C O G N IT IO N A ND E M OT IO N , 1 9 9 7 , 1 1 (4 ), 3 3 7 ± 3 4 9
E m o tio n a l C o n n o ta tio n in S p e ec h P erc ep tio n :
S em a n tic A ss o cia tio n s in th e G en era l L ex ico n
D o u g la s A . V a k oc h
V a n d e r b ilt U n ive rs ity , N a s h v ille , U S A
L e e H . W u rm
S ta te U n iv e r s ity o f N e w Y o r k a t B in g h a m ton , U S A
Le x ic al ac c e ss of e m oti on w ords has be e n sho w n to d ep e nd on thre e unde rly i ng di m e ns ions ( Ev al uati on, A c tiv ity , and P ote nc y ) . T he i m portanc e of
the s e dim e ns io ns of e m otio nal c onnota ti on w as as se ss e d du ring o n-l ine
spe e c h pe rc e pti on of w ord s draw n f rom the g e ne ral l e x ic on. L e x ic al de c i si on tim e s w e re s ig n i® c an tly pre dic te d by m ai n e f fe c ts of E v alua tio n and
Pote n c y , as w e ll as by an E v al uation 3 A c tiv i ty in te rac ti on and an E v al uati on 3 P ote nc y inte rac tio n. A n e v ol uti onary ac c ount is propo se d to e x pl ain
the dif fe re nti al proc e s s ing o f w ords in the g e ne ral and af fe c tiv e le x ic a.
W h e re as the af fe c tiv e le x i c on se e m s to be struc ture d to av oi d thre ats to
the in div i dual, the g e ne ral l e x i c on appe ars to be de si g ne d for o btain ing
sc arc e but v al uable re s ourc es .
IN T R O DU C T IO N
From an e v ol utio nary pe rspe c ti v e , org ani s m s g ath e r i nform ati on for one
purpo s e : T o h e l p th e m s u rv iv e . T he re are tw o bas i c w ay s that i nform ati on
c an s e rv e th is func tio n. Firs t, i nform ati on c an he lp the org ani s m g ai n
de s i rabl e re s ou rc e s . C e ntral to Darw i n’ s (1 8 5 9 /1 9 6 8 ) the ory of e v ol uti on
i s the M al th us i an princ i pl e th at o rg ani sm s are in c om pe ti tio n for s c arc e
re s ourc e s . T his c om pe titi on c an e i the r be be tw e e n c on s pe c i ® c s or be tw e e n
Re que s ts for re prin ts s houl d be s e nt to D oug la s A . V a koc h, D e part m e nt of P sy c holo g y ,
V an derb ilt U niv ersity , N as hville , T N 3 7 2 4 0 , U SA ; e -m ail: V A K OC HD A@ c tr va x.va nd erbilt.e du .
A portio n of this w ork w as pre s e nted at the 1 2 8 th m e e tin g of the A c ous tic a l S oc ie ty of
A m e ric a, 2 D e c e m be r 1 9 9 4 , A us tin, T e x as . W e w ould li ke to thank A rt hur S am ue l for
allo w i ng this proj e c t to be c om ple te d i n hi s la borat ory . W e w oul d al s o l ik e to thank
A nnm a rie C ano, A rt hur A ron , and D av id C ros s for the ir he l p w ith s tatis tic al anal y s e s , and
M a rily n M cC abe for dis c us s io ns about e m otio n.
Ó
1 9 9 7 Ps y c h olo g y Pre ss , a n im prin t of E rlb a um (U K ) T ay lo r & Fran c is L td.
3 38
V A K O C H AN D W U R M
m e m be rs of d iffe re nt s pe c ie s . T h os e o rg anis m s that s urv i v e lo ng e no ug h to
re prod uc e Ð and th us pe rpe tuate the ir g e n e s Ð are the one s th at hav e foun d
w ay s to g ath e r the ne c e s s ary re s ourc e s , i n s pite of the pote nti al pauc i ty o f
the s e re so urc e s .
T he s e c o nd re qu is i te to s urv i v al is to av oi d pre dato rs and othe r dang e rs.
No m atte r h ow w e l l the org ani s m is ab le to g arne r re s ourc e s ne e de d fo r
day - to-d ay ac tiv i ti e s , u nle s s i t c an de fe nd i ts e l f from attac k , ac c e s s to
s c arc e re s o urc e s doe s no g o od. Pote ntia l thre ats to the org an is m c an b e
de al t w ith e i the r by c onfron ti ng the th re at ( a `` ® g ht’ ’ re s po ns e ) or e v adi ng i t
(a `` ¯ ig ht’ ’ re s pon s e ).
Pre v io us re s e a rc h has s h ow n that the e m oti onal c on notati on of w o rds c a n
be de s c ribe d i n te rm s o f a s m al l nu m be r of unde rly i ng d im e ns i ons . O n e
arg u m e nt for unde rs tan d ing e v ol uti on aril y re le v ant pe rc e p ti on i n di m e n s i on al te rm s is that i t i s c om putati onal l y l e s s e x pe ns iv e to s tore info rm atio n
di m e ns i onal ly than i f di s c re te c ate g orie s w e re us e d . In a dim e ns i onal m o de l,
e ac h ite m is arrang e d ac c ordi ng to i ts l oc ati on o n e ac h of a fe w di m e ns i ons .
T h e re i s no c om parab ly pars im oni ous m e ans of orde ring i te m s i nto c ate g o rie s . Ins te ad , addi tio nal i te m s y i e l d a rapid p rol ife rati on of c ate g orie s ,
e ac h of w hi c h ad ds c om putati on al c os t fo r th e org ani s m (A nd e rs on, 1 9 9 1 ).
