4
Hep Cats and Copy Cats
American Music Challenges the CopyrightTradition
SHIRLEY
DIXON
W A S thirteen years old in 1976, w h e n s h e first
p l a y e d the L e d Z e p p e l i n s o n g " W h o l e Lotta L o v e " for h e r father. Shirley h a d b o r r o w e d the 1969 a l b u m Led Zeppelin
II from a friend b e c a u s e
the hit s o n g f r o m it h a d r e m i n d e d h e r of o n e of h e r f a t h e r ' s c o m p o s i t i o n s . H e r father w a s the l e g e n d a r y b l u e s composer, performer, pro1
ducer, a n d b a s s player Willie D i x o n . Young Shirley w a s w e l l v e r s e d in
the " p r o p e r t y t a l k " of copyright law. S h e h a d b e e n typing h e r f a t h e r ' s
lyrics a n d filling in c o p y r i g h t registration f o r m s since s h e w a s eight
years old. S h i r l e y a p p l i e d h e r k e e n ear a n d m i n d to the L e d Z e p p e l i n
song a n d c o n c l u d e d " W h o l e Lotta L o v e " r e m i n d e d her of h e r f a t h e r ' s
writing style. H e agreed that " W h o l e Lotta L o v e " s o u n d e d like his obscure s o n g " Y o u N e e d L o v e , " w h i c h w a s r e c o r d e d b y M u d d y Waters
in 1 9 6 2 .
2
Willie D i x o n filed suit in 1985 against the British r o c k g r o u p . T h e y
settled their d i s p u t e in 1987. A l t h o u g h this case n e v e r m a d e it as far as
a court h e a r i n g , the tensions b e t w e e n a n older blues c o m p o s e r and
y o u n g e r hit m a k e r s illustrate m a n y of the contradictions a n d complications of A m e r i c a n m u s i c copyright.
M u s i c , m o r e t h a n a n y other v e h i c l e of culture, collapses the gap
that separates idea f r o m expression. Is the string of six notes that initiates " H a p p y B i r t h d a y to Y o u " a n idea, a n expression, or b o t h ? If it is an
idea, there m u s t b e a n o t h e r w a y to express the s a m e idea. W o u l d playing the s a m e notes at a different t e m p o constitute a n e w expression of
the s a m e idea? W o u l d p l a y i n g it in a different k e y b e a n exercise in
novel expression? Is there a n idea b e h i n d a particular a r r a n g e m e n t of
m u s i c a l notes? Is there a n i d e a b e h i n d a tone, texture, t i m b r e , o r " f e e l "
of a s o n g ? A r e these features of a s o n g ideas in t h e m s e l v e s ?
If c o p y r i g h t l a w is c h a r g e d w i t h protecting a particular a r r a n g e m e n t of n o t e s , s h o u l d it protect the melody, the h a r m o n y , the r h y t h m ,
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or all of the a b o v e ? H o w long m u s t that string of n o t e s b e to constitute
a protectable s e g m e n t of expression? S h o u l d m u s i c c o p y r i g h t l a w b e
m o s t c o n c e r n e d w i t h the "total c o n c e p t a n d f e e l " of a protected w o r k ,
or particular e l e m e n t s s u c h as solos, riffs, or choruses? T h e twelve-bar
I-IV-V c h o r d pattern runs through m o s t songs w i t h i n the blues tradition,
so that pattern is generally c o n s i d e r e d unprotectable. It is considered
" c o m m o n property," d r a w n from the " d e e p w e l l " of A m e r i c a n blues.
H o w e v e r , a n identifiable o n e - m e a s u r e guitar r i f f — s u c h as the o p e n i n g
to the Rolling Stones s o n g (and Microsoft W i n d o w s advertisement)
"Start M e U p " — c o u l d be protectable. At w h a t point b e t w e e n general
chord patterns a n d specific strings of notes does repetition constitute an
i n f r i n g e m e n t of a protectable expression? N o n e of the a n s w e r s to these
questions is clear. Creative i n f r i n g e m e n t cases h a v e b e e n interpreted on
an almost a d h o c basis. M a i n t a i n i n g a h e a l t h y m e a s u r e of f r e e d o m for
" s e c o n d t a k e r s " to build u p o n a n expressive tradition d e m a n d s other
strategies, b e c a u s e the traditional s a f e g u a r d of the idea-expression dic h o t o m y does not operate the s a m e w a y in m u s i c as in other fields.
