,{fADING FOCUS
KEY TERMS
How did Progressives wish to expand
the role of government?
What municipal and state reforms did
Progressives achieve?
What federal reforms did Theodore
Roosevelt champion as President?
AJN IDEA
Because of public demand, local, state,
and federal officials enacted major Pro­
gressive reforms in the early 19005.
TARGET READING SKILL
social welfare program
Identify Supporting Details In the left-hand
municipal
column of the chart below, list Progressive
home rule
reforms. As you read, place checkmarks to
direct primary
indicate what level(s) of government initiated
initiative each type of reform.
referendum
Progressive Reform
Municipal
Federal
State
recall
holding company
Fight government corruption
..J
..J
..J
Home rule
..J
Setting the Scene
On March 25, 1911, abqut 500 workers, mostly Ital­
ian and Jewish girls, were on the job at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company. The
company, which occupied the upper floors of a 10-story building in New York
City, made tailored women's blouses. In the supposedly fireproof building, a
small fire broke out. Feeding on fabric and rubbish, it swelled into an inferno.
Some workers fled to safety through the one open stairway to the roof. Surg­
ing to the other exits, employees found doors locked from the out­
side. Others piled onto the single, rusted fire escape; it collapsed,
plunging them to their deaths. Ladders on the fire trucks were not
long enough to reach the upper floors, so desperate women, their
dresses aflame, leaped into the firemen's nets below. The nets tore
open, killing many who fell to the pavement. Those trapped above
perished in smoke and flames, some still hunched over their sewing
machines. A total of 146 workers died.
In the aftermath, 29-year-old labor leader Rose Schneiderman
addressed a public meeting held to discuss the causes of the fire. A
Jewish immigrant from Poland, Schneiderman would become one
of the nation's best-known women labor leaders. She attacked
government resistance to reform:
Firefighters wage a losing battle
against the deadly blaze in the
upper floors of the 10-story,
135-foot Asch Building housing
the Triangle Shirtwaist Company.
" Every week I must learn of the untimely death of one of my sis­
ter workers . ... But every time the workers come out in the
only way they know to protest against conditions which are un­
bearable, the strong hand of the law is allowed to press down
heavily upon us."
-Rose Schneiderman, public address, 1911
Schneiderman helped stir powerful public support for
reforms. Public and private groups called on the city to appoint
fire inspectors, to make fire drills compulsory, to unlock and fire­
proof exits, and to require automatic sprinklers in buildings more
than seven stories high. New York's Tammany government bowed
to the pressure and adopted new workplace protections.
Chapter 1.8 • Section 2
b
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621
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I
An Expanded Role for Government
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Good Government Clubs Deter­
mined to clean up corruption and
make governments operate with busi­
ness efficiency, a Good Government
movement arose in the 1880s. Good
Government clubs throughout the
country promoted Progressive
reforms and attracted new recruits,
creating fertile ground for the future
Progressive Party. In 1894, the clubs
held a national conference in
Philadelphia, with future President
and Progressive Party candidate
Theodore Roosevelt as the key
speaker. The conference led to the
founding of the National Municipal
League. Municipal leagues thrive in
many cities today.
READING CHECK
Describe some of the goals of
municipal reformers.
Rose Schneiderman was one of many Progressive leaders who sought
more government regulation to protect workers' rights and business
competition. But most Progressives opposed government control of
businesses, except for companies that supplied essential services such as
water and electricity,
Progressives also believed that government ought to increase its
responsibility for the welfare, or well-being, of people. They sought
more social welfare programs, which help ensure a minimum stan­
dard of living. Progressives pressed for social welfare programs such as
unemployment benefits, accident and health insurance, and a social secu­
rity system for the disabled and the elderly. Progressives envisioned a gov­
ernment that relied on experts and scientists to plan efficient programs
managed by professionals, not politicians.
Municipal Reforms
Many of the earliest Progressive reforms were made at the city, or
municipal, level. Those seeking reform of municipal governments came
from within and outside of those governments. Cities were.home to most
of the settlement workers, dub members, and professionals who pressed
for changes. Some municipal reformers worked for home rule, a system
that gives cities a limited degree of self-rule. Home rule allowed cities to escape
domination by state governments controlled by political machines or by busi­
ness or rural interests.