S uc h c os ts are c ritic al w he n i nform ati on proc e s s i ng is v i e w e d i n e v o lu tio nary te rm s , b e c au s e e ac h s uc h c os t rep re s e nts a b urde n on the org ani s m
that m ake s it m ore dif ® c ul t to c om pe te w ith o the r o rg ani s m s.
T he di m e ns ion s m os t c ons i s te ntl y found by o the r re s e arc he rs hav e b e e n
E v aluati on, P ote nc y , an d A c ti v i ty (e .g . O s g ood & S uc i , 1 9 5 5 ; O s g oo d, S u c i,
& T an ne nbaum , 1 9 5 7 ). E v aluati on c arrie s e m oti onal c on notati ons rang ing
from `` pl e asa nt’ ’ to `` unpl e as ant’ ’ , w he re as A c ti v i ty c onnote s a di m ens ion
rang ing f rom `` li v e l y ’ ’ to `` s ti ll ’ ’ , and P ote nc y g oe s from `` s tro ng ’ ’ to
`` w e ak’ ’ . T he s e di m e ns i on s h av e b e e n p ropos e d as c ros s -c ul tural u niv e rsals
(O s g o od, M ay , & M iron, 1 9 7 5 ) that are app are n t i n m any c o nte x ts (e .g .
A ppl e & He c h t, 1 9 8 2 ; Dal y , L anc e e , & P ol iv y , 1 9 8 3 ; Gre e n & C li ff, 1 9 7 5 ;
He is e , 1 9 6 5 ; M org an & He i s e , 1 9 8 8 ). A c c ordi ng to O s g ood (1 9 6 9 ), th e
abi l ity to orde r i te m s q ui c k ly al on g the s e th re e d im e ns i ons o f e m otio nal
c onn otati on g iv e s org ani s m s a s e l e c ti v e adv an tag e .
T he s e th re e di m e ns i on s of E v al uati on, Po te nc y , and A c ti v i ty are m os t
ofte n e x am i ne d us i ng j udg e m e nt tas ks i n w hi c h partic i pants rate th e
s i m ilarity of a rang e of e m oti on s tate s (B us h, 1 9 7 3 ; Dal y e t al . 1 9 8 3 ;
M org an & He i s e , 1 9 8 8 ). S uc h s tu die s are s ai d to in v ol v e p o s t-p e r c e p tu a l
j udg e m e nts , b e c aus e the s e j ud g e m e nts oc c ur onl y a fte r the bas i c pe rc e ptual
ac t has b e e n c om pl e te d. B u t the s e di m e ns i ons h av e al s o be e n us e d to s tudy
p e r c e p tu a l p roc e s s i ng (W urm & V ako c h, 1 9 9 6 ). P e r c e p ti o n oc c urs w he n
a p hy s i c al s ti m u lu s ® rs t m ake s c on tac t w ith a m e ntal re p re se ntati on.
P e rc e p ti on i s a l ow -l e v e l , i nv ol untary p roc e s s that oc c urs `` on-l in e ’ ’ .
A n e ff e c t c an be c ate g oris e d as on -li ne if the ac tu al pe rc e ption of a
E M O T IO N A L C O N N O T A T IO N IN S P E E C H P E R C E P T IO N
33 9
s tim ul us c an be i n¯ u e nc e d by th e e ff e c t. For e x am ple , w ord fre q ue nc y i s
c ons i de re d an o n-li ne e ffe c t be c au se it partial ly de te rm i ne s s pe e d of l e x i c al
ac c e s s : T he hi g he r the fre que nc y of a w ord, the m ore rapidl y i t c an be
ac c e s s e d (e .g . Fors te r & C ham be rs, 1 9 7 3 ; O l d® e l d, 1 9 6 6 ; S e g ui , M e hl e r,
Fraue n fe l de r, & M orton, 1 9 8 2 ). In c o ntras t, i f an e f fe c t d oe s no t in ¯ ue nc e
pe rc e ptio n of a s ti m ul us , b ut onl y late r j udg e m e nts or i nte rpre tati ons of the
s tim ul us , the n that e f fe c t is pos t- pe rc e ptual .
S e v e ral m ode l s o f pe rc e ptio n c o nte n d that app are n tl y c ate g o ric al pe rc e ptu al e ffe c ts c an al s o b e u nde rstood in d im e ns i onal te rm s (e .g . Gol ds tone , 1 9 9 4 ; M as arro, 1 9 8 7 ), b ut m os t s u c h m ode l s are v ag u e ab out w h i c h
di m e ns io ns are us e d an d w h y th e s e di m e ns ion s i n parti c u lar are u s e d. A n
e x c e pti on i s ou r approac h, w hi c h e x pl i c i tl y re l ie s on O s g o od’ s thre e
di m e ns io ns of e m otion al c o nnotati on , i nte rpre te d w i thin an e v o luti onary
fram e w ork ( W urm & V akoc h, 1 9 9 6 ). In ou r approac h, w e s p e c i fy w h i c h
di m e ns io ns (E v al uati on , Pote nc y , and A c tiv ity ) and w h y the s e di m e n s i ons
(th e y c on tribute to the s urv i v al of the org an is m ).
