
Montgomery12
malewriterswouldhavefeared,andCavendishplayswiththatpowerdeliberately.Not
onlyisshebreakingawayfromthegenreitself,butCavendishisalsobreakingawayfrom
whatmalewritersinothergenresdepictedasguidelinesforupstandingwomen.Ingenres
likeconductbooks,malewritersruledthatwomen’spositionsdidnotgiveenoughpower
tohavefemalefriendships,especiallyoncemarried.
TheMaleVoicetheDepictionsofWomen
ThefemaleprotagonistsareattheforefrontofTheBlazingWorld,andalthough
therearemalecharacters—suchastheirhusbands—theyarenotfullyplacedinaposition
tosubjugatethewomenbackinto“proper”place.Thisisincontrasttotheidealssetforth
incontemporaryconductmanuals.AsCavendishknowinglybreaksfromtheutopian
tradition,itisplausiblethatCavendishdoessotohighlightandcritiquecontemporary
expectationsandrolesofwomen.
Althoughtheidealmarriagewascompanionate,itwasmeanttostillbehierarchal.
InhisconductbookAPreparativetoMarriage(1591),HenrySmithreferstothecreationof
Eveforanexampleofhowahierarchalmarriageismeanttowork.Thenarratorsays,“To
honourMariagemoreyet,orrathertoteachthemariedhowtohonouroneanother,itis
saide,thatthewifewasmadeofthehusbandsrib:notofhishead,forPaulecalleththe
husbandethewiueshead:norofthefoote,forhemustnotsetherathisfoote:theseruant
isappoyntedtoserue,andthewifetohelpe”(sig.B4r).Thenarratorremindsthereader
thatinmarriage,themanissupposedtobethehead,andthewomanisthenecktothe
husband’shead.Thisismeanttofurtherstrengthenthesubjugationwomenweresupposed
toaccept.TheyarenotservantsbecausetheribfromAdamcamefromhissideandnota
foot;therefore,awomanisnotequaltoherhusband,butsheismorethanjustaservant.
Montgomery13
Whilethisisthecase,theconductbookdoeshintatacompanionatemarriage;bysaying
thatwivesaremeantto“help”theirhusbands,itisimplyingthattheymustworktogether
inordertosucceed.Inaddition,hesays,“Hemustsetherathisheart,andthereforeshe
whichshouldlieinhisbosome,wasmadeinhisbosome,andshouldbeeasclosetohimas
hisribbofwhichshewasfashioned”(sig.B4r).Ontheonehand,theideaofthewifebeing
inthehusband’sheartsoundsendearing.Nevertheless,thepositiontheconductbook
placesthewomeninstillpresentsahierarchalmarriage.WhencomparedwithTheBlazing
World,readersseethatawifedoesnotneedtobekeptatahusband’ssideinorderforher
tobeinherhusband’sheart.
TheprefaceofTheBlazingWorldoffersaninterestingdefenseagainsthierarchal
marriage.Inthepreface,Cavendish’shusband,WilliamCavendish,wroteapoem.Inthe
poem,hepraisesMargaretCavendishforherdevelopmentoftheBlazingWorldwhenhe
says,“ButyourcreatingFancy,thoughtitfit/tomakeyourWorldofNothing,butpureWit.
/Yourblazing-world,beyondtheStarsmountshigher,/enlightensallwithaCoelestial
Fier”(l.9-12).WhilepraisingCavendish’screation,healsodescribestheBlazingWorldasa
creationthatsurpassesallofthepreviousutopias.ItpresentstheideathatWilliam
CavendishembracedthewritingofTheBlazingWorld,andontopofthat,itpresentsan
ideathattheirmarriagewasoneofequality.Herespectedhiswife’sendeavors,andhe
perceivedherworktobeofgreatmerit.ThemarriagesinTheBlazingWorldalsoremind
viewersofpositivemarriagesbuiltonafoundationofcommunicationandequality.Instead
ofrelegatingtoaroleunderneaththeEmperor,hegivestheLady“anabsolutepowerto
ruleandgovernallthatWorldasshepleased”(162).Withthisshortline,thenarratoris
makingsurethereadersunderstandthatthismarriageisnotgoingtobethelikethose
Montgomery14
HenrySmithdescribes.ThisnewworldthatCavendishhascreatedallowswomento
governintheirownright,whichplacestheEmpressequaltotheEmperor.Itisalso
imperativetorememberthattheEmperoristheonewhogivestheEmpressthepowerin
thefirstplace.TheLady,andlaterEmpress,isgivenabsoluteruleoverherkingdom,butit
doesnotcomefromherinheritingit.AftershemarriestheEmperor,hegrantsherthis
power.Itisstilluptothehusbandtogivehiswifewhatpowerhedeems.Nevertheless,this
marriageisstillradicallydifferentfromsociety’sideal.
