HONORS WORLD HISTORY PREPARATORY ASSIGNMENTS
Sources of Our Democratic Tradition
Grade Ten California History-Social Science Content Standards
World History, Culture, and Geography: The Modern World
Students in grade ten study major turning points that shaped the modern world, from the late eighteenth
century through the present, including the cause and course of the two world wars. They trace the rise of
democratic ideas and develop an understanding of the historical roots of current world issues, especially as
they pertain to international relations. They extrapolate from the American experience that democratic ideals
are often achieved at a high price, remain vulnerable, and are not practiced everywhere in the world. Students
develop an understanding of current world issues and relate them to their historical, geographic, political,
economic, and cultural contexts. Students consider multiple accounts of events in order to understand
international relations from a variety of perspectives.
California State Content Standard:
10.1
Students relate the moral and ethical principles in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, in Judaism, and in Christianity to
the development of Western political thought.
10.1.1 Analyze the similarities and differences in Judeo-Christian and Greco-Roman views of law, reason and faith, and duties of
the individual.
ASSIGNMENTS:
Complete the following:
1. Research the list of vocabulary terms below before the end of your first week of school. You should have a good working
knowledge of each term and be prepared for a quiz on them. We’ll begin the year by examining the four foundations of Western
Political Thought (Greek-Jew-Roman-Christian), and the development of our democracy, thus your research should focus on how
the terms below relate to these areas.
2. Read through The Rise Of Democratic Ideals to give you some background on California Social Science Content Standard 10.1.
3. Read through the Declaration of Independence several times to gain a good working knowledge of the document, as it will serve
as the basis for our units covering California Social Science Content Standard 10.1 & 10.2.
4. Read the paper entitled The Development of Western Political Thought-Honors, and then answer the close reading questions
below.
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The Greek Roots of Democracy
Aristotle
Aristotle’s Politics
Athens
City-state
Democracy
Drachma
Jury
Legislature
Monarchy
Pericles (w/Funeral Oration)
Plato
Plato’s Republic
Socrates
Sparta
Tyrant
The Roman Republic and Empire
• Augustus Caesar
• Carthage
• Consul
• Dictator
• Julius Caesar
• Patricians
• Pax Romana
• Plebeians
• Republic
• Senate
• Tribune
• Veto
• Denarius
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Principles of Judaism
Abraham
Covenant
Diaspora
Ethics
Jerusalem
Monotheism
Moses
Polytheism
Prophet
Sabbath
The Ten Commandments
Genesis 1:27
Genesis 9:6
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Rise of Christianity
Apostle
Clergy
Constantine
Jesus
Messiah
Paul
Luke 20:22-25
Romans 13:1-2
James 3:9
“I won’t lie to you; this class will be challenging, but I promise that it will be unlike ANY History class you’ve EVER taken.”
Mr. Thompson
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THE RISE OF DEMOCRATIC IDEALS
Throughout history, people have recognized the need for a system for exercising authority, specifically for the purpose of governing.
Historically, the primary form of governance has been totalitarian in nature. Self-Determination, what we would call self-rule or
Democracy, did not suddenly burst onto the scene of History, but rather evolved slowly through various contributions from both
individuals and groups. The development of Western political thought borrowed from four pillars: From the Greeks we advanced a
codified written system of laws. From the Romans we employed their Rule of Law. From the Jews and Christians we derived our
belief in man’s worth and dignity extending the Greek view of Natural Rights. Read over the following and try to wrap your head
around the notion that Democracy (Western Political Thought) is an historical process that took thousands of years to develop, and is
still developing.
Draco: Code of Laws
Beginning with the Greeks circa 620 BC: An Athenian ruler named Draco (the Lawgiver) wrote the first known written law of
Ancient Greece. His harsh legal code punished both trivial and serious crimes in Athens with death--hence the continued use of the
word DRACONIAN to describe repressive legal measures. Today the word draconian can be used to mean harsh or severe in many
contexts. Draco's laws were so shockingly severe that they were said to have been written not in ink but in blood.
Solon: Revised Code of Laws
Solon succeeded Draco circa 594 BC. Solon revised each of Draco’s statutes (except that of homicide) and made Athenian law
altogether more humane. His code, though supplemented and modified, remained the foundation of Athenian statute law until the end
of the 5th century, and parts of it were embodied in the new codification made at that time. Today, our idea of cruel and unusual
punishment stems from Solon’s reforms of Draco’s Laws.