In ou r ® rs t s tudy , w e e x am i ne d the i m pac t o f E v al uatio n, P ote nc y , and
A c ti v i ty on s p e e d of ac c e s s of w ords from the af fe c ti v e le x i c on (W urm &
V akoc h, 1 9 9 6 ). B y the af fe c ti v e l e x i c on, w e m e an th e part o f s e m antic
m e m ory i n w h ic h e m oti on w ords are s tore d. W e s tudi e d the di m ens ion al
s truc ture of th e af fe c ti v e le x ic on throug h l e x i c al ac c e s s , w h ic h i s the
proc e s s by w h ic h w o rds i n the le x i c on are trig g e re d by an ac o us tic
s i g nal . O ur s tudy of the af fe c ti v e l e x ic o n de m on s trate d that th e e m otion al
c onno tati on of pure e m oti on w ords Ð e m oti on w o rds not ad m i x e d w ith
c og ni tiv e , bo di ly , or e x te rnal c o nditi ons Ð (C l ore , O rtony , & Fos s , 1 9 8 7 ;
O rton y , C lore , & Fos s , 1 9 8 7 ) i n¯ ue nc e d ho w thos e w ords w e re p roc e s s e d
(W urm & V akoc h, 1 9 9 6 ). B y e x am i ni ng the c on notati v e m e ani ng of the s e
w o rds , w e w e re ab le to p re di c t m ore ac c urate ly th e on-l i ne proc e s s i ng of
e m oti on w o rds .
A s note d e arli e r, org ani s m s hav e tw o e v ol utio nary g oal s i n g ath e ring
i nform ati on: (1 ) obtai ning de s i rabl e re s o urc e s ; and (2 ) av o idi ng d ang e r.
Gi v e n that org ani s m s are ty pi c al ly i n c om p e ti tion w ith othe rs for s c arc e
re s ourc e s , the ® rst g o al is ofte n a priority . How e v e r, i n c irc u m s tan c e s
w h e re the o rg anis m i s i n dang e r, the s e c ond g o al of de fe n c e be c o m e s
m o re i m portant. Unl e s s the org ani s m s urv iv e s an i m m e diate thre at, i t
w i l l not s urv i v e for the m o re protrac te d g oal o f g ath e ring n e c e s s ary
re s ourc e s .
L ooki ng at the proc e s s i ng o f e m o ti on w ords from an e v o luti onary
pe rspe c ti v e , w e note d that fo r w ords hi g h on both E v al uatio n and
Po te nc y , the ir de g re e of A c tiv i ty w as of li ttl e i m portan c e (W urm &
V akoc h, 1 9 9 6 ). In te rm s of the org ani s m ’ s s e l f-de fe nc e , thi s m ake s
s e ns e ; al tho ug h the w o rds he re are pow e rful (hi g h P ote nc y ), the y re pre s e n t
no dang e r b e c au s e the y are als o pl e as ant (h ig h E v al uati on). T hus , the
3 40
V A K O C H AN D W U R M
org anis m has no ne e d to atte nd qu ic kl y . If Po te nc y re m ains hig h but
E v aluati on is l ow , h ow e v e r, to av oid dang e r the de g re e of A c ti v ity is
i m p e rati v e . T h e org ani s m c a n af ford to tak e ti m e proc e s s i ng info rm ation
abou t e m oti ons th at re ¯ e c t th e c onj unc ti on of s tre ng th (hi g h Pote nc y ),
badn e s s (l ow E v alu ati on), an d s l ow ne s s (l ow A c tiv ity ), and thi s m atc he d
e x pe rim e ntal re s ul ts . How e v e r, w he n the w ords c on note s tre ng th , b ad ne s s ,
and qui c kne s s (hi g h A c ti v ity ), th e n the org an is m m ig ht be i n pe ril , and
m uc h fas te r proc e s s in g is c al l e d for. A g ai n, thi s w as c ons i s te nt w i th ou r
® ndi ng s .
In our ® rs t s tudy of pure e m otion w ords , one o f the c rite ria us e d in
s e l e c ting the s e w ords w as to c ov e r th e e nti re rang e of th e `` ® g ht’ ’ v e rsus
`` ¯ ig ht’ ’ di m e ns i on (W urm & V ak oc h, 1 9 9 6 ). Giv e n the ov e ral l i m p ortanc e
of e m o ti on for p rov i di ng info rm ation al low i ng s e l f-prote c ti on, w e m i g ht
w e ll e x pe c t the s e e m o ti on w o rds to be proc e s s e d for the i nform ati on the y
be ar about p ote nti al dang e rs to the o rg an is m .
B ut as w e hav e s e e n, the re i s ano th e r in fo rm atio n-proc e s s i ng s trate g y
foc u s e d o n g e tti ng be ne ® c i al re s o urc e s that w e m i g ht e x pe c t to be e v e n
m ore im portant i n no nthre ate ni ng c on te x ts . Gi v e n that the o rg anis m m ay
s p e nd m ore of i ts ti m e p ursui ng the al te rnati v e g oal of obtai ning v al uabl e
re s o urc e s , it i s pl aus i bl e that w ords from the g e ne ral le x i c on w oul d b e
proc e s s e d qu ite di ffe ren tl y . T o e x am ine h ow w o rds i n the g e ne ral le x i c o n
are p e rce iv e d , i n th e c urre nt s tud y w e us e d a m ethod olo g y that para ll e le d
that of our stu dy of e m otio n w ords (W urm & V ako c h , 1 9 9 6 ). In the pre se nt
s tud y , w e as s e s s w he the r the re s pon s e s are m ore c o ns i s te n t w i th th e g oal o f
ob tai ni ng s c arc e re s o urc e s or the g oal of av oi di ng d ang e r.