B e c a u s e t h e s e q u e s t i o n s y i e l d u n s a t i s f y i n g a n s w e r s , m a n y disp u t e s a m o n g artists get e x p r e s s e d in m o r a l or ethical t e r m s . L e d Z e p p e l i n , like m a n y r o c k g r o u p s , d i d n o t h a v e a n u n s u l l i e d r e p u t a t i o n
for g r a n t i n g credit to b l u e s artists. T h e g r o u p h a d c o v e r e d a n d p r o p erly c r e d i t e d t w o o t h e r D i x o n c o m p o s i t i o n s , " Y o u S h o o k M e " a n d " I
C a n ' t Q u i t Y o u B a b y , " o n its first a l b u m in 1 9 6 8 , Led Zeppelin
I. D u r i n g
the e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s , t h e g r o u p h a d b e f r i e n d e d t h e D i x o n f a m i l y o n its v i s its to C h i c a g o a n d h a d p u b l i c l y p a i d h o m a g e to A m e r i c a n b l u e s p i o n e e r s . T h e g r o u p h a d failed to credit t w o o t h e r s o n g s f r o m Led
Zep-
pelin II, " B r i n g It o n H o m e " a n d " T h e L e m o n S o n g , " w h i c h r e s e m b l e d
o t h e r D i x o n c o m p o s i t i o n s . U n b e k n o w n s t to D i x o n , his p u b l i s h i n g
company, Arc Music, had negotiated a settlement with Led Zeppelin
o v e r t h o s e u n c r e d i t e d s o n g s , b u t h a d n e g l e c t e d to i n f o r m D i x o n or
p a y h i m the r e c o v e r e d royalties until l o n g after the s e t t l e m e n t . B y the
late 1 9 8 0 s , L e d Z e p p e l i n w o u l d n o t e a g e r l y g r a n t e i t h e r w r i t i n g credit
or royalties t o D i x o n over " W h o l e L o t t a L o v e . " T h e p r o c e e d s o f that
s e t t l e m e n t h e l p e d D i x o n start t h e B l u e s H e a v e n F o u n d a t i o n , d e d i c a t e d to h e l p i n g a g i n g c o m p o s e r s a n d p e r f o r m e r s r e c o u p s o m e of the
r e w a r d s for their w o r k in y e a r s b e f o r e t h e y h a d a c h a n c e to d e v e l o p
sophisticated business and legal acumen. W h e n Dixon passed away
in 1992, his l e g e n d h a d g r o w n f r o m brilliant c o m p o s e r a n d p e r f o r m e r
to b r a v e b u s i n e s s p i o n e e r . D i x o n w a s a m o n g the first b l u e s artists
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to w r e s t control of rights a n d royalties f r o m e x p l o i t a t i v e r e c o r d and
publishing companies.
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T h e relationship b e t w e e n blues c o m p o s e r s a n d rock artists is c o m plex. T h e r e are rarely o b v i o u s g o o d g u y s a n d b a d g u y s in the stories of
disputes over credit, influence, a n d royalties. In 1956, Elvis Presley revolutionized p o p u l a r m u s i c b y introducing s t r i p p e d - d o w n , h i g h - p o w e r
southern r h y t h m a n d blues to m a i n s t r e a m w h i t e a u d i e n c e s a r o u n d the
w o r l d . H e did so b y recording s o m e s o n g s that African A m e r i c a n artists
h a d distributed to lesser acclaim just a f e w years before, s u c h as Big
M a m a T h o r n t o n ' s " H o u n d D o g . " W h i l e T h o r n t o n ' s v e r s i o n g a i n e d lege n d a r y status a m o n g blues fans in the 1950s, it b a r e l y s c r a t c h e d the
w h i t e p o p m a r k e t . Presley's version, o n the other h a n d , sold t w o million copies in 1956 a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o p p e d the p o p , country, and
r h y t h m a n d b l u e s charts. P r e s l e y ' s appeal t r a n s c e n d e d racial a n d regional lines a n d o p e n e d u p several g e n e r a t i o n s of y o u n g p e o p l e from
a r o u n d the g l o b e to the p o w e r of African A m e r i c a n m u s i c . Yet Presley
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r e m a i n s a controversial figure to m a n y critics, w h o consider his w o r k
" i n a u t h e n t i c " b e c a u s e h e r e a p e d far greater r e w a r d s t h a n p r e v i o u s or
c o n t e m p o r a r y b l a c k artists w h o s e w o r k w a s just as exciting. M u s i c journalist N e l s o n G e o r g e h a s called Presley " a d a m n e d l a z y s t u d e n t " of
b l a c k culture a n d a " m e d i o c r e interpretive artist." C h u c k D , the leader
a n d lyricist of the rap g r o u p Public E n e m y , sings " E l v i s w a s a hero to
m o s t , b u t h e d i d n ' t m e a n shit to m e . " W h e t h e r in g o o d faith or b a d ,
w h i t e p e r f o r m e r s a l m o s t a l w a y s r e a p e d larger r e w a r d s than their black
influences a n d songwriters. A s Tricia R o s e h a s a r g u e d , w h i t e n e s s matters in the story of the c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n of b l a c k cultural expression.