Legacy of Greece
Greece set lasting standards in politics and philosophy. The Greeks did not rely on superstition or traditional explanations of the
world. Instead they used reason and intelligence to discover predictable patterns that they called Natural Laws. Because the Greeks
did not wish to be subject to authoritarian rulers, they developed a system of direct democracy so citizens could actively participate in
political decisions. Other contributions of the Greeks were in mathematics, literature, theatre, astronomy, science, medicine,
architecture and the Olympic Games. Famous people included Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, Hippocrates, Pythagoras, Pericles,
Archimedes, and Eratosthenes.
Legacies of Rome
The Romans established Rule of Law and Equal Justice. They accomplished this by creating a system of written laws that were
applied to all people under Roman rule. This created stability and unity in the Roman Empire. We can see the influence of Rome's
laws on our system of democracy from the following borrowed principles:
• Equal treatment under the law
• The burden of proof rests with the accuser
• Innocent until proven guilty
• Unreasonable or unfair laws could be set aside
Circa 451 B.C. the Romans created the Twelve Tables, the first publically accessible collection of Roman laws. Because citizens had
access to the laws, they were protected from corrupt and abusive officials. About 1,000 years later, all Roman laws were codified into
the Code of Justinian that later became a guide for legal matters throughout Western Europe. The Code established the idea of “a
government of laws, not of men.” No one was above the Law, as exemplified by the fact that even powerful Roman Senators could be
held accountable for their actions. Rome also gave the world the idea of a Republic. Legal and political terms that are common today,
such as Senate and Dictator, originated in Rome. One of the most important ideas Rome adopted from the Greeks was the notion that
an individual is a citizen of the state rather than the subject of a ruler.
Justinian Code
Circa A.D. 528, the Emperor Justinian began a review of the old Roman laws. There were thousands of Roman laws that ordered life
in the empire, and Justinian chose ten men to review 1,600 books full of these Laws in an attempt to create a simpler legal code. These
men were able to create the Justinian Code with just over 4,000 laws. Today, in the United States, there are hundreds of thousands (if
not millions) of laws on the books.
“Portions of this text were borrowed or adapted from Mrs. Urtnowski”
Contributions of Judaism and Christianity:
Several ideals crucial to the shaping of our democratic outlook emerged from the Jews and Christians. They included the following:
Genesis 1:27
Genesis 9:6
James 3:9
Romans 13:1-2
Luke 20:22-25
Man had dignity because he is a child of God
Man is Created in His (God’s) image
Equality of people before God
Sacred worth of the individual
God gives you the moral freedom to choose, but YOU are responsible for your choices.
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The Declaration of Independence
IN CONGRESS, July 4, 1776.
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,
1. When in the Course of human events, it
14. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid
becomes necessary for one people to dissolve
world.
the political bands which have connected them
15. He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most
with another,
wholesome and necessary for the public good.
2. and to assume among the powers of the earth,
16. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of
the separate and equal station to which the Laws
immediate and pressing importance, unless
of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them,
suspended in their operation till his Assent should
3. a decent respect to the opinions of mankind
be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly
requires that they should declare the causes
neglected to attend to them.
which impel them to the separation.
17. He has refused to pass other Laws for the
4. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all
accommodation of large districts of people, unless
men are created equal, that they are endowed by
those people would relinquish the right of
their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,
Representation in the Legislature, a right
that among these are Life, Liberty and the
inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
pursuit of Happiness.
18. He has called together legislative bodies at places
5. --That to secure these rights, Governments are
unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the
instituted among Men, deriving their just
depository of their public Records, for the sole
powers from the consent of the governed,
purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his
6. --That whenever any Form of Government
measures.
becomes destructive of these ends, it is the
19. He has dissolved Representative Houses
Right of the People to alter or to abolish it,
repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his
7. and to institute new Government, laying its
invasions on the rights of the people.
foundation on such principles and organizing its
20. He has refused for a long time, after such
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most
dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby
likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.
the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation,
8. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments
have returned to the People at large for their
long established should not be changed for light
exercise; the State remaining in the mean time
and transient causes;
exposed to all the dangers of invasion from
9. and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that
without, and convulsions within.
mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils
21. He has endeavored to prevent the population of
are sufferable, than to right themselves by
these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws
abolishing the forms to which they are
for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass
accustomed.
others to encourage their migrations hither, and
10. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations,
raising the conditions of new Appropriations of
pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a
Lands.
design to reduce them under absolute
22. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by
Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to
refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing
throw off such Government, and to provide new
Judiciary powers.
Guards for their future security.
23. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone,
11. --Such has been the patient sufferance of these
for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and
Colonies;
payment of their salaries.
12. and such is now the necessity which constrains
24. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and
them to alter their former Systems of
sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our
Government.
people, and eat out their substance.