A ltho ug h pre v i ous s tudi e s hav e s how n that s e m antic c ate g o ry c an af fe c t
s p e e d of l e x i c al proc e ss i ng , s uc h s tud ie s hav e no t us e d a di m e ns io nal
approac h. For e x am pl e , both Fe rg u s on (1 9 8 9 ) and Ki tay a m a (1 9 9 1 ) e x am i ne d E v al uati on , bu t in te rm s o f di s c re te c ate g o rie s rath e r th an al ong a
c onti nuu m . T he g o al of the c urre n t s tu dy i s to as s e s s th e i m portanc e o f th e
thre e bas i c d im e ns i ons , s e parate l y and i n inte rac tion , in ac c e s s i ng w ords
from the g e ne ral l e x i c o n.
M E T HO D
S ub jects
Forty -s e v e n unde rg radu ate s from th e ps y c hol og y s ubj e c t poo l at the S tate
Uni v e rsi ty o f Ne w Y ork at S tony B roo k parti c i pate d i n the rati ng s tudy ,
and 9 3 unde rg radu ate s from the s am e p opul ati on p arti c ip ate d i n the l e x i c al
de c i s i on s tudy . A l l w e re nati v e s p e ake rs of E ng l i s h w ho re c e iv e d c ou rs e
c re di t for the ir partic i patio n.
E M O T IO N A L C O N N O T A T IO N IN S P E E C H P E R C E P T IO N
34 1
M aterials
A total of 1 3 0 no nhy ph e nate d w ords w e re ran dom ly s e l e c te d from We b s te r ’ s d ic ti o n a r y (1 9 9 3 ). O nl y w ords th at tw o ind e pe nde nt j udg e s ag re e d
w e re l ike ly to be fam i l iar to the su bj e c t popu lati on w e re in c lud e d.
For the l e x i c al de c i s i on s tudy , h al f of the w ords w e re c hang e d i nto
nonw ords . W e d id this by c hang i ng th e ph one m e at the poi nt i n the
ac ous ti c s i g nal w he re the w ord i n q ue s tio n di v e rg e s f rom al l othe r w ords
i n E ng l is h (the uni qu e n e s s poi nt; s e e M ars l e n-W il s o n, 1 9 8 4 ). T he phone m e at the uni qu e n e s s poi nt w as c hang e d to a diffe re nt phon e m e from
the s am e broad c l as s (i .e . s top s re pl ac e d sto ps , v ow e l s re pl ac e d v ow e l s ,
and s o on). For e x am p le , th e w ord `` m arti ni’ ’ w as c h ang e d to the nonw o rd `` m artoni ’ ’ . T he w ords an d non w ords us e d i n this s tudy are li s te d i n
the A ppe nd ix .
T he s e w ords and no nw ords w e re re ad by a m al e nativ e s pe ake r of
E ng l i s h un fam i li ar w i th the s tu dy . S tim ul i w e re di g i tis e d at a s am pl i ng
rate of 1 0 kHz (l ow -pas s ® l te re d at 4 .8 k Hz ) and s to red i n di s c ® le s .
Pro ce du re
Pac ke ts i n tw o di ffe re nt rand om orde rs w e re prin te d that c o ntai ne d the 6 5
w o rds to be rate d. Parti c i pants i n the ratin g s tudy j udg e d e ac h w ord
ag ain s t a pai r of adj e c ti v e s on a 7 -p oi nt s c al e rang ing from o ne to
s e v e n. For e ac h w o rd, s i x rati ng s w e re m ade , tw o of w hi c h w e re i nte nde d
to tap e ac h of the th re e di m e ns ion s. A n c h or po ints for E v alua ti on w e re
`` g ood v s . bad’ ’ an d `` p le as ant v s . u npl e as ant’ ’ ; for Pote nc y , `` s trong v s .
w e ak ’ ’ and `` toug h v s . te nde r’ ’ ; and for A c ti v ity , `` li v e l y v s . s ti ll ’ ’ and
`` ac ti v e v s . p as s i v e ’ ’ . O rde r of rati ng s and pos i tio nin g of e ac h adj e c ti v e
w i thi n a pai r w e re ran dom is e d .
A l l parti c i pants i n the s e c ond s tu dy m ad e a s pe e de d l e x ic al de c i s i on
about e ac h re c orde d s ti m ulu s . P arti c i pants us e d the i r dom i nant hands to
m ake re s p ons e s on a button boa rd, pus h in g o ne button for w o rds and
anothe r for no nw o rds . P rior to the s tudy prope r, parti c i pants m ad e w ord/
nonw ord j udg e m e nts f or a s e parate s e t of prac ti c e s ti m u li als o rand om l y
s am p le d from the g e ne ral le x i c o n. T h is prov i de d prac ti c e w ith th e tas k as
w e ll as a c o nte x t that w oul d prim e pa rtic i pants to re s pon d to w ords d raw n
from the g e n e ral le x i c on (as oppo s e d to the af fe c tiv e l e x ic o n).
Re ac ti on tim e s (RT s ) w e re m e as ure d from the ons e t of the p hone m e at
the u niq ue ne s s poi nt of e ac h w ord. P arti c ip ants w e re te s te d i n g roups of
one to fo ur i n a s o und-atte nuatin g c ham b e r. E ac h g roup of partic i pants
he ard a di ffe re nt ran dom orde r. Dig i tis e d s p e e c h ® l e s w e re p lay e d for the
partic i pants Ð al l of w h om had norm al h e a ring Ð ov e r h e adphon e s at a
c om fo rtabl e li s te ni ng le v e l , w ith a de l ay of 2 0 0 0 m se c be tw e e n i te m s .