B y virtue of their w h i t e n e s s , m a n y artists participated in styles and
subcultures that e m e r g e d from the r h y t h m a n d b l u e s tradition and
" c r o s s e d o v e r " w h a t w a s until o n l y recently a g a p i n g social a n d econ o m i c c h a s m b e t w e e n b l a c k m u s i c a n d w h i t e c o n s u m e r s . W h i t e rockers
w e n t w h e r e b l a c k artists c o u l d not. E v e n w h e n blacks c o u l d cross over,
w h i t e artists h a v e h a d better opportunities to capitalize on the publicity a n d distribution s y s t e m s . For instance, m a n y " a l t e r n a t i v e " or " r o c k "
radio stations will occasionally p l a y rap m u s i c , b u t o n l y if it is b y w h i t e
artists s u c h as the Beastie B o y s , L i m p Bizkit, or K i d R o c k .
5
But the politics a n d e c o n o m i c s of cultural e x c h a n g e a n d translation
are not s i m p l e a n d unidirectional. Like Elvis, m a n y later blues-rock
stars s u c h as Eric Clapton, the Rolling Stones, a n d B o n n i e Raitt h e l p e d
publicize the w o r k of a l m o s t forgotten blues artists. O t h e r s , s u c h as L e d
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Z e p p e l i n arid the B e a c h B o y s , h a v e g r a n t e d credit to c o m p o s e r s s u c h as
D i x o n a n d C h u c k B e r r y u n d e r legal duress. T h e r e is v e r y little difference in the p a s s i o n or sincerity b e h i n d the w o r k of M u d d y Waters a n d
that of Eric Clapton. H o w e v e r , there is a n i n d i s p u t a b l e c h a s m b e t w e e n
the reception of Waters's w o r k in the 1950s a n d that of C l a p t o n ' s hits of
the 1970s: B e c a u s e h e is w h i t e , C l a p t o n w a s in a better position to exploit vastly better b u s i n e s s conditions a n d b r o a d e r c o n s u m e r m a r k e t s
than Waters w a s . C l a p t o n e m e r g e d at a v e r y different t i m e . N o n e t h e less, m a n y m u s i c fans n o w k n o w a n d appreciate the w o r k of Willie
Dixon, M u d d y Waters, a n d R o b e r t J o h n s o n b e c a u s e of Elvis Presley,
Eric C l a p t o n , J i m m y P a g e , a n d others.
T h e simplistic story of the relationship is that y o u n g e r w h i t e performers " s t o l e " material f r o m aging " a u t h e n t i c " c o m p o s e r s s u c h as
Willie D i x o n , S o n n y B o y W i l l i a m s o n , or Son H o u s e . But tracing influence t h r o u g h s o m e t h i n g as organic a n d d y n a m i c as A m e r i c a n m u s i c is
n e v e r simple. B l u e s - b a s e d m u s i c is often the p r o d u c t of c o m m o n a n d
standard c h o r d structures a n d patterns. R e l y i n g on or referring to a p a r ticular influence can b e as i m p o r t a n t as a n y " o r i g i n a l " contribution to a
w o r k . A c o m p o s e r m i g h t e m p l o y a familiar riff w i t h i n a n e w c o m p o s i tion as a signal that the n e w s o n g is p a r t of o n e specific tradition within
the v a s t m u l t i f a c e t e d c a n o n of A m e r i c a n m u s i c . Influence is inspiration, a n d s o n g s talk to e a c h other t h r o u g h g e n e r a t i o n s . A s Willie D i x o n
w r o t e : " W h e n y o u ' r e a writer, y o u d o n ' t h a v e t i m e to listen to everyb o d y else's thing. Y o u get their things m i x e d u p w i t h y o u r ideas a n d the
next thing y o u k n o w , y o u ' r e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g that s o u n d s like s o m e b o d y e l s e . " B e c a u s e repetition a n d revision are s u c h central tropes in
A m e r i c a n m u s i c , r e w a r d i n g a n d e n c o u r a g i n g originality is a troubles o m e project in the m u s i c industry.