13. The history of the present King of Great Britain
25. He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing
is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations,
Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
all having in direct object the establishment of
26. He has affected to render the Military independent
an absolute Tyranny over these States.
of and superior to the Civil power.
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27. He has combined with others to subject us to a
jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and
unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent
to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
28. For Quartering large bodies of armed troops
among us:
29. For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from
punishment for any Murders which they should
commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
30. For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the
world:
31. For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
32. For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits
of Trial by Jury:
33. For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for
pretended offences
34. For abolishing the free System of English Laws
in a neighboring Province, establishing therein
an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its
Boundaries so as to render it at once an example
and fit instrument for introducing the same
absolute rule into these Colonies:
35. For taking away our Charters, abolishing our
most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally
the Forms of our Governments:
36. For suspending our own Legislatures, and
declaring themselves invested with power to
legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
37. He has abdicated Government here, by
declaring us out of his Protection and waging
War against us.
38. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts,
burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our
people.
39. He is at this time transporting large Armies of
foreign Mercenaries to complete the works of
death, desolation and tyranny, already begun
with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy
scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages,
and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized
nation.
40. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken
Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against
their Country, to become the executioners of
their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves
by their Hands.
41. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst
us, and has endeavored to bring on the
inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian
Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an
undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and
conditions.
42. In every stage of these Oppressions We have
Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms:
43. Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by
repeated injury.
44. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every
act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the
ruler of a free people.
45. Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our
British brethren.
46. We have warned them from time to time of
attempts by their legislature to extend an
unwarrantable jurisdiction over us.
47. We have reminded them of the circumstances of
our emigration and settlement here.
48. We have appealed to their native justice and
magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the
ties of our common kindred to disavow these
usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our
connections and correspondence.
49. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and
of consanguinity.
50. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity,
which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as
we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in
Peace Friends.
51. We, therefore, the Representatives of the united
States of America, in General Congress,
Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the
Name, and by Authority of the good People of
these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That
these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be
Free and Independent States;
52. that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the
British Crown,
53. and that all political connection between them and
the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally
dissolved;
54. and that as Free and Independent States, they have
full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract
Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other
Acts and Things which Independent States may of
right do.
55. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm
reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we
mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our
Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
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The Development of Western Political Thought-Honors
Adapted from A synopsis of the development of political philosophies that form what is often referred to as “Democratic Liberalism.”
by Professor John A. Sterling, MA, JD
Overview- Politics has been defined as the process whereby
power is distributed or denied. As applied to government, it is
about who gets what, when, and how. Politics is both a science
and an art form. It is science in that it lends itself to methodical
study, analysis of empirical evidence, and predictions of future
behavior. It is art in that it evokes emotion, and possesses an
intangible element of personal flair and charisma. The study of
politics is interesting but made more difficult by the intensity of
emotions that can de-rail rational thought. It is often said that
politics, like religion, is a subject that should be avoided at family
reunions and other social gatherings because the discussion
evokes such intense (and varied) emotions. This is not a book. It
is a highly-condensed presentation of ideas that represent the
development of Western political thought for the last 2,500 years.
Eastern Political thought and expression is even older and is a
study of its own. It is Western political philosophy that is the
basis for the American system of government and, therefore, of
more relevance to students doing course-work in Political Science
or American Government. [or Honors World History]
Definitions
Epistemology- epistēmē, meaning "knowledge, understanding",
and λόγος - logos, meaning "study of"). The branch of philosophy
concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. It questions
what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to
which any given subject or entity can be known.
Dialectic- The process of learning through questioning. It begins
with conjecture (opinion) of the student which is challenged by a
series of questions from the teacher until, seeing the inadequacy
of his first opinion; the student is forced to learn the truth. The
method (also called the Socratic Method) is designed to build
upon a structure of logic and reason until all exigencies are
explored and countered.
Hermeneutics- The attempt to understand the relationship
between idea systems and political reality by focusing on the
purposes, or reasons, behind the ideas expressed.
Rhetoric- Public speaking in a way that influences people’s
opinions.
Classical and Medieval Political Theory
Socrates (c. 469 BC–399 BC)
Approximately five hundred years before Christ, Greek
philosophy dominated political thought. Itinerant professors of
political theory traveled from city to city and publicly argued
various political ideas, for a fee, to an audience of wealthy young
men interested in becoming successful in life. (Rather like a
modern political figure, holding rallies and town hall meetings
around the country, only for weeks or months at a time.) Socrates,
for example, in his public events opposed the Sophists (teachers)
on many fine points, but they all were concerned about the quality
of life and in living ethically. Although they did not agree on how
to measure it, the political teachers of the day believed that
happiness was the ultimate purpose of life. The Sophists argued
that happiness was best achieved by the acquisition of material
possessions and wealth but Socrates argued that happiness was
the ethical knowledge of how people are supposed to live.