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V A K O C H AN D W U R M
R ES U LT S
For our re g re s s i on anal y s e s re po rte d be lo w , the loc ati on of e ac h o f th e
w ord s tim ul i i n thre e -di m e ns io nal c onn otati v e l e x i c al s pac e w as s pe c i ® e d
by the m e an rati ng s for e ac h w o rd on E v al uati on, P ote n c y , and A c tiv ity .
M e an rati ng s for the 6 5 w ords w e re 3 .9 3 fo r E v al uatio n (S D = 1 .1 6 ), 4 .6 8
for Po te nc y (S D = 0 .7 5 ), and 4 .4 2 fo r A c tiv i ty (S D = 0 .8 9 ). C orre l ati ons
be tw e e n the i nde pe nd e n t v ariab le s are li s te d i n T ab le 1 . O nl y the c orre l atio n be tw e e n Pote nc y and A c ti v i ty w as s ig ni® c ant.
Parti c ip ants w ho had e rror rate s g re ate r th an .3 0 or m e an RT s g re ate r
than 9 0 0 m s e c w e re e x c l ude d from ou r an al y s e s . Ni ne partic i pants ’ data
w e re e x c l ude d by th e s e c rite ria. For the re m ai ni ng 8 4 parti c i pants , data
w e re di s c arde d for trial s on w hi c h the w ord/no nw o rd de c i s i on w as m ad e
i nc orre c tly (1 1 .1 % o f all trial s ).
T he RT data w e re n ot n orm al l y dis tribute d, s o w e pe rform e d a s qu are
roo t trans form ati on. T he de pe nde n t v ari abl e in al l rep orte d an aly s e s w as
the trans fo rm e d RT on c orre c t trial s (w o rd targ e ts o nly ).
W e c ond uc te d a h ie rarc hi c al re g re s s i on analy s i s , w i th S te p 1 in c l ud ing
tw o v ariab le s to addre s s tw o s e parate c o ns i de ration s . First, to c ontrol fo r
po s s i bl e e ffe c ts of w ord fre qu e n c y , w e e nte re d lo g w ord fre que n c y v alue s
(tak e n fro m Franc i s & KucË e ra, 1 9 8 2 ) i nto the e quati on. S e c ond , as th e
s tud y us e d a re pe ate d -m e as ure s de s i g n (i .e . e ac h p arti c ip an t prov i de d m ore
than o ne obs e rv ati on), the obs e rv ati on s i n the data s e t w e re not i nde pe nd e nt
of e ac h o the r. In re pe ate d -m e as ure s re g re s s i on anal y s e s , thi s i s c ontrol le d
by i nc l udi ng n 2 1 (8 3 , in thi s c as e ) dum m y v ari abl e s th at re pre s e nt th e
parti c ipants (s e e C ohe n & C ohe n , 1 9 8 3 , for a de tai l e d di s c us s i on o f
re pe ate d-m e as u re s re g re s s io n ana ly s is ).
In S te p 2 of the analy s i s , the m ain e ffe c ts of E v aluati on, Po te n c y , and
A c ti v i ty w e re adde d. S te p 3 c o ns i s te d of the tw o-w ay in te rac ti on s be tw e e n
the s e thre e v ari able s , and S te p 4 c ons i s te d o f the thre e -w ay i nte rac ti on . T h e
re s u lts of thi s analy s i s are s how n in T abl e 2 .
Rati ng s on E v al uatio n and P ote nc y w e re s ig ni ® c ant p red ic tors of l e x i c al
de c i s i on ti m e . A c ti v i ty w as n ot a s i g ni ® c ant p re di c tor. B e fore i nte rpre ting
the s e e ffe c ts , ho w e v e r, w e m us t c o ns i de r any po s s i bl e i nte rac ti ons .
TA B LE 1
C o rre la tio n s b e tw e en In d e p en d e n t V ariab le s
E v a l u a tio n
L og W ord Fre q ue nc y
E v alu a tion
P otenc y
* * * P < .0 0 1 .
P o te n c y
.0 2
2
.0 1
.1 8
Ac tiv ity
.0 1
.2 1
.6 4 * * *
E M O T IO N A L C O N N O T A T IO N IN S P E E C H P E R C E P T IO N
34 3
T A B LE 2
S u m m a ry o f H iera rc h ica l R e g re s sio n An a ly sis for V ariab le s P red ic tin g
R ea c tio n T im e
Va r i a b le
B
SE B
MSE
B e ta
F (d f)
Step 1
L og w ord
fre que nc y
2
0 .3 0
0 .0 2
1 4 .6 1
2
0 .1 6
1 6 2 .0 2
(1 ,4 6 9 4 )* * * *
Step 2
E v a lu atio n
2
0 .4 5
0 .0 5
1 4 .3 1
2
0 .1 2
7 2 .8 5
(1 ,4 6 9 1 )* * * *
2
0 .1 1
0 .0 9
1 4 .3 1
1 4 .3 1
2
2
0 .2 2
0 .1 0
0 .0 4
0 .0 2
4 .5 2
1 .1 6
2
0 .9 5
0 .0 9
1 3 .9 0
2
0 .2 1
0 .0 1
0 .0 7
0 .0 7
1 3 .9 0
1 3 .9 0
0 .1 3
0 .0 8
1 3 .9 0
P otenc y
A c tiv it y
Step 3
E v a lu atio n 3
P ote nc y
E v a lu atio n 3 A c tiv ity
A c tiv it y 3 P oten c y
2
( 1 ,4 6 9 1 )*
(1 ,4 6 9 1 )
1 .2 8
1 1 4 .6 8
0 .3 2
0 .0 1
9 .9 4
0 .0 1
(1 ,4 6 8 8 )* * * *
(1 ,4 6 8 8 )* *
(1 ,4 6 8 8 )
1 .0 7
2 .6 0
(1 ,4 6 8 7 )
Step 4
E v a lu atio n 3
3
A c tiv it y
P ote nc y
2
2
* P < .0 5 ; * * P < .0 1 ; * * * * P < .0 0 0 1 .