ThemodernmarriageswithinTheBlazingWorldcanalsobeseeninthelittle
interactionsbetweentheDuchessandtheDuke.TheDuchessleavesherhusbandfor
monthsatatimeinordertoproperlyaidetheEmpress.WhentheDukedoesappearinthe
book,itistoshowhowlovingheistowardstheDuchess.WhentheEmpressfirstmeetsthe
Duke,thenarratordescribes,“…theDukecameoutoftheHouseintotheCourt…whenthe
Duchess’ssoulperceived,shewassooverjoyed,thatheraerealVehiclebecameso
splendorous,asifithadbeenenlightenedbytheSun;bywhichwemayperceive,thatthe
passionsofSoulsorSpiritscanaltertheirbodilyVehicles”(222).Thesetwoclearlyhavea
healthyrelationship.TheDuchessadoresherhusband,andwhenhedoesspeak,itisto
praisetheDuchessandtheEmpress.Whileitisimportanttoseetheembraceofinclusion
here—theDuchessandtheDukeloveoneanothersomuchthattheycanembracethe
additionoftheEmpressasaclosefriendoftheDuchess’—itisalsoimportanttoremember
thattheDuchessisafictionalrepresentationofCavendishherself.Thismeansthat
Cavendish’srelationshipinreallifemusthavereflectedthefictionalrepresentationofthe
DuchessandtheDuke,andthatmeansthatCavendishembracedinclusionwithinher
home.
Montgomery15
Cavendish’sworldalsohelpsreaderstoseeasocietythathasadvanced.Henry
Smith’ssermon-turned-conductbookwaspublishedin1591.Smith’sconductbook
suggeststhatalthoughahusbandandwifearemeanttobeinacompanionatemarriageof
sorts,themarriageinevitablygoesbacktopatriarchalvalues.Infact,Smith’sdescriptionof
awomanbeingtheweakervesselsuggeststhatahusbandshouldmerelyplacateawife’s
whimsbecauseshecouldnothandlewhatcomeswithtrueresponsibility.Intheconduct
book,hestates,“Toshewhowheshouldtenderher,Petersaith,Honourthewomanasthe
weakervessell.Aswedoonothandleglasseslikepots,becausetheyareweakervessels,but
touchthe[m]nicelyandsoftlyforfeareofcracks;soamanmustintreatehiswifewith
gentlenesandsoftnes;notexpectingthatwisedome,northatfaith,northatpatience,nor
thatstrengthintheweakervessell,whichshouldbeinthestronger”(sig.F1r).The
narratorexpresses,then,theideathatawomancouldnotdosomethinglikeholdabsolute
controloveraworld.Hisconductbookultimatelygivestheimpressionthatsocietyin1591
Englandwouldstilllookdownuponawomaninpower,despitethefactthatElizabethI
ruledthecountry,andElizabethIisknownfortwistingrhetoricinvolvinghergenderto
favorherinanysituation.InaspeechgiventothetroopsatTilburyin1588,ElizabethIis
quotedsaying,“IknowIhavethebodybutofaweakandfeeblewoman;butIhavethe
heartandstomachofaking,andofakingofEnglandtoo”(762-63).ElizabethIknewwhat
peoplebelievedaboutwomen,andshealsoknewthatsheneededtoplacateanyfearsthat
shewasunfittorule.Therefore,whenshesaysthatshehasa“weakandfeeble”female
bodybuthas“theheartandstomachofaking,”sheissayingthatwhileyes,sheisfemale,
insidesheisakingandthereforeabovetherulesplacedonotherwomen.Somescholars
havealsoarguedforaparallelbetweenElizabethIandtheEmpressherself.Whenthe
Montgomery16
Empressispresentedtothewarringcountriesofherhomelandduringthesecondpartof
thestory,thedescriptionofhermilitarygarbhasbeencomparedtoElizabethI’sowngarb