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In 1948, M u d d y Waters released a s o n g for the C h e s s b r o t h e r s ' Aristocrat label called " F e e l L i k e G o i n ' H o m e . " It w a s Waters's first national
r h y t h m a n d blues hit. " F e e l Like G o i n ' H o m e " w a s a revised v e r s i o n of
a s o n g Waters h a d recorded on his front p o r c h in Mississippi for the
folklorist A l a n L o m a x in 1 9 4 1 . After singing that s o n g , w h i c h h e told
L o m a x w a s entitled " C o u n t r y B l u e s , " Waters told L o m a x a s t o r y of h o w
h e c a m e to w r i t e it. " I m a d e that b l u e u p in ' 3 8 , " Waters said. " I m a d e it
on a b o u t the e i g h t h of October, ' 3 8 . . . . I w a s fixin' a p u n c t u r e o n a car.
I h a d b e e n mistreated b y a girl, it w a s just r u n n i n g in m y m i n d to sing
that s o n g . . . . Well, I just felt b l u e , a n d the s o n g fell into m y m i n d a n d it
c o m e to m e just like that a n d I started s i n g i n g . " T h e n L o m a x , w h o k n e w
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of the R o b e r t J o h n s o n recording of a similar t u n e called " W a l k i n g
B l u e s , " a s k e d Waters if there w e r e a n y other b l u e s s o n g s that u s e d the
s a m e t u n e . " T h e r e ' s b e e n s o m e b l u e s p l a y e d like t h a t , " Waters replied.
" T h i s song c o m e s from the cotton field a n d a b o y o n c e p u t a record
o u t — R o b e r t J o h n s o n . H e p u t it out as n a m e d 'Walking B l u e s . ' . . . I h e a r d
the t u n e before I h e a r d it on the record. I l e a r n e d it f r o m S o n H o u s e .
That's a boy w h o could pick a guitar."
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In this brief p a s s a g e , Waters offers five a c c o u n t s of the origin of
" C o u n t r y B l u e s . " At first, Waters asserts his o w n active a u t h o r s h i p , saying h e " m a d e i t " on a specific date u n d e r specific conditions. T h e n
Waters expresses the " p a s s i v e " e x p l a n a t i o n of a u t h o r s h i p as received
k n o w l e d g e — n o t unlike Harriet B e e c h e r S t o w e ' s authorship of
Tom's Cabin—that
Uncle
" i t c o m e to m e just like t h a t . " A f t e r L o m a x raises the
question of J o h n s o n ' s influence, Waters, w i t h o u t s h a m e , m i s g i v i n g s , or
trepidation, says that h e h e a r d a v e r s i o n of that song b y J o h n s o n , b u t
that his m e n t o r S o n H o u s e t a u g h t it to h i m . M o s t significantly, Waters
declares in the m i d d l e of that c o m p l e x g e n e a l o g y that " t h i s s o n g c o m e s
from the cotton f i e l d . "
W h a t m i g h t s e e m to s o m e observers a tangle of contradictions
m i g h t instead b e a n i m p o r t a n t complication. Waters h a d n o p r o b l e m
stating, believing, a n d d e f e n d i n g all five a c c o u n t s of the origin of
" C o u n t r y B l u e s . " To Waters, o n e e x p l a n a t i o n did n o t cancel out the others. B l u e s logic is neither linear n o r B o o l e a n . B l u e s i d e o l o g y is not invested in s o m e abstract n o t i o n of " p r o g r e s s " a n d t h u s does n o t celeb r a t e the R e v o l u t i o n a r y for its o w n s a k e . T h e b l u e s c o m p o s i t i o n a l ethic
is c o m p l e x a n d synergistic, relying o n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y exploring a n d extending the c o m m o n e l e m e n t s of the tradition. Blues artists are rew a r d e d for p u n c t u a t i o n w i t h i n collaboration, distinction w i t h i n a c o m munity, a n d a n ability to t o u c h a b o d y of signs s h a r e d a m o n g all m e m bers of a n a u d i e n c e . W h i l e M u d d y Waters u s e d the m e t a p h o r " f r o m the
cotton f i e l d , " o t h e r artists s a y that inspiration c o m e s to t h e m " f r o m the
air." T h e y call their s o n g s " a i r m u s i c . " T h e e l e m e n t s a n d t h e m e s float