O f the tw o-w ay i nte rac ti ons , the E v al uatio n 3 Pote nc y i nte rac ti on and
the E v al uati on 3
A c tiv i ty i nte rac tio n w e re both s i g n i® c ant. Ne i th e r the
A c ti v i ty 3 P ote nc y inte rac tion nor the thre e -w ay in te rac tio n of th e di m e ns i ons w as s ig n i® c ant.
T he s i g ni ® c an t tw o-w a y i nte rac tio ns are s how n i n Fig s 1 and 2 . B oth
de pi c t the s am e g e n e ral patte rn. T he ® g u re s s ho w m e an RT s as a fun c ti on
of rati ng s on th e v ario us di m e ns io ns . Hi g h and l ow v alu e s on e ac h di m e ns i on s how n in the ® g u re s w e re d e te rm i ne d by m e d ian s p li ts . T he re s u lti ng
di c hotom ie s are in c l ud e d to ai d i nte rpre tati on of the i nte rac tio ns , an d the y
w e re n o t us e d in the ac tual re g re s s i on an al y s i s .
T o e x am i ne th e p os s i bi li ty th at E v a l u a ti o n e xtr e m i ty , an d not E v alu ati on
p e r s e , m i g ht ac c oun t fo r the s e re s ults , w e c ond uc te d a s uppl e m e ntary
re g re s s i on anal y s i s . T h is anal y s is w as ide ntic al to our m ain anal y s i s
e x c e pt that w e i nc l ude d E v al uati on e x tre m i ty as an add iti onal pred ic tor
(w ith lo g w o rd fre qu e n c y an d s ubj e c ts ) i n th e ® rst s te p. For our m eas ure of
E v al uatio n e x tre m i ty , w e trans f orm e d E v al uati on rating s i nto E v alu ati on
e x tre m i ty rati ng s by de te rm in in g how far e ac h E v al uati on rati ng w as from
the ne utral poi nt, w i thout re s pe c t to w he the r i t w as po s i ti v e or ne g ativ e . In
s hort, w e parti al e d out th e e ffe c ts o f E v alu ati on e x tre m ity b e fo r e te s ti ng
for m ai n e ffe c ts of E v al uation , A c ti v i ty , o r P ote nc y , or f or any o f the tw oor thre e -w ay i nte rac ti ons . W e fou nd e x ac tl y the s am e v ariabl e s w e re
s i g ni ® c ant p re d ic tors in thi s s e c ond an aly si s . T h us , w e f ound no e v i de nc e
that E v al uatio n e x tre m ity ac c o unts fo r ou r re s ul ts .
3 44
V A K O C H AN D W U R M
F IG . 1 .
M e an re ac ti o n tim e ( RT ) as a f u n c ti o n o f d im e n sio n w e i g h t o n E v alu ati o n a n d A cti v ity ,
i n m i ll is e c o n ds (m s e c ). E rro r b ars s h o w + /2
1 SE M.
DIS C U S S IO N
L e t us re turn to the que s ti on w e rai s e d e arl i e r: W hic h adapti v e c onc e rn o f
the org ani s m i s be s t re ¯ e c te d i n proc e s s i ng w ords from the g e ne ral l e x ic on:
(1 ) the re s ourc e d e s irabi l ity m otiv e ; or (2 ) the g oal of av oi di ng dang e r? T o
pre v ie w the fol l ow ing dis c us s i on, the re s ourc e de s i rabi l ity e x pl anation
s e e m s m os t c ons is te nt w i th e ac h of the m ai n e ffe c ts and inte rac tion s that
w e fo und.
E M O T IO N A L C O N N O T A T IO N IN S P E E C H P E R C E P T IO N
F IG . 2.
34 5
M e an re a c tio n tim e (R T ) as a f u n cti o n o f d im e n s io n w e ig h t o n E v al u atio n an d P o te n c y ,
i n m il l is e c o n ds ( m s e c ) . E rro r b ars s h o w + /2
1 SE M.
A s s ug g e s te d by the m ain e ffe c t of Pote nc y , i f a w ord has c onno tati ons
of b e ing s trong (hi g h Po te nc y ), the n as a g e ne ral rul e i t i s p roc e s s e d m ore
qui c kl y . T hi s m a ke s se ns e in an e v olu ti onary c on te x t be c aus e unl e s s w e ac t
qui c kl y , w e m ay not de al e f fe c ti v e ly w i th s om e thi ng that is s tro ng . S i m il arl y , w ords hi g h on E v al uati on w e re proc e s s e d m ore qui c kl y than thos e
l ow on thi s di m ens ion. T hi s is c on s is te nt w ith pre v i ous s tudi e s that de ® ne d
E v al uatio n c ate g o ric al ly (B ray , 1 9 8 4 ; W il l ia m s & E v ans , 1 9 8 0 ; bu t s e e
3 46
V A K O C H AN D W U R M
Hi ll & Ke m p-W he e l e r, 1 9 8 9 , fo r a c riti qu e of the s e s tudi e s ). B u t both o f
the s e m ain e ffe c ts Ð and an y of the pre v i ous l ite rature that c on si d e rs a
s i ng le di m e ns i on i n i s ol ati on (e .g . Fe rg us on , 1 9 8 9 ; Kitay am a, 1 9 9 1 ) Ð
m us t be i nte rpre te d w i th c auti on, be c aus e w e found that E v al uatio n i nte rac ts w i th b oth P ote n c y and A c tiv i ty .