Municipal reformers sometimes seemed naive in their belief that they could
abolish corruption. Some reformers also held negative views of immigrants,
who they felt were responsible for many city problems. Still, the ideas of munic­
ipal activists formed an important part of the era's spirit of reform.
Attacking the Bosses Municipal reformers opposed the influence of politi­
cal bosses. They argued that only a civil service system based on merit instead of
favors would keep political appointees out of important jobs, such as those
enforcing labor and public safety laws.
For the most part, political machines and bosses survived such attacks. In
1896, for example, Columbia University president Seth Low ran for mayor of
New York City, supported by municipal reformers. To help in his campaign
I
,
against Tammany Hall's ward bosses, settlement houses sent children out to
post handbills in their neighborhoods. Low lost that election but won in 1901.
Still, the Tammany Hall machine returned to power in the next election.
In some cities, however, voter support for reforms prompted machine politi­
cians to work with reformers. Together they improved city services, established
public health programs and workplace reforms, and enforced tenement codes.
New Forms of Municipal Government Like the Triangle Shirtwaist
other catastrophes served to bring about reforms. On September 8, 1900, a
powerful hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico slammed into the city of Galveston,
Texas. The storm left more than 6,000 people dead when its 120-mile-per­
hour winds and surging waves pounded the unprotected city for 18 hours.
manage the huge relief and rebuilding effort needed, the city created an emer­
gency commission of five appointed administrators to replace the mayor and
aldermen. The commission worked so efficiently that Galveston permanently
instituted the commission form of government, with later reforms to make it
more democratic. Other cities rapidly adopted the Galveston model, adapting it
to their needs.
In March 1913, Ohio's Great Miami River Basin flooded the city of
Dayton, killing 360 people and causing damage of more than $100 million. In
the aftermath, Dayton became the first large city, to adopt a council-manager
government. Typically, this system includes an elected city council, which sets
laws and appoints a professional city manager to run city services.
Cities Take Over Utilities Reformers made efforts to regulate or dislodge
the monopolies that provided city utilities such as water, gas, and electricity.
Reform mayors Hazen S. Pingree of Detroit (1889-1897), Samuel M. Jones of
Toledo (1897-1904), and Tom Johnson of Cleveland (1901-1909) worked
within existing government structures to pioneer city control or ownership of
utilities. By 1915, nearly two out of three cities had some city-owned utilities.
VIEWING HISTORY The
coastal city of Galveston, Texas,
lacked a retaining wall to protect it
from the,powerful hurricanes that
blow ashore from the Gulf of
Mexico. In 1900, after a huge
storm left wind and flood devasta­
tion, the city needed a new type of
government to manage the relief
and rebuilding effort. Drawing
Inferences What features or quali­
ties would a municipal government
need to handle a reconstruction
job of the magnitude seen here?
Providing Welfare Services Some reform mayors led movements for city­
supported welfare services. Pingree provided public baths, parks, and a work­
relief program for Detroit. Jones opened playgrounds, free kindergartens, and
lodging houses for the homeless in Toledo. In his view, all people would
become good citizens if social conditions were good.
Texas
;
State Reforms
Some governors and state legislators also promoted progressive reforms. Like
the reform mayors, Progressives at the state level first worked to oust party
bosses and give more power to citizens. Then they passed laws to increase the
role of government in business regulation and social welfare.
More Power to Voters During the Progressive Era, voters gained somewhat
more direct influence in lawmaking and in choosing candidates. Throughout the
country, party leaders traditionally had handpicked candidates for public office. In
Wisconsin, reform governor Robert M. La Follette instituted a direct primary,
an election in which citizens vote to select nominees for upcoming elections.