Moreover, governments, rather than being merely powerful
organizational entities, should embody the ethical principles that
will promote moral well-being. The political expression of
government, according to Socrates, was the COMMON GOOD of
all citizens rather than the triumph of the individual over society’s
rules.
Plato (428/427 BC– 348/347 BC)
Plato was a contemporary and a student of Socrates and is
considered to be the first real political philosopher of the Western
world. He developed the Academy, a university of political
science. Plato endeavored to teach political principles to rulers but
was confronted continually with the failures of the human spirit
brought about by the human condition. In his famous book, The
Republic, Plato argues that society requires a successful division
of labor: differently skilled people (artisans, craftsmen, statesmen,
etc.) performing their skilled labor to the best of their ability,
under the leadership of philosopher-kings. Plato believed, as did
Socrates that justice was the primary virtue and that justice is
achieved by properly balancing wisdom, courage, and
temperance. It is important to note that these attributes were only
possessed in sufficient quantity and balance by philosophers. That
is why only philosophers were competent to be kings. Yet, the
great paradox of The Republic, is that philosophers are not
interested in ruling- they are interested only the acquisition of
more knowledge. Plato believed that only through proper
education would philosophers gain a desire to rule without
desiring the material gain that comes with ruling (axiom: power
corrupts). It is significant that Plato attempted to implement his
ideas throughout his life yet he nearly suffered the same fate as
Socrates. He was arrested and imprisoned, almost lost his life for
his beliefs, and was frustrated in his attempts to influence leaders
of his day. Even some of his former students overthrew the
tyrannical king and then became tyrants themselves. Perhaps his
most famous presentation of his theories of the reality of belief
and knowledge is the allegory of the cave dwellers. Plato was
never able to make the “ideal” conform to the “real” events of
life. He would insist the “real” world is illusory, like the world in
his allegorical cave. Only philosophers, after years of training, are
able to see and understand the truth. Plato argued that even if an
ideal society could be developed, it would certainly self-destruct
because of the inevitable human condition. Symptomatic of the
decline will be people in pursuit of their passions and the
emphasis on equality rather than the necessary hierarchy of
classes and virtues. He calls this degraded class of people
democratic, and the government they create a democracy.
Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC)
Aristotle was Plato’s most brilliant student at the Academy.
Unlike his teacher, who believed that pure happiness was linked
to pure logic, Aristotle believed that political science was an
imperfect expression of imperfect beings and he was always
looking for ways to improve politics without demanding
perfection. Likewise, government’s primary purpose is to
promote virtue in its citizens through that form that will require
practice and habit. Aristotle wrote, “A State exists for the sake of
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a good life, and not for the sake of life only: if only life were the
object, slaves and brute animals might form a state, but they
cannot, for they have no share in happiness or in a life of free
choice.” (Benjamin Jowett, trans., Aristotle’s Politics New York: Random
House, 1953). Politics is the highest form of human expression,
according to Aristotle, and the state is the highest form of politics.
Because the state is the culmination of debate and speech, and it
is the end result of man’s highest expression of sociability, it is
that which distinguishes man from the animals. (In this thought
Thomas Jefferson agreed.) Aristotle proposed that there are six
types, or forms of government that accomplish the distribution of
political power. Three are good forms and three are considered
“bad” forms, although in varying degrees. The most desirable
form is the monarchy (rule by one), followed by aristocracy (rule
by a few), followed by polity (rule by many). The least desirable
forms of government are tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy;
these represent the “arch-types” or the perverted manifestations of
the desirable forms. The distinctions between “good” and “bad”
forms have largely to do with economics and class-struggle (a
theme echoed by Karl Marx fifteen centuries later) and the notion
that tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy will always act in their
own class interest rather than in the best interest of the whole
society. Aristotle’s is considered by many to mark the beginning
of Western Traditional Political Philosophy partly because it is
the first to include the notion of plurality in politics. He also did
not ignore the realities of life and of the human condition by
insisting, as did Plato, that the “ideal” was the only reality.
predisposes him to do evil and that only through devotion to God
can man hope to have victory over his base nature. Moreover,
since only some people are called to a life of repentance and
salvation, the political process must find common ground upon
which the saved and unsaved may mutually coexist. Augustine
found this common ground in the context of civil peace. He
reasoned that both Christians and non-Christians desire peace
because, without it, neither could achieve their desired ends. In
other words, social order serves the self-interests of both groups
and thus is the aim of civil government. Government authority
comes directly from God and, in Augustine’s view, it matters not
whether that government is “good” or “bad” since obedience is
required of all. To be sure, his wish is that all government would
be in the hands of Christians, but he acknowledges that such is
not the case.