duringherTilburyspeech.RachelTrubowitzwrites,“IndetailingtheLady’smilitary
costume,CavendishnotonlylinksherheroinetothefemalekingshipofElizabeth,who
donnedbattlegeartoreviewtheEnglishtroopsatTilburyin1588,butshealso
symbolicallyevokestheandrogynous‘bodypolitic’ofElizabethanEnglandandacultural
movement…”(234).Cavendishopenlydefiesanyonewhowouldsaythathercharacters
couldnotdowhattheydobecauseofherallusiontoElizabethI.Throughoutthestory,
CavendishalsousesmanyinstanceswherewomenwhoaresubjugatedintheBlazing
WorldaregivenagencythroughtheEmpress’ruling.WhentheEmpressbegins
questioningwhynowomenareseenatchurch,thePriestsandStates-menrespond,
“[T]heircompanyhindersDevotion,andmakesmany,insteadofprayingtoGod,direct
theirdevotiontotheirMistresses”(164).Thisdescriptionsuggeststhat,likemanyreligious
texts,womenarehindrancestomen,andmenaremeanttodevotetheirtimetothe
spiritual.Thementhengoontosuggestthatwomencorruptreligiousandstatefunctions
because“theyaresoprevalentwiththeirHusbandsandParents,thatmanytimesbytheir
importunateperswasions,theycauseasmuch,nay,moremischiefsecretly,theniftheyhad
themanagementofpublickaffairs”(165).Thesemensuggestthatwomen,inessence,have
abilitiestocontrolhusbandsandchangethingslikereligionandpoliticsaccordingtowhat
theywant.Inthisway,Cavendishoffersinsightintowomenwhomustfindpowerinthe
privateversusthepublicsphere.Womenofthetimeperiodcouldnotrepresentthemselves
forlegalhearings.CavendishchallengesthisideathroughtheEmpress’responselaterin
thenovel.IntheEmpress’religiousinstitutions,sheisthepreacher,anactthatwouldhave
Montgomery17
beenblasphemousbackintheEmpress’—andCavendish’s—world.Onewomaninpoweris
showinghowtheinclusivityofaworldcanbringpositivefriendships.Itisafterthisthatthe
EmpressmeetstheDuchess,anditisbecauseshewishestowriteaCabbala,whichisa
scientificpieceofliteraturerootedinJewishmysticaltradition.Byplacingherselfatthe
helmofthereligiousinstitutions,theEmpressincludeswomeninaspherethatis
otherwisekeptfromthembeforehand.Ontopofthat,theEmpressalsomirrorsElizabethI
againbecauseElizabethIwasthesupremegovernoroftheChurchofEnglandwhileshe
ruled;therefore,likeElizabethI,theEmpresstakescontrolofthereligionoftheBlazing
World.CavendishisalsofurtherdivergingfromSmithbecausesheisshowingthatwomen
aremorethancapableathandlingpower,andwomenareknowntobeabletousethat
power.
ThepowerthatCavendishexercisesthroughfriendshipandcounselarefurthered
bytheintroductionoftheDuchess.ThroughtheDuchessandtheEmpress’friendship,
Cavendishimaginesarealitywherewomencanhavesame-sexfriendswithouthusbands
beingangry,andCavendishshowshowtheEmpressgainsmuchpowerthroughthe
Duchess’help.InAPreparativetoMarriage,Smithstatesthatwomenshouldhaveno
friends,muchlesssame-sexfriendswhenhesays,“[H]eemusttenderherasmuchasall
herfriends,becausehehathtakenherfromherfriends”(sig.F1r).Smithprovidesinsight
intopatriarchalideasthatwererootedinancientandmedievalperiods.Awomanhadto
loseeverythinginlifeandbecomesubordinateoncemarried.Cavendish’sportrayalofthe
EmpressandtheDuchess’friendshiprejectsthatideology.
