Chapter 8
Thinking and
Language
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
Thinking
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What is thinking?
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Thinking involves mentally manipulating
information, as when we form concepts,
solve problems, reason, and make
decisions
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Thinking
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The cognitive revolution in psychology
The computer analogy
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The physical brain = hardware
Cognition (mental processes) = software
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Thinking
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Concepts
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Mental categories used to group similar
objects, events, and characteristics
Prototype matching
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Deciding whether an item is a member of
a category by comparing it with the most
typical item(s) of the category
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Problem Solving
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Problem solving
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An attempt to find an appropriate way of
attaining a goal when the goal is not
readily available
1. Find and frame problems
2. Develop good problem-solving
strategies
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Problem Solving
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Subgoaling
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Setting intermediate goals that put you in a
better position to reach a final goal or
solution
Algorithms
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Strategies that guarantee a solution to a
problem
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Problem Solving
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Heuristics
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Strategies or rules of thumb that can
suggest a solution to a problem but do not
guarantee a solution
3. Evaluate solutions
4. Rethink and redefine problems and
solutions over time
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Obstacles in Solving Problems
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Fixation
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Focusing only on a prior strategy and
failing to look at a problem from a fresh,
new perspective
Functional fixedness
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Individuals fail to solve a problem because
they are fixated on a thing’s usual
functions
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Obstacles in Solving Problems
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Mental set
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A type of fixation in which an individual
tries to solve a problem in a particular way
that has worked in the past
Lack of motivation and persistence
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Thinking Critically
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Critical thinking
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Thinking reflectively and productively
Evaluating the evidence
Reasoning
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The mental activity of transforming
information to reach conclusions
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Reasoning
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Inductive reasoning
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Reasoning from the specific to the general
Drawing conclusions about all members of
a category based on observing only some
members
Deductive reasoning
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Reasoning from the general to the specific
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Reasoning
Beethoven is to music
as Picasso is to ___?
What type of reasoning is used
to solve this problem?
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Making Decisions
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Decision making
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Confirmation bias
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Evaluating alternatives and making
choices among them
The tendency to search for and use
information that supports our ideas rather
than refutes them
Belief perseverance
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The tendency to hold on to a belief in the
face of contradictory evidence
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Making Decisions
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Overconfidence bias
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The tendency to have more confidence in
our judgments and decisions than we
should based on the relative frequency of
our correct answers
Hindsight bias
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Our tendency to falsely report, after the
fact, that we accurately predicted an event
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Making Decisions
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Availability heuristic
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Judging the probability of an event by
recalling the frequency of the event’s past
occurrences
Representative heuristic
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Making decisions based on how well
something matches a prototype
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Language: What is it?
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Language
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A form of communication, whether spoken,
written, or signed, that is based on a
system of symbols
Infinite generativity
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The ability to produce an endless number
of meaningful sentences using a finite set
of words and rules
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Language: Rule System
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Phonology
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A language’s sound system
Morphology
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The rules for word formation
HELP + ER =
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Language: Rule System
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Syntax
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Rules for the ways words are combined to
form acceptable phrases and sentences
Semantics
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The meanings of words and sentences
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Influences on Language
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Biological influences
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Humans are pre-wired to learn language
at a certain time and in a certain way
Environmental Influences
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Language is learned through imitation and
other environmental influences
Language is a behavior that is learned
through reinforcement
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
How Language Develops
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Early development
Babbling
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Endlessly repeating sounds and syllables
such as bababa or dadada
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How Language Develops
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Telegraphic speech
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The use of short and precise words to
communicate
Characteristic of young children’s two- and
three-word combinations
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
How Language Develops
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Critical period
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A period when there is learning readiness
Beyond this period, learning is difficult or
impossible
Bilingualism
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Bilingualism and intelligence (Lambert)
Bilingualism and metalinguistic awareness
(Bialystok)
Critical period for learning a second
language?
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Reading
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Whole language approach
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Reading instruction should be parallel to
children’s natural language learning
Reading material should be whole and
meaningful
Basic-skills-and-phonetics approach
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Reading instruction should stress
phonetics and its basic rules for translating
written symbols into sounds
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Animals and Language
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Can animals use language to express
thought?
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Language and Culture
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Linguistic relativity hypothesis
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The hypothesis that language determines
the structure of thinking and shapes our
basic ideas
Name the following object:
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
Language and Culture
Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
End of Chapter 8
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