Other states later adopted direct primaries for state and local offices. Many states
also instituted the initiative, a process in which citizens can put a proposed new
law directly on the ballot in the next election by collecting voters' signatures on a
petition. Another lawmaking reform was
the referendum, a process that allows
Progressive Political Reforms
citizens to approve or reject a law passed
by the legislature. The recall procedure
Before
Reforms
After
permits voters to remove public officials
Party leaders choose Direct Primaries
from
office before the next election.
candidates for state
Voters select their
In 1904, Oregon began allowing
and local offices.
party's candidates.
voters, rather than the state legislature,
Power moves
17th Amendment
State legislatures
to choose their United States senators.
to voters.
U.S. senators
choose U.S.
In
1913, the Seventeenth Amendment,
are elected by senators.
requiring
the direct election of senators, popular vote.
was ratified by the states.
Only members of
Initiative
1f
the state legislature
can introduce bills.
Only legislators
pass laws.
Only courts or
the legislature can
remove corrupt
officials.
INTERPRETING DIAGRAMS
This diagram shows the effects of
some of the major reforms
achieved by Progressives at all
levels of government. Synthesizing
Information What type of reform do
a/l these measures address, and
why were such changes so impor­
tant to ProgreSSives?
624
Voters can put bills
before the legislature.
I
Reforms in the Workplace Moti­
vated in part by the Triangle Shirtwaist
fire, state reformers worked to curb
Referendum
Voters can vote on
workplace hazards. Some states estab­
bills directly.
lished labor departments to provide
Recall
information and dispute-resolution serv­
Voters can remove
ices to employers and employees. Other
elected officials
states developed workers' accident insur­
from office.
ance and compensation systems. How­
ever, government efforts to control
working conditions met legal opposition. Business owners contended that the
government could not interfere with their constitutional right to malce contracts
with their employees. They also maintained that government workplace regula­
tions violated their private property rights by attempting to dictate how they used
their property.
The courts generally upheld these views. Reformers argued that the Constitu­
tion reserves police powers to the states, and the states could use these powers to
intervene in the workplace to protect workers.
In principle, the courts acknowledged the reformers' reasoning. But in the
case of Lochnerv. New York (1905), the Supreme Court struck down a law setting
maximum hours for bakers. The Court said that since the law had not been
shown to protect public health, the law constituted an improper use of the state's
police power and "'an illegal interference with the rights of individuals
... to make contracts."
The justices left open the possibility that if such a law could be shown to pro­
tect workers' health, it would be permissible. Reformers used this strategy in
Chapter 18 • The Progressive Reform Era
Aiuller v. Oregon. In this 1908 case, the Court upheld an Oregon law that limited
hours for female laundry workers to 10 hours a day. Reform lawyer Louis D. Bran­
deis represented the interests of the laundry workers. Using scientific evidence
gathered by activists in the National Consumers' League, he argued that women's
long work hours in laundries harmed their health.
Labor reformers succeeded on other fronts as well. By 1907, nearly two
thirds of the states had abolished child labor, often defined as employment of
children under the age of 14. Minimum wage laws for women and children also
made headway, 'with Florence Kelley leading a national campaign. After Massa­
chusetts adopted a minimum wage in 1912, eight other states followed.
Wisconsin's Reform Governor One of the most determined Progressives
in U.S. politics was Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin. "Fighting Bob"
earned his nickname through efforts to clean up government and produce
social welfare reforms. In three terms as a Progressive Republican governor
(1901-1906), La Follette ousted party bosses and brought about structural
changes such as a direct primary and civil service reform.
La Follette introduced a new way of running state government. He called
on academic experts to help draft reform legislation. To get it passed, he had
the voting roll call read publicly in the districts of legislators who opposed
reform. He drew on academics and citizen committees to run regulatory agen­
cies. The "Wisconsin Idea" of a pUblic-academic aliiance to improve govern­
ment became known nationwide.
" If it can be shown that Wisconsin is a happier and better state to live
in, that its institutions are more democratiC, that the opportunities
of all its people are more equal, that social justice more nearly
prevails, that human life is safer and sweeter-then I shall rest
content in the feeling that the Progressive movement has been suc­
Progressive reform politician
cessful . ... [T]here is no reason now why the movement should not
Robert M. La Follette earned the
expand until it covers the entire nation."
nickname uRghting Bob."