WhileCavendish’sworkrejectsthepatriarchalvaluesseen75yearsbeforeher
work,therestrictionoffemalefriendshipisstillpresentedinaconductbooktitledThe
Montgomery18
LadiesDictionary(1694).Theauthorisunknown,butitisassumedtobemale.Thevoice
withinTheLadiesDictionarytakestheapproachofadvisingwomenthroughaquestionresponsestyleinsteadofdiscussingamongstwomenhowtheyasagroupshouldact,which
givestheimpressionthatitwaswrittenbyaman.Thisbooktakesonmanytopics
includingfriendshipandrelationshipadviceforwomen.Onthetopicoffriendship,the
bookstates,“[H]owshallitremainwithequalZealandInnocence,atleastJustice,
whenoneisMarry’d?ForeithertheremustbemoreorlesstendernessfortheFriendthanfor
theWifeorHusband,---Ifmore,‘tisInjustice;forPeopleoughtnottoMarryany,butsuchas
arefittomakeFriends”(sig.O3v).Thebooksuggeststhatwhenonegetsmarried,boththe
husbandandthewifemustmakeoutsidefriendshipssecondarytothemarriage.Moreover,
thebookstatesthatitmustbethiswaybecauseifthefriendshipisnotlessened,thenthere
isnopointtogetmarried.Thebookimpliesthathusbandandwifemustbefriendsinorder
forthemarriagetobesuccessful;therefore,friendshipsoutsideofthemarriagemustbe
lessened.Whilethisisanimportantideaaboutmarriage,themainreasonTheLadies
Dictionaryisagainstsame-sexfriendshipshastodowiththestrengthoffriendships.
Towardstheendoftheanswer,thebooksays,“TheformerFriendshipmustbediminish’d,
asiftheMarriagebehappy,itgenerallyperhapsalwaysis.IfIamn’tmistaken,thepinchis
here,andtheaccordingly,ThatiftheFriendshipbetweenthePersonsMarry’dhavebutthe
ascendant,andifthatbecontinuedwiththehighestdegreeofZeal,anylowermeasure
ofthatandFriendshipmayinnocentlyremainwhereitwasbeforeplanted”(sig.O3v-r).
AccordingtoTheLadiesDictionary,awoman’sfriendshiphasthesameweightasmarriage.
One—thefriendship,naturally—mustbegivenupinordertokeepthemarriagehappy.In
Montgomery19
thisway,TheLadiesDictionaryoffersmoreofanin-depthreasoningfortheendingof
friendships;however,itstilldiscouragesfriendshipsformingpastmarriage.
InTheBlazingWorld,however,readersstillseetheoppositeofwhatTheLadies
Dictionarysuggests.AftertheDuchesshashelpedtheEmpresstostopawarinthe
Empress’homeland,theyreturntotheBlazingWorldwheretheEmperorembracesthe
Duchess.WhentheDuchesssaysthatshemustreturntoherLord,thenarratorsays,
“HereuponboththeEmperorandtheEmpressintreatedtheDuchess’sSoultostaysolong
withthem,tillshehadorderedherTheatre,andmadePlayesandVersesforthem;forthey
onelywantedthatsortofRecreation”(248).TheEmperorwishesfortheDuchesstostay
justasmuchastheEmpress,andthisshowsthatheagreeswiththefriendship.The
DuchessandtheEmpresscanbefriendsandstillbebytheirhusband’sside.Afterthe
Duchessfinallyreturnstoherhusband,thenarratorsays,“[S]heentertainedherLord
(whenhewaspleasedtohearsuchkindofDiscourses)withForreignRelations;buthewas
neverdispleasedtohearoftheEmpress’kindCommendations,andoftheCharactersshe
waspleasedtogiveofhimtotheEmperor”(248).TheDukeandtheEmperor,despite
livingintwodifferentworlds,agreewiththeirwives’friendship.Theybothdelightin
speakingwiththeDuchessandEmpress,andtheydonotshowanysignsofjealousyover
thewomen’sfriendship.Theembraceofthemulti-worldfriendshipbetweenthecharacters
alsodisplaystherealityofwhatinclusionis.Byembracingoneanother,happinessandart
areattheforefrontofthissociety.Cavendishshowsreadersthatinclusionultimatelyleads
tohealthymarriagesbuiltonequality.