a n d flow, r e a d y for a n y skilled a n d p r a c t i c e d p e r f o r m e r to b o r r o w and
p u t to use. E a c h p e r f o r m e r c a n revise the c o m m o n tropes a n d e x p a n d
the cultural c o m m o n s . A s blues scholar D a v i d E v a n s explains, blues
c o m p o s i t i o n relies o n concepts to w h i c h w e u s u a l l y assign the terms
tradition, inspiration, a n d improvisation. But blues singers do n o t see
these as separate a n d distinct factors. T h e y are o n e p r o c e s s . B e c a u s e
blues c o m p o s e r s do not ask t h e m s e l v e s w h a t is particularly traditional
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a b o u t their tradition, t h e y do n o t feel b o u n d to tradition. B e c a u s e they
do n o t isolate a process called " i m p r o v i s a t i o n , " t h e y feel n o c o m p u l s i o n
to i m p r o v i s e e v e r y time t h e y p l a y a particular song. B l u e s artists often
express " n e w n e s s " passively, as if the original or i m p r o v i s a t o r y elem e n t s " j u s t c a m e " to t h e m from the air or the cotton field.
8
W h e t h e r the b a s i s of the s o n g c a m e f r o m the cotton field o r not,
J o h n s o n r e c o r d e d it before either H o u s e or Waters. But w e r e all of
these recordings really of the " s a m e " s o n g ? J o h n s o n ' s 1937 recording of
" W a l k i n g B l u e s " a n d Waters's 1941 " C o u n t r y B l u e s " share m a n y qualities. T h e v e r s e - a n d - c h o r u s structures of b o t h s o n g s ( A B A B ) are identical, b u t that structure is c o m m o n if n o t s t a n d a r d for c o u n t r y blues
s o n g s . B o t h songs e m p l o y similar guitar solos u s i n g a bottleneck slide.
A n d as m u s i c scholar J o h n C o w l e y has d e m o n s t r a t e d , they b o t h share
a c o m m o n ancestor in S o n H o u s e ' s " M y B l a c k M a m a , " w h i c h H o u s e
s o m e t i m e s called " W a l k i n g B l u e s . "
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M a n y of the lyrics of J o h n s o n ' s " W a l k i n g B l u e s " also r e s e m b l e
those of Waters's " C o u n t r y B l u e s . " B o t h s o n g s feature the classic blues
line " I ' v e b e e n mistreated baby, a n d I d o n ' t m i n d d y i n g . " C o n s i d e r
J o h n s o n ' s first t w o verses:
I woke up this morning, feeling round for my shoes
Tell everybody I got these walking blues
Woke up this morning, feeling round, oh, for my shoes
But you know about that, I got these old walking blues.
Lord, I feel like blowing my old lonesome home
Got up this morning now, Bernice was gone
Lord I feel like blowing my old. lonesome home
Well I got up this morning, all I had was
gone.
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A n d here are the first t w o v e r s e s to Waters's version:
Ah, it gets later on in the evening, child. I feel like, like blowing my home
I woke up this morning to find my, my little baby gone
Later on in the evening man, man, Ifeel like, like blowing my home
Well I woke up this morning baby, to find my little baby gone.
Well now, some folks say the worried, worried blues ain't bad
That's the miserablest feeling child I most, most ever had
Some folks tell me man that the worried blues ain't bad
Well that's the miserablest old feeling, honey now, ooh now gal, I most ever
had}
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Both songs deal w i t h the s a m e story. T h e s i n g e r ' s love h a s left h i m , so
he feels like " b l o w i n g " his h o m e a n d h e d o e s n ' t m i n d dying. A legal
claim to a u t h o r s h i p o v e r these lyrics w o u l d require a n a r g u m e n t that
o n e p e r s o n deserves m o n o p o l y control over these v e r y c o m m o n expressions of a n a l m o s t universal experience: frustration a n d resignation
over a failed love affair. T h e " f e e l " of these t w o v e r s i o n s is v e r y distinct.