A s s e e n i n the g rap h of the E v al uatio n 3 A c tiv ity i nte rac ti on (Fig . 1 ),
the w ords proc e s s e d m os t qu ic kl y hav e c o nnotati ons o f be in g v e ry g ood
a n d v e ry fa s t (hi g h E v al uati on and hi g h A c ti v i ty ) . C ons is te nt w i th th e
re s o urc e d e si rab il i ty e x pl anati on, i f w e are to ac qu ire s om e th ing that is
be ne ® c i al but qui c k, w e m us t do s o rapi dl y . W e n e e d l e s s rap id proc e s s ing
i f the w ord re fe rs to s om e thin g that is v e ry g ood but v e ry s lo w (be c aus e i t’ s
no t g oi ng an y w he re ) o r that is n o t g o od but v e ry fas t (be c au s e w e do not
g ai n m uc h by pursui ng it) . T he s l ow e st R Ts are to tho s e w ords that are
ne i the r fas t n o r g o od. W e h av e no ne e d to atte nd to tho s e w ords quic kly
be c aus e the ir re fe re nts a re not v e ry v aluab le , and the y are not g o ing
any w h e re v e ry rapid ly .
A p aral l e l e x p lanati on hol ds for the E v alu ati on 3
P ote n c y i nte rac tion
(Fig . 2 ). A w ord w i th a re fe re nt that is v e ry g o od and v e ry s trong (h ig h
E v aluati on and hi g h P ote nc y ) m ay be d if® c ul t to de al w i th unl e s s it c an b e
de al t w ith q ui c kly (e .g . appre he nd e d be fore i t has a c hanc e to de ploy i ts
s tre ng th), and thus i s proc e s s e d qui c kl y . A v e ry w e ak but s ti l l v e ry g ood
w ord (h ig h E v al uati on and l ow Pote nc y ) w i ll be atte nde d to l e s s qu ic kl y ,
be c aus e e v e n th oug h i t m ay be v al uabl e to atte nd to (as s ug g e s te d b y th e
hi g h E v al uati on ), th e re i s n ot as urg e nt a ne e d to do s o qui c kl y be c aus e o f
the l im i te d P ote nc y . S i m i lar re ac tio n tim e s w e re fo und for w ords that h av e
hi g h P ote nc y but lo w E v al uati on. From the pe rspe c tiv e o f re s ourc e de s i rabi l ity , the re i s li ttle to g ai n by atte ndi ng to a s trong re fe re nt that i s low i n
E v aluati on. T h e s lo w e s t re ac ti on tim e s are f ound for w ords that are ne i the r
de s irabl e n or s tron g (l ow E v alu ati on and lo w Po te n c y ).
T o s um m aris e , the e m otio nal c o nnotati on of w ords appe ars to i n¯ u e nc e
s p e e d o f proc e s s i ng i n a w ay that e nabl e s the org ani s m to obtai n v al uabl e
re s o urc e s . In thos e c as e s in w h ic h the re fe re nt of a w o rd i s be ne ® c i al y e t
di f® c u lt to obtai n be c aus e i t i s e i th e r f as t o r s tro ng , the w ord i s proc e s s e d
v e ry qui c kl y . W ords w ith re fe re n ts that are e i the r l e s s de s i rabl e or e as i ly
ob tai ne d are proc e s s e d m o re s l ow ly . T h us , th e s truc tu re of the g e ne ral
l e x i c on m ake s s e ns e from an e v ol utiona ry pe rspe c ti v e be c aus e i t e x pl ains
s p e e d of on-l in e p roc e s s i ng i n te rm s of the adaptiv e ne s s of re c og n is ing
de s irabl e re s ourc e s .
A ltho ug h the s am e thre e d im e ns i ons w e re us e d fo r proc e s s ing e ntrie s in
bo th the af fe c tiv e and g e ne ral l e x ic a, the d im e ns i ons w e re us e d in rad ic al l y
di ffe re nt w ay s . W he re as the g e ne ral l e x i c on s e e m s to be s truc tured fo r
ob tai ni ng sc arc e but b e ne ® c i al res ourc e s , the af fe c tiv e le x ic on appe ars to
be d e s ig ne d to av oi d thre ats to the o rg ani sm . A s n ote d e arli e r, the fas te s t
E M O T IO N A L C O N N O T A T IO N IN S P E E C H P E R C E P T IO N
34 7
re s pon se s i n our pre v i ous s tud y w e re to e m oti on w ords that are s tron g , fas t,
and bad (hi g h Po te nc y , hi g h A c tiv ity , an d l ow E v al uation) . T hi s c on tras ts
w i th w ords i n g e ne ral i n the c urre nt s tudy , for w h ic h the qui c ke s t proc e s s i ng is of w ords that are e i the r: (1 ) s tro ng and g o od (hi g h P ote n c y and hi g h
E v al uatio n); or (2 ) fas t an d g ood (hi g h A c ti v i ty and hi g h E v al uati on ).