Montgomery20
ThemarriagethatTheLadiesDictionarydepictsultimatelyreflectsbacktoA
PreparativetoMarriage.Whenspeakingaboutmarriagesandinfidelity,TheLadies
Dictionarysays,
WithoutthisbondofPerfectness,allwillbeloose,uneasie,andunpleasing;
yea,theLawsandCommandsofGod,whobyhiswiseProvidenceordered
theMatch,willbecometediousandirksom.ButwherethisConjugalLoveis
consequentupontheforegoingChristianLove,thereallwillbecomeeasie.
ThisistheverylifeofFriendship;andwhereitresidesinpower,nodiligence
willbewantingtofacilitateallotherconjugalDuties.ForneverfailingCharity,especiallyinthisRelation,willenablethegoodWifetobearall
things,tobelieveallthings.(sig.L1r)
TheLadiesDictionarysaysthatmenwillinevitablycheat,butwomenaremeanttostay
constant.Inanothersectionoftheconductbook,itstates,“Itmaybegranted,Men,yea,
Husbands,aregenerallymorepronetoIncontinency…MencanhaveCommercenowith
vertue:andthereforeareconcern'dtobewatchfulandmoderate,especiallyconsidering
whatthegreatPhilosopherhathsaid,Thatofallthedesiresofthebody,Menareapttobe
faultythisway…ItmuchconcernstheChristianWife,togivechecktoanysuggestion,much
moretoanyparleywhichisinatendencytoviolateherMatrimonialContract”(sig.L1r).In
theeyesofthisbook,the“friendship”betweenthehusbandandwife,although
companionate,reliesuponthelikesofChristianityinordertosucceed.Thisinevitably
reflectsbackonAPreparativetoMarriageduetothepatriarchalsettingbetweenthe
husbandandwifeduetotheunequalstandards.AlthoughTheBlazingWorlddoesnothave
anycaseswherethehusbandsareshowntobecommittingadultery,inthesceneswhere
Montgomery21
thetwodointeract,thereisnosensethatmarriagesareinjeopardy.Eveninthefirstscene
thattheymeet,theEmperor“conceivedhertobesomeGoddess,andofferedtoworship
her”(162).ByperceivingtheLady—latertitledEmpress—asaGoddess,theEmperor
effectivelyplacesherabovehiminallregards.ThefactthattheEmperordoesnotview
himselfabovetheEmpressmeansthathedoesnotbelievehehasthepowerinorderto
commitinfidelityinsuchacasualmanner.Cavendishthereforereimaginesarelationship
thatbeginswithareversaltothehierarchalrelationship.Cavendishfurthersthisreversal
whentheEmpressisgivenabsolutecontroloftheworldanddoesnotneedtheEmperorto
givetheultimateapprovalforanythingshewishestodo.
Cavendish’sportrayalofadifferenttypeofmarriageenablesreaderstoseea
positiveportrayalofpowerfulwomen.Herutopiansocietyentailsawomanhaving
absolutecontroloveraworld,aneventualreversaloftheperiod-typicalhierarchal
marriagebetweentheEmpressandtheEmperor,andafriendshipbetweentwowomen
thatempowersthenovelinawaythatdefiesthosepopularideas.Moreover,Cavendishis
showingreadersthatwomenofthetimeperioddidnotmerelylistentothemenwhowrote
conductbooks;womenfoundtheirpowerwithoneanotherandmaintainedfairlyhappy
marriages.