Thomas Aquinas (A. D. 1225-1274)
Thomas committed his life to God at an early age. In the eight
hundred years since Augustine, the political landscape had
changed and the works of Aristotle had been re-discovered. The
medieval church was slowly being replaced by the nation-state as
the cultural and social hub of the people. Like Aristotle, Thomas
believed that the state authority was rooted in natural law and that
the written law should be the embodiment of justice. The
happiness of the people could be achieved through the
actualization of their communal existence. Unlike Augustine,
however, Thomas believed that politics was not incompatible
with Christianity and that citizen’s political energies could be
consistent with their spiritual achievements. Thomas makes a
Cicero (106 BC –43 BC)
Cicero was born 100 years before Christ in Rome at the point in connection between Eternal Law, Natural Law, and Civil Law
history when the Roman Republic was being transformed into the which, he declares, are but levels of Divine Revelation.
Roman Empire. He was educated in Rome and Athens, where he
learned Greek Politics and Philosophy. Cicero’s writings greatly Modern Political Theory
influenced the American Founders who likewise believed in a Machiavelli (A.D. 1469 –1527)
ruling elite rather than a popular democracy. Cicero’s plan Author of “the Prince,” the quintessential book about power
includes the idea of a Senate composed of life-tenured ex- politics, Machiavelli advocates for a strong monarchy as that form
magistrates who ostensibly had the training and experience to of government most likely to achieve peace in society. He
govern. Although his work is very similar to Plato, Cicero’s cautioned against any monarch sharing his power since the extent
writings emphasize the written law. Where Plato’s ideal political to which that power is shared is the extent to which that
system was ruled by a philosopher-king, unconstrained by written monarch’s power will be weakened. Machiavelli warns against
law, Cicero could not envision a government run without laws. the use of excessive power, however, since that would cause
Further, Cicero understood the pursuit of justice to be based upon, hatred which, in turn, causes a lack of control. Monarchs must
or constrained by, the rule of law. It is obedience to the law that have control or society becomes unstable. Although not religious
prevents monarchs from becoming tyrants, aristocracies from himself, Machiavelli argues that religion is indispensable to good
becoming oligarchies, and polities from becoming democracies. social order because it lends credibility to the law and thus, serves
Civil law is the mechanism that guides the statesman in the to endear the common people to the monarch. He was definitely
pursuit of truth and justice. The law itself is seen as an expression not a Christian and believed that the best form of religion was one
of morality and natural justice flowing to all citizens. All that glorified men of valor or action - particularly military or
political leaders. In this sense, then, Machiavelli believed that the
governors are bound by the same laws they must administer.
church and the state should be one, at least to the degree that the
religious body encouraged civic virtue. People must be compelled
Augustine (A.D. 354 – 430)
to obedience because they perceive legitimacy of the monarch’s
Born in A.D. 354, Augustine’s mother was a Christian and his authority rather than the force of the monarch’s power.
father a pagan. Augustine was sent to school in Carthage and
then, later, in Rome where he was first introduced to Christianity.
At age 32, Augustine accepted Christ as savior but still believed
salvation could only come through the Roman Catholic Church.
He embarked on a life of Christian service, spending his last years
as the Bishop of Hippo, in Northern Africa. It was there, around
A. D. 410 that Augustine wrote The City of God. His great
contribution to political thought was that man’s sin nature
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Thomas Hobbes (A.D. 1588-1679)
Hobbes attempted to transform the logic of power into a
comprehensive science of power. He is noted most, not for
accumulating more evidence of political processes, but for his
ability to make deductions about human political behavior based
upon mathematical models and scientific principles. Because man
is a rational creature, he collectively assents to the creation of a
political machine for the accomplishment of his desires. This
assent is in the form of a legal contract that moves the parties
from a state of nature (conflict) to a state of relative social balance
(peace.)
encouraged to study further the conflicts and defenses that gave
rise to the development of these ideas before attempting to
conform too precisely these ideas to American political
phenomenon.