-Robert M. La Follette, from his autobiography.
A Personal Narrative of Political Experiences, 1913
La Follette on the Firing Line
La Follette took his ideas to the U.S. Senate, where he served
from 1906 until his death in 1925. Famous for his independence from business interests, he successfully promoted Progressive legislation on _the federal level. As the Progressive Party's candidate for President in 1924, La Follette lost, but received one sixth of the vote.
Federal Reforms
A number of important Progressive reforms were made at the federal level. Beginning with President Theodore Roosevelt in 1901, the White House became a powerful voice for change. In a major expan­
sion of federal authority, Roosevelt used his presidential powers vig­
orously in domestic matters, just as he did overseas. He viewed the presidency as a "bully pulpit"-an ideal platform from which to guide or rally the American public to support moral, worthy causes. In the process he created the modern presidency, in which the chief executive is a strong political force. TR's "Square Deal"
TR got a chance to flex his political muscle in May 1902, when the United Mine Workers called a strike to protest R08ERT MARION LA FOLLETTE
Chapter 18 • Section 2
i
625
e Era legislation
Legislation
Purpose National Reclamation Act, 1902 Created to plan and develop irrigation projects.
United States Forest Service, 1905 Created to manage the nation's water and
timber resources.
Hepburn Act, 1906 Authorized the Interstate Commerce
Commission to regulate railroad rates.
Pure Food and Drug Act, 1906 Banned interstate shipping of impure food and
deliberate mislabeling of food and drugs.
Meat Inspection Act, 1906 Required federal inspection of meat processing
to ensure sanitary conditions.
Department of Labor, 1913 Cabinet department created to promote the
welfare and employment of working people.
16th Amendment, 1913 Gave Congress the power to levy an income tax.
17th Amendment, 1913 Provided for the direct election of senators.
their low wages. As winter approached and mine
owners continued to refuse to talk to the union,
TR decided to intervene. Lacking coal, the nation
would be without a major source of heating fuel.
Roosevelt insisted that both sides submit to
arbitration, a settlement in which an impartial third
party decides on a legally binding solution. To
pressure mine owners, TR threatened to use the
army to seize and operate the mines. In 1903, arbi­
trators granted the miners a 10 percent raise and
reduced their workday from 10 hours to 9. The
arbitrators did not officially recognize the union,
however. When Roosevelt called this a "square
deal" for both sides in the coal strike, the phrase
became a slogan of his presidency.
Antitrust Activism Although the Sherman
Antitrust Act in 1890 was in place as a check on
Created Federal Reserve System of government
Federal Reserve Act, 1913
big business, it had never been vigorously
banks to supervise private banks and provide a
enforced. Reversing this trend,_ Roosevelt's
flexible money supply.
Attorney General used the act to SUe the North­
Prohibited companies from engaging in certain
Clayton Antitrust Act, 1914 ern Securities Company. Northern Securities was
specific activities, such as offering some types
a holding company, a firm that buys up stocks
of rebates.
and bonds of smaller companies. In doing so, it
National Park Service, 1916 Created to administer the nation's parks.
can create a monopoly. Northern Securities had
18th Amendment, 1919
Prohibited the manufacture and sale of liquor.
brought about a modest decline in railroad rates
(Repealed in 1933.)
by forming such a monopoly. But in 1904 the
government convinced the Supreme Court that
19th Amendment, 1920
Granted women full suffrage.
the company was in violation of the Sherman
Women's Bureau, 1920 Created within the Department of Labor to
Act. The Court dissolved the company.
improve the status of working women.
The Roosevelt administration filed 42 antitrust
actions. The beef trust, Standard Oil, and the
INTERPRETING CHARTS
American Tobacco Company were either broken up or forced to reorganize. like
Progressive reform touched many
most Progressives, TR was not antibusiness. He did not wish to destroy trusts that
aspects of American life, including
did
not harm the public. But he belleved that government should regulate them.
business, natural resources, labor,
voting, and consumer protection.