CavendishandRealLife
TheLadiesDictionaryandAPreparativetoMarriagebothwerepublishedseveral
decadesfromTheBlazingWorld;therefore,itisimportanttolookataconductbookthat
waspublishedclosertoCavendish’sown.Oneconductbookwasactuallywrittenbya
woman—HannahWoolley—andpublishedagainstherwishesin1673.Inherbook,The
Gentlewoman’sCompanion,Woolleyfocusesonmanydifferentareasforwomen.An
Montgomery22
interestingnoteishowfocusedWoolleymentions“friends”throughoutherbook.When
sheistalkingaboutthedifferentmattersandwhoneedsaid,Woolleyalwaysmentions
“friends”whilenamingthingslikefamilyandneighbors.Insteadoffocusingonwaysthat
womenmustbesubjugatedwhilemarried,Woolley’sbookfocusesonwayswomencan
breakoutfromthesubjugationthatmale-writtenconductbookssay.AsWoolley’sbook
suggests,friendshipissomethingthatdidoccurforthetimeperiod,evenifitwasagainst
themalewriters’suggestions.
Woolley’sbookalsoprovesthatwomensoughtafterthingslikeintelligence.Inher
book,shesays,“Butthatwhichmostofallincreastmyknowledg,wasmydailyreadingto
myLady,Poemsofallsorts,andPlays,teachingmeasIread,wheretoplacemyaccents,
howtoariseandfallmyvoice,wherelaytheemphasisoftheexpression”(sig.B7r).
Woolleyemphasizestheimportanceofeducationandsharingthateducationthroughout
herbook.Woolleyalsosuggeststhatwomenduringthetimeperiodworkedtogrowtheir
knowledgetogether.ItiseasytoseethatinTheBlazingWorld.TheEmpresssearchesout
knowledgeindifferentareas.WhentheEmpressdecidestobeginsearchingforanswersto
herscientificquestions,shedoessobecause“eachfollowedsuchaprofessionaswasmost
properforthenatureoftheirspecies,whichtheEmpressencouragedthemin,especially
thosethathadappliedthemselvestothestudyofseveralArtsandSciences;fortheywere
asingeniousandwittyintheinventionofprofitableandusefulArts,asweareinthisworld,
nay,more;andtothatendsheerectedSchools,andfoundedseveralSocieties”(163).She
beginsthisbecausesheseesthepotentialinherpeople.Thisisalsobuildingasocietyof
scholarswithher,awoman,atthehelm.TheEmpresswillnotmakehersocietiesexclusive;
hersocietieswillincludeallofthespeciesofherworld.Sheinstructsthedifferent
Montgomery23
creaturestoresearchareassuchasreligionandscience,andshewishestofindanswersto
questionssuchaswhetherthesunishot.Eventually,theEmpressdecidesshemustwritea
CabbalafortheBlazingWorldandenliststhehelpofaspirit.Althoughshesuggestsspirits
suchasGalileo,DesCartes,Hobbes,andothers,theSpiritsuggeststheDuchessof
Newcastle.Oncebroughttothisrealm,thetwobeginconversingoverthebesttypeof
Cabbalatowrite.ThisdiscussionendswiththeDuchesssuggesting,“IfyourMajestywere
resolvedtomakeaCabbala,Iwouldadviseyou,rathertomakeaPoeticalorRomancical
Cabbala,whereinyoucanuseMetaphors,Allegories,Similitudes,&c.andinterpretthemas
youplease”(210).TheEmpressthanksherforherhelpandmakestheDuchessher
“favorite”(210).Thetwowomenshowhowwelllearnedtheyare.Thetwodecidefor
themselvesthroughanintelligentconversationhowtowritethiswork.Insteadofrelying
onamantoguidethem,thetwocometothisconclusiontogetherastwowomen.Like
Woolley,Cavendish’scharactersreflectamutualgrowthforknowledgeinasocietythat
showsinclusivenessandanembraceoffriendship.