John Locke (A.D. 1632-1704)
John Locke, a contemporary of Thomas Hobbes, has been called
the “father of classic liberalism” in politics. (do not confuse the
political philosophy of “liberalism” with the term “liberal” as
used today to describe advocates of big government) As a
philosophy, Liberalism advocates a democratic system of
government where citizens have a more active and direct
involvement with the political process. Because the political
process involves a high order of reason, and expression of reason
requires freedom of speech, Locke was an early advocate of
tolerance for the beliefs of others. Locke is perhaps most famous
for his exposition of “natural rights” theory which flows out of a
“state of nature” that, unlike Hobbes, Locke perceives as being a
state of equilibrium. Locke maintains that the creation of a strong
government does not guarantee the absence of conflict and,
moreover, a strong state is perfectly capable of becoming
tyrannical. Any authority possessed by the state must be by and
with the fully informed consent of the people through both a
“social contract” and through a “political contract.” Locke
considers the latter contract to be less a contract than a “fiduciary
agreement” and thus, the government is but a trustee of the
people. It is Locke’s position that revolution against the social
order is an expression, not of the people’s warring tendencies, but
of the violence of the government in breach of the contract. (The
reader will be quick to note how this theme is repeated in the
Declaration of Independence.) Another significant contribution of
Locke is the notion that every man has a “near-absolute” right to
property. Property includes that which is necessary to sustain life
itself, as well as the product of one’s own labor in the
accumulation of other goods. Because the acquisition of property
is a “natural right,” it is the duty of government to protect that
right. If the government abdicates its legitimate duty and violates
the rights it was created to protect, whether by passing laws that
contradict these principles, or by other material breach, the right
remains in the people to disregard the law (civil disobedience) or
replace the government (rebellion). (Again, the reader will
recognize these ideas in the Declaration of Independence.)
IDEOLOGY: a belief system developed to encourage action. As
such, ideologies are less complex and unconcerned about
intellectual inconsistency or logical coherence. Ideologies tend
towards exclusivity-declaring themselves to be the only
“solution” in the pursuit of truth - the only viable vehicle for
social change. Ideologies tend to be more “black and white” with
little or no room for alternative solutions.
Contemporary Political Ideas
Do not be misled into thinking that these ideologies fit neatly into
any 21st century American Political situation of circumstance.
These doctrines are much more complex than can be presented in
this brief overview and further, must be studied in light of the
historical context in which they occurred. For example,
CONSERVATISM, as a political ideology, may have nothing
whatsoever to do with something the Republican Party might
want to accomplish in America. Likewise, LIBERALISM, as a
political ideology, may not be related at all to the Democratic
National Committee’s presidential platform. The reader is
PHILOSOPHY: A basic theory about, or an attempt to explain,
the fundamental beliefs of a person or group. Philosophies seek
empirically verifiable evidence to make reliable predictions of
human behavior based upon that evidence. Philosophies tend
towards complexity. Philosophies do not demand that their
explanations are the only possible answer.
Conservatism
Conservatism began as a philosophical rebuttal to a very bloody
and chaotic French Revolution. Edmund Burke, a British
Parliamentarian authored a book in 1790 entitled, Reflections on
the Revolution in France in which he totally rejected the political
objectives of the French reformers. This is particularly interesting
when one considers that the French patterned their revolution
after the same principles articulated in the American Declaration
of Independence and that Burke was a staunch defender of those
principles before Parliament. Where Burke’s Conservatism differs
from Locke’s Liberalism is known as pragmatism. Burke argues
that tradition creates a presumption (rational thought and reasoned
response) that, because it represents a social model that has
endured over time, has greater credibility than some new political
philosophy. When a form of government has worked over a long
period of time, and has been generally accepted by those
governed thereby, it is folly (Burke’s words) to attempt to change
it for some “purely theoretical” notion, no matter how
“reasonable” that notion might be. That the French system had
worked reasonably well for so long, even though it lacked many
of the ideals expressed in the Declaration of Independence, was
sufficient reason to move slowly towards any kind of social
reform. Burke argued that radical reform (sudden change) would
be so disruptive to the social fabric that it could collapse the entire
French social order into chaos. History proved Burke right.
Napoleon Bonaparte was believed initially to be the great warrior
who would lead France out of rebellion and back to political
stability but instead, he became an absolute dictator, ultimately
declaring himself to be emperor. Burke, as have Conservatives
after him, understood, that sometimes it is better to make changes
slowly and with the great weight of public opinion behind them,
than to move suddenly and radically. Tearing down an established
social institution and replacing it with another, even where the
other has worked elsewhere, is no guarantee of success. Violently
attacking deep-seated tradition may even produce such upheaval
as to ultimately destroy every good thing associated with the
former order.
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Classic Liberalism
Most characteristic of this philosophy is that it extends the right
of political participation to a broader segment of the citizens.