A l thoug h the d ata fro m the s e s tudi e s are c o ns i s te nt w ith an e v o luti onary
ac c ount, the re m ay be alte rnativ e e x p lanati ons . For i ns tan c e , th e e m otion al
c onno tati on of s pe e c h c an al s o be und e rsto od i n te rm s of th e i nte rpe rson al
c onte x t of c om m uni c atio n (Hart & B row n, 1 9 7 4 ). A s an e x am ple , j udg e m e nts o f pe rsonal i ty c harac te ris tic s from the c on te nt of p e opl e ’ s s pe e c h
c an be p re dic te d by E v al uati on rati ng s , b ut no t by P ote nc y o r A c tiv ity
rati ng s (M arke l & Robl in, 1 9 6 5 ). P re v i ous s tudi e s of the role of c onno tation i n i nte rpe rsonal c o m m uni c ati on, how e v e r, hav e foc us e d on the p o s tp e r c e p tu a l p roc e s s i ng of s p e e c h. T he re m ay a ls o be an in te rpe rs onal bas i s
for the o n -l in e proc e s s i ng o f s p e e c h .
E x i s tin g m ode l s of s pe e c h p e rc e pti on c oul d e as i l y be adapte d to i nc orporate the e m oti onal c onno tati o ns of w ords . P arti c ul arly prom i s i ng c an didate s are n e tw ork m ode l s (e .g . M c C l e ll and & E lm an, 1 9 8 6 ), w hic h m i g h t
i nc orporate d im e ns i on w e i g h ts of w ords in one of tw o w ay s : (1 ) c onn e c ti on
w e ig h ts b e tw e e n w ords i n th e n e tw ork c ou ld be m odi ® e d i n ac c ordanc e
w i th the w ords ’ d im e ns i on w e i g hts ; or (2 ) the re s ti ng ac tiv ati on l e v e l s of
w o rds c oul d be re l ate d di re c tl y to di m e ns i on w e i g hts .
T he c urre nt s tudy al s o offe rs a m e tho dol og i c al i nnov ati on ov e r pre v i ous
atte m pts to unde rstan d th e s truc ture o f the le x i c on. Num e rous pas t s tud ie s
hav e e x am ine d the l e x ic on th roug h s e m antic prim i ng (E m m ore y , 1 9 8 9 ;
Fow l e r, Nap ps , & Fe l dm an, 1 9 8 5 ; Ke m pl e y & M o rton, 1 9 8 2 ; M ars l e nW il s on , T y l e r, W ak s l e r, & O ld e r, 1 9 9 4 ; S h il l c oc k, 1 9 9 0 ; S w in ne y , 1 9 8 1 ).
W ith that m e thod , l e x i c al ac c e s s is fac il i tate d by prior pre s e ntati o n of
s e m an ti c all y re l ate d w ords . In th e c urre nt s tudy and i ts pre c ursor (W urm
& V akoc h, 1 9 9 6 ), the l e x i c o n is s tud ie d v ia c harac te ris ti c s in trins i c to the
w o rds the m s e l v e s (i .e . th e ir d im e ns i on w e i g hts ). A l thoug h w e hav e foc us e d
on E v al uatio n, Pote nc y , an d A c ti v ity , the s am e s trate g y c o uld b e us e d to
s tudy othe r p os s i bl e di m e ns i ons of the l e x ic on .
M anus c ri pt re c e iv e d 2 6 January 1 9 9 6
Re v is e d m anus c rip t re c e iv e d 7 A ug us t 1 9 9 6
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A PP E N D IX
S tim u li
Wo rd s : m onotone , fre s he n, pom e g ranate , s a ndba g , v as e , tri c y c le , pros pe c t, abandon, plo d,
te ri y aki, le g ality , drag ne t, in di v is ib l e , poc ke t, c ruc if y , birt hstone , pow e rf ul , m e than e , none the l e s s , bala nc e r, s a pphire , c upful, traje c tory , l ands c apin g , unc onne c te d, s quad, orphan,
e ld e rly , babble , pos s e , s adis m , w orkday , e m pty , is s ue , c addy , id e ntit y, tra ns it io n, pe re nnial , polte rg e i s t, i nc id e nt, e nc hant, m ateria l, ® g hte r, fros tin g , m aj ore tte , c he ss boa rd, ba lo ne y ,
poly nom ia l, re g is te r, g ande r, frustrate d, ha lo g e n, m in im i z e , af¯ ic tion, pitil e s s , ra c c oon,
ov e rly , he a th, ® c titio us , w hi s ke y , s til lb irth , balle rin a, c ooke ry , i nde c e nc y , le v e rag e .
No n w o r d s: c old g lo ode d, apprav e , s irl ow n, dif f e runtia te , nim kle , qua drutic , c e nte rdie c e ,
s haz e r, org am ic , e pip e m ic , w e s tarne r, roos hle s s , atee nable , m artoni , i c oon, lo uth, re lo otio ns hip , e ffe ptiv e ly , tem pe rait , c ac bus , now e e day , probabol, he lm fm an, nom in il e , pude , re li c hio n, donol , ars e nol, l ib e rol , hy pos e nus e , pil le e g e , c onstroc t, roban, bare honde d, budg a t,
c hanc he , s e de c tio n, m ountek, s il la y , s undual , v e rith y , s c oog , barboturat e, frig hke ne d, c e ilo ng , al tarnativ e , pe rf ac tib il e , m ure , uronal , le v ik a te, oc tok us , anc he l® s h, m in noo, am oos e ,
bum ptin , blo m d, brupe , s he m anig an s, e x pom e nt, prog l e s s iv e , badm on, c urkle , re poort edly ,
badg e e r, li ke m e s s .