Woolley’sdepictionofeverydaywomenisalsoimportantwhenonelooksbackat
Cavendish’sownlife.Scott-BaumannwritesaboutCavendish’sdevelopingwritingstyle
throughherworksandrevisions:“MargaretCavendishmustbeviewedasashrewdselfeditor,pragmaticallyinvolvedinthepublishingprocess,andasanauthorwhoadmitted
changesinherthinking,andwasresponsivetointellectualclimateaswellastohostile
reception”(80).Scott-BaumanndiscussesCavendish’sinvolvementinthepublishing
processthroughouthercareer,anditbecomespossibletolooktoCavendish’s
companionshipwiththeprinterofTheBlazingWorld.Scott-Baumannwritesaboutearly
publicationsthathadprintingnotesfromCavendishprintedwiththerestofthe
Montgomery24
publication.Shesays,“[I]nNaturesPictures(1656),forexample,instructionsforthe
printershavebeenincorporatedintothetext.Thephrases‘Thisistocomeafterthe
Matrimonialagreement’,and‘ThisistobeplacednextmyTaleofthePhilosopher,which
myLordwrit’wereaccidentallyprinted”(62).ThismeansthatCavendish,evenearlyinher
career,wasinvolvedinplacingherworkstogether,andsheattemptedtoworkwiththe
printerschosentoprintherworks.ThepublicationofNaturesPictureswasprintedby
ThomasWarren—althoughTheDigitalCavendishProjectquestionswhetherWarren
printedit(Kroetsch).Therefore,italsobecomesapparentthatCavendish’scompanionship
withotherprintersliketheprinterforTheBlazingWorldhadtohappen.
Theprintingindustryitselfwasexperiencingchangesdespitewhatmalevoices
depict.TheappendixforABiographicalDictionaryofEnglishWomenWriters1580-1720
revealstheclosebondbetweenwriterandprinter.Forexampleintheillegalpamphlet
trade,onewoman,MarthaSimmonds,publishedpamphletsthatsupportedoppositebeliefs
fromthatofherhusband.Whentalkingabouttherelationshipbetweentheillegal
pamphleteersandtheirpublishers,theappendixstates,“Whatbecomesapparent…isthe
existenceofnetworksofcommoninterestandacquaintancewithinparticular(often
sectarian)groups”(290).Friendshipnetworks,seeninWoolley’sworkandtheillegal
pamphlettrade,showhowwomenintheworkforceofthe17thcenturyworked.Trustand
friendshipwerebetweenprinterandwriters,especiallyiftheywererejectedby
mainstreamsociety.Thus,itislikelythatCavendishhaddevelopedafriendshipwiththe
printerofTheBlazingWorld.
ThetitlepageofCavendish’sObservationsUponExperimentalPhilosophycreditsa
printernamedA.Maxwell,orAnneMaxwell.TheDigitalCavendishProjectlistsAnne
Montgomery25
Maxwellasawidow;shepresumablyreceivedherhusband’sflourishingbusinessuponhis
deathin1665.AnneMaxwellwasaverysuccessfulprinter,andshewaslistedasa“master
printer”inLondon(Kroetsch).WhatisalsoimportantaboutAnneMaxwellisthe
companionshipshemusthavehadwithMargaretCavendish.InTheBlazingWorld,the
Duchess,afictionalimaginationofCavendish,isdescribedbytheSpiritas“notoneofthe
mostlearned,eloquent,wittyandingenious,yetissheaplainandrationalWriter,forthe
principleofherWritings,isSenseandReason,andshewillwithoutquestion,bereadyto
doyoualltheserviceshecan”(208).ThedescriptionoftheDuchessmatcheswithways
Cavendishwouldwordherprefaces;Cavendishembracedthefactthatshebecame
educatedinthesciencesandothertypicallymale-drivenfieldslaterinlife,andshespenta
largemajorityofherprefacesexplainingideastoreaderstoensurereadersunderstoodfor
therestoftheworks.WhentheSpiritsaysthattheDuchessis“readytodoyouallthe
serviceshecan,”thespiritisstatingthattheDuchess,andCavendish,iscompletelydevoted
whenitcomestofriendships.Asawriter,Cavendishwentthroughseveralprintersbefore
beginningtoprintwithAnneMaxwellin1666.InCavendish’searlierworks,shewasalso
knowntocomplainaboutmistakesprintersmadewithherworksinthe“TotheReaders.”