Classic Liberalism assumes that all people are (more or less)
equal politically and that the participation by the masses will
promote political stability. It supposes, further, that the rising
middle class, empowered by their newly acquired economic
standing, will reform and elevate society. Individual selfrealization could be achieved through one’s labor and the
acquisition of property. Government, according to this theory,
should be limited in scope so that individuals will enjoy the
maximum freedom to acquire more goods and promote economic
and social prosperity. Classic Liberalism advocates that the
breadth and scope of government should be very limited so that
each citizen retains the maximum ability to employ his labor and,
thus, to be all that he can be. Classic Liberalism is liberal relative
to the older philosophy of Feudalism that characterized Europe in
the Middle Ages wherein only the rich elite made up the ruling
class.
Modern Liberalism
[Modern liberalism tends to deviate from classic liberalism in that
it espouses the use of the power of government to achieve a
variety of desirable goals, ranging from social justice to economic
equality.] (The Crisis Of Academic Liberalism. Mark Malaszczyk) It soon
became apparent that the economic principles articulated by
Lockean Liberalism did not achieve the “elevation” of society
that its proponents hoped for. The emerging middle class, rather
than seeking to improve the condition of all members of society,
was intent only on furthering its own economic security.
(Remember this when you read later about Karl Marx.)
[Consequently, many liberals advocate a greater degree of
government interference in the free market, often in the form of
anti-discrimination laws, civil service examinations, universal
education, and progressive taxation. This philosophy frequently
extends to a belief that the government should provide for a
degree of general welfare, including money for the poor, housing
for the homeless, and medical care for the sick. Such publiclyfunded initiatives and interferences in the market are rejected by
modern advocates of classical liberalism, which emphasizes free
private enterprise, individual property rights, and freedom of
contract; classical liberals hold that economic inequality, as
arising naturally from competition in the free market, does not
justify the violation of private property rights. However, modern
advocates of classical liberalism do advocate a heavier taxation
on the corporation, as opposed to the current trend of the burden
of income tax resting on the shoulders of the individual worker, as
did the early classical liberals. Law and Liberty Foundation]
Socialism
Generally speaking, Socialism grew in response to the obvious
failures of Modern Liberalism to achieve the kind of moral and
economic standards envisioned. The rapid development of
industry resulted in the subsequent failure of the working class to
accomplish anything more than to sell their labor to the
capitalists. Liberalism assumes that acquisition of property was a
natural right and that the chief end of government was to protect
that right. Implicit was the assumption that the masses were, if not
approximately equal in their abilities, at least approximately equal
in their opportunity to acquire property and, thereby, to control
their political and social destinies. In the harsh light of reality, it
became apparent that Modern Liberalism and its adoption of freemarket capitalism did not free (most) men to achieve their full
potential. Rather than becoming “self-actualized” through their
labor, (most) men were becoming virtual slaves to the
“capitalists.” Socialism is the Philosophy that advocates for state
ownership and control of the means of economic production. By
controlling production and distribution of resources, the state may
obtain the best prices and the worker’s labor is maximized. Since
the national economy is thereby strengthened, every worker (and
his family) achieves the maximum “self-realization.” In practice,
Socialism has been a dismal failure. Private matters become state
matters and the state control of every major service is necessary
so that all citizens become dependents of the state. Private gain is
seen as being in direct conflict with the interests of the state.
Marxism
Karl Marx was a complex and radical thinker. His political and
economic views cannot be explained in a few short sentences.
Marx started with basic Socialism and added some important
elements. Everything that happens, or does not happen, in the
development of social order, according to Marx, is because of
class conflict. Anytime a division of labor arises, were different
abilities are rewarded at different rates (i.e. lawyers get paid more
than plumbers, etc.) then a basic inequality is set in place that will
result in inevitable class conflict. At least it should be inevitable
unless artificial forces are put into place to keep that conflict from
ultimately resolving itself. Religion is one of those artificial
constructs that fools people into believing that everything is
alright (they will receive an eternal reward if they silently endure
their earthly “lot” in life). Marxism is an ideology that advocates
action- militant, violent action if necessary- to force social
change. Communism is the ultimate social nirvana- the end-all
be-all of a perfect society. Marxism is the ideological vehicle by
which the philosophy of Socialism would be “forced” to
accomplish ultimate Communism, the perfect social condition.