Analyzing Information How did Pro­
gressive reforms result in a major
expansion of federal power?
READING CHECK
How did Roosevelt expand
presidential authority?
626
Railroad Regulation An unelected President facing congressional opposition,
Roosevelt proceeded with caution in his first term. He used his executive powers to
achieve change, creating a political platform and a record on which to run in 1904.
His comfortable victory over his Democratic opponent, Alton B. Parker, gave Roo­
sevelt a mandate for his pursuit of reforms. He soon used his position to achieve a
long-sought Progressive goal: regulation of the railroads.
After a battle with Congress, Roosevelt won passage of the 1906 Hepburn
Act. The act moved the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) out of its largely
weak advisory role and gave it strong enforcement powers that were essentially
both legislative and judicial. The act authorized the ICC to set and ]jmit railroad
rates. Thus, the ICC became the first true federal regulatory agency.
Protecting Public Health Although Roosevelt denounced the muckralcers at
first, public horror over numerous exposes of the food and drug industries per­
suaded him to respond. The result was the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat
Inspection Act. The 1906 laws required accurate labeling ofingredients, strict sani­
tary conditions, and a rating system for meats.
Chapter 18 • The Progressive Reform Era
A New Labor Department In response to pressure from labor
and women's groups, in 1912 the government established a Chil­
dren's Bureau. A Cabinet-level Department of Labor was added in
1913, and a Women's Bureau in 1920. The two new bureaus, both
part of the Department of Labor, supported laws to benefit women
and children. Julia Lathrop and Mary Anderson, the heads of these
bureaus, became the first women in such federal posts.
Protecting the Environment TR also urged Congress to take
further steps to protect the nation's natural resources. At the
urging of explorers and nature writers such as John Wesley Powell
and John Muir, Congress had established Yellowstone in
Wyoming as the nation's first national park in 1872. Yosemite
National Park in California had been created in 1890. Presidents
Harrison and Cleveland had preserved some 35 million acres of
forest land.
In 1905, Roosevelt named Gifford Pinchot, a forester, to
head a new United States Forest Service. Pinchot sought to
develop a policy for land and water use based on scientific data. At
his recommendation, TR set aside more than 200 million acres for
national forests, mineral reserves, and water projects. The National Reclamation
Act, passed in 1902, used money from the sale of public lands to build irrigation
systems in arid states.
New Constitutional Amendments During the Progressive Era, constitutional
restraints on federal power gradually diminished. The Sixteenth Amendment, rati­
fied in 1913, authorized Congress to collect federal income taxes. Previously, the
government had relied on income from tariffs. Progressives had argued that tariffs
pushed up the prices of goods for the working poor. The Sixteenth Amendment
enabled the government to get more revenues from people with higher incomes.
The Seventeenth Amendment (requiring direct election of senators) also was rati­
fied in 1913. The Eighteenth Amendment, ratified in 1919, banned the produc­
tion, sale, or import of alcoholic beverages. Not all Progressives favored
Prohibition, but many thought it would protect society from the poverty and vio­
lence associated with drinking.
2
CRITICAL THINKING
AND WRITING
1. Summarize the Progressives' views
on regulating business.
5. Synthesizing Information Choose
two constitutional amendments
passed during the Progressive Era
and explain how they expanded the
role of government in citizens' lives.
reforms and social welfare programs
at the municipal and state levels
during the Progressive Era.
3. Describe the effect of each of these
reforms: (a) home rule; (b) direct
primary; (c) initiative.
4. What reforms did TR achieve under
his square deal?
........, -----
i
Roosevelt and conservationist
John Muir pose against the magnif­
icent landscape of California's
Yosemite National Park in this
1906 photograph.
Assessment READING
COMPREHENSION
2. Give examples of government
'1
6. Writing a Conclusion From what
you know about TR's personality,
beliefs, and leadership style, draw
conclusions about how these char­
acteristics affected his pursuit of
Progressive reforms.
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Shirtwaist Facto'ry fire
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Chapter 18 • Section 2
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