Scott-BaumannwritesthatinacopyofPoemsandFancies(1653),Cavendishhandwrotea
letterthatsaid,“[R]eaderletmeintreatyoutoconsideronlythefancyesinthismybookof
poemsandnotthelangueshnumbersnorrimesnorfalsprinting”(qtd.inScott-Baumann
62).However,thatseemstonothappenwithMaxwell;notonlydoesCavendishresist
complainingaboutMaxwell’swork,butCavendishalsocontinuestoprintandreprint
previousworkswithheruntilherdeath.
Montgomery26
ThecompanionshipthatpossiblyexistedbetweenCavendishandMaxwelldoes
agreewithWoolley’sconductbook,whowritesabouttheknowledgeshegainedworking
asagovernessandlaterasladyofthehouse.ThroughtheknowledgeWoolleygained,she
writes:
InshorttimeIbecameskilful,andstayedenoughtoorderanhouse,andall
Officesbelongingtoit;andgainedsogreatanesteemamongtheNobilityand
GentryoftwoCounties,thatIwasnecessitatedtoyieldtotheimportunityof
oneIdearlylov’d,thatImightfreemyselffromthetediouscaressesofa
manymore.InthetimeIwasaWife,Ihadfrequentoccasionstomakeuseof
all,ormostofmyaforenamedqualities;andwhatIexercisednotwithinmy
ownroof,Iusedamongmyneighbours,friends,andacquaintants.(sig.B6rv)
Woolleyadmitsthattheknowledgesheacquiredwasusedtohelpfriends.Throughwhat
littleisknownaboutCavendish’scompanionshipwithMaxwell,onecanassumethesame
happened.WhileMaxwellknewprintingandhadthetechnologyforit,Cavendishwas
developingherownwritingstyle,andthecompanionshipbetweenthemhadtoinfluence
herwork.
Cavendish’scompanionshipwithMaxwellpresentswiderpossibilitiesforthe
friendshipsinTheBlazingWorld.WhileitcouldbeassumedthatCavendishwasmerely
attemptingtoemployideasforasocietyshewishedtolivein,therelationshipinreallife
providesthepossibilitythatCavendishwasactuallywritingaboutfriendshipfromthe
perspectiveofreality.TheDuchess,afterall,isamirrorofCavendish,sothedepictionof
herfriendshipwiththeEmpressinthenovelmustbelookedatwiththeideathatitreflects
Montgomery27
backonCavendishherself.ThefriendshipbetweentheEmpressandtheDuchessdoesnot
simplybecomefigmentsofCavendish’sfantasy,butitaddstoadialoguethatpresents
womenasmorethanthesubmissiveidealofmalewriters.Thisfriendshipshowsthat
women,nomatterthecircumstance,couldjointogether.Thisfriendshipshowsthat
womenarepowerfultogether,andmalevoicescannotstoptheirgrowth.
Conclusions
MargaretCavendishwastrulyavisionaryforhertimeperiod.Asaproponentofthe
beginningoftheEnlightenment,CavendishuniquelyapproachedthepublicationofThe
BlazingWorldinawaythatonlyshecouldsucceed.Herutopiaissuccessfulbecause
womenexercisedpower.Bydefyingthelooselybasedrulesoftheutopiangenre,
Cavendishinvitesherreadersandcontemporaryscholarstoreadaboutaworldthat
exemplifiesthepowerthatwomenfindinfriendships.Moreover,Cavendish’sfocusonthe
friendshipshowsthatwomenin17thcenturyEnglandarguedagainstthemalevoicesand
foundwaystopowerdespitethepatriarchalsocietytheylivedin.Bywritingherselfinto
thestory,Cavendishinvitesreaderstotakeacloserlookatherownlife.Therefore,
Cavendish’sownlifereflectsthestorybyhercloseworkintheprintingindustry.Asa
womanwithconsiderablewealth,Cavendish’sdevotiontoMaxwell’sprintingfurther
showsthatwomentooktheirownlivesintheirhandsandworkedtogetheragainstthe
barrierssetinfrontofthembymen.
Montgomery28
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