Conclusion
It is impossible to do justice to any of these philosophers or their
works in a few paragraphs. There are complex, dynamic
arguments made by each that, to be fully appreciated, must be
read in the context of history. Additionally, there are many more
philosophers than those referenced above, each of whom brings a
different twist or angle to the fascinating study of political
philosophy. The student is encouraged to explore more fully each
of the ideas expressed above.
http://www.lawandliberty.org/history.htm
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Close Reading Questions for The Development of Western Political Thought-Honors
Read the selection carefully before you answer the questions. On a separate sheet of paper, answer each question with as much detail as necessary for
a complete answer. Do not simply work for the easiest answer. Your responsibility is to write COMPLETE answers. Incomplete answers will receive
no credit. Complete sentences are NOT required. For example, if the answer is only one word, just write that one word. Further, incorrect answers
mixed with or added to correct answers will receive zero points. That means that if your response is missing part of the answer, you will receive no
credit. Each question is worth 5 points for a total of 200. Keep in mind that academic expectations are very high at El Camino. Remember, why is
always implied in the question. Answer the why if there is one.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Politics has been defined as the process whereby what is
distributed or denied?
Politics is both science and art. What human characteristic is
drawn out from the art side of politics? (this can derail
rational thought)
Define Epistemology:
Define Hermeneutics:
Define Dialectic:
Define Rhetoric:
Socrates, as well as the Sophists, was concerned with what
two things regarding life and how we should live?
According to Socrates, governments, rather than being
merely powerful organizational entities, should embody the
ethical principles that will promote what?
Who is considered to be the first real political philosopher of
the Western world?
Who developed the Academy?
Plato wrote what famous book?
According to Plato, who was to rule over the people?
The three necessary attributes for leadership, wisdom,
courage, and temperance, existed only in whom? Therefore,
______________ only were competent to be kings.
What was the great paradox of Plato’s idea for a ruler? (this
could only be achieved through proper education)
Plato argues that, even if an ideal society could be developed,
it would certainly self-destruct because of the inevitable
human condition. Symptomatic of the decline will be people
in pursuit of their passions and the emphasis on equality
rather than the necessary hierarchy of classes and virtues. He
calls this degraded class of people ______________, and the
government they create a______________ (Think of the
U.S.) (of a sort).
Who was Plato’s most brilliant student at the Academy?
What did Aristotle believe was an imperfect expression of
imperfect beings? (two words)
Aristotle
was
always
looking
for
ways
to
improve______________ without demanding perfection.
What, according to Aristotle, distinguishes man from the
animals?
Although his work is very similar to Plato, Cicero’s writings
emphasized what? (think Constitution)
According to Cicero, what behavior or action prevents
monarchs from becoming tyrants, aristocracies from
becoming oligarchies, and polities from becoming
democracies? (be specific)
Cicero believed that all governors are bound by the same
______________ they must administer.
What was Augustine’s great contribution to political thought?
Why did Augustine believe that governments could be made
up of both Christians and Non-Christians?
Like Aristotle, Thomas believed that the state authority was
rooted in ______________ law and that the written law
should be the embodiment of justice.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
Machiavelli wrote what famous book, the quintessential book
about power politics?
Machiavelli
advocates
for
a
______________
______________ as that is the form of government most
likely to achieve peace in society. Remember, Machiavelli is
all about power.
According to Machiavelli, what happens to society if the
monarch loses control?
As a philosophy, Liberalism advocates a democratic system
of government where citizens have a more active and direct
involvement with the political process. Because the political
process involves a high order of reason, and expression of
reason requires ______________ of ______________, Locke
was an early advocate of tolerance for the beliefs of others.
What are the two points Locke is making with the following
statements:
[Any authority possessed by the state must be by and with the
fully informed consent of the people through both a “social
contract” and through a “political contract.” It is Locke’s
position that revolution against the social order is an
expression, not of the people’s warring tendencies, but of the
violence of the government in breach of the contract.]?
______________ is defined as, “A basic theory about, or an
attempt to explain, the fundamental beliefs of a person or
group.”
What tends to be more “black and white” with little or no
room for alternative solutions, and is a belief system
developed to encourage action?
What is Burke defining (politically speaking) when he says,
“… that sometimes it is better to make changes slowly and
with the great weight of public opinion behind them, than to
move suddenly and radically. Tearing down an established
social institution and replacing it with another, even where
the other has worked elsewhere, is no guarantee of success.
Violently attacking deep-seated tradition may even produce
such upheaval as to ultimately destroy every good thing
associated with the former order”?
Most characteristic of this philosophy is that it extends the
right of political participation to a broader segment of the
citizens. It assumes that all people are (more or less) equal
politically and that the participation by the masses will
promote political stability. What is this philosophy?
Socialism grew because the rapid development of industry
resulted in the subsequent failure of the working class to
accomplish anything more than to do what to whom?
Liberalism didn’t allow all men to own property, but made
them slaves to whom?
Socialism is the Philosophy that advocates for what?
According to Marx, everything that happens, or does not
happen, in the development of social order is because of
what?
Marxism is an ideology that advocates action- militant,
violent action if necessary- to force what?
What is your middle name?
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