Waters, for instance, s y n c o p a t e s his lyric delivery in " C o u n t r y B l u e s "
m u c h m o r e t h a n J o h n s o n does in " W a l k i n g B l u e s . "
Waters r e c o r d e d versions of this song several m o r e times in his career, e a c h t i m e c h a n g i n g the order of certain stanzas. E a c h v e r s i o n tells
the s a m e story, contains a slide solo, a n d shares the v e r s e structure. Yet
each is a v e r y different song. Waters's 1948 v e r s i o n " I Feel L i k e G o i n g
H o m e , " is electrified, u p - t e m p o , a n d " r o c k s " m o r e t h a n his acoustic
version that L o m a x recorded. Waters's v o i c e lacks the gravelly g r o w l of
the earlier v e r s i o n s . It occasionally a l m o s t s q u e a l s — m o r e like B o b b y
Blue B l a n d t h a n Robert J o h n s o n or S o n H o u s e — y e t distinctly M u d d y
Waters. T h e 1948 hit v e r s i o n established Waters's " s i g n a t u r e " s o u n d ,
w h i c h n o artist, b l a c k or w h i t e , A m e r i c a n or British, w o u l d e v e r capture
or imitate. F o r Waters, originality a n d authenticity w e r e n o t in the lyrics
or c h o r d s e q u e n c e . T h e y w e r e in his v o i c e , his passion, his presentation,
his m o t i o n . T h e r e w a s n o r e a s o n for Waters to s e e k a legally granted
m o n o p o l y over his style. M u d d y Waters a l r e a d y enjoyed a natural
monopoly.
T h e s e a r e a e s t h e t i c a n d ethical i s s u e s m o r e t h a n l e g a l o n e s . W h a t
if R o b e r t J o h n s o n — h a d h e l i v e d — h a d filed suit a g a i n s t M u d d y Waters o v e r c o m p o s e r ' s rights for " W a l k i n g B l u e s " ? W a t e r s ' s b e s t defense m i g h t h a v e b e e n that t h e e l e m e n t s of b o t h s o n g s c a m e " f r o m
the c o t t o n f i e l d " a n d w e r e t h u s a l r e a d y p a r t of the p u b l i c d o m a i n
l o n g b e f o r e J o h n s o n r e c o r d e d his v e r s i o n . Yet t h e s e s a m e i s s u e s of
style a n d p r e s e n t a t i o n m a r k t h e d i s p u t e o v e r Willie D i x o n ' s c o m p o s i tion a n d M u d d y W a t e r s ' s r e c o r d i n g of " Y o u N e e d L o v e " a n d L e d
Zeppelin's " W h o l e Lotta L o v e . " Dixon and Led Zeppelin never met
in a c o u r t r o o m . T h e c a s e w a s settled for u n d i s c l o s e d t e r m s after t w o
y e a r s of n e g o t i a t i o n . B o t h s o n g s do s h a r e s o m e lyrics, b u t t h e y b o t h
t a k e e l e m e n t s f r o m t h e d e e p w e l l of t h e b l u e s tradition. W h a t ' s m o r e ,
the t w o s o n g s h a v e c o m p l e t e l y different " f e e l s . " T h e y d o different
w o r k , s p e a k to different c o n d i t i o n s , a n d strike different a u d i e n c e s in
different w a y s . T h e y are v e r y different s o n g s . D i x o n s u f f e r e d greatly
d u r i n g his career at the h a n d s of u n s c r u p u l o u s a n d
exploitative
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h a n d l e r s w h o m a n i p u l a t e d the c o p y r i g h t l a w s to d e n y h i m l o n g - t e r m
r e w a r d s for his brilliant w o r k . B u t D i x o n did n o t " o w n " t h e b l u e s a e s thetic as e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h " Y o u N e e d L o v e " a n y m o r e t h a n R o b e r t
J o h n s o n " o w n e d " the e l e m e n t s of " W a l k i n g B l u e s . " If t h e c a s e h a d
m a d e it to trial, the results w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e to predict.
H o w e v e r , in a n e r a a n d i n d u s t r y that h a v e g r o w n a c c u s t o m e d to
" p r o p e r t y t a l k , " l a w s u i t s h a v e b e c o m e f r e q u e n t tools f o r r e s o l v i n g
d i s p u t e s o v e r a u t h o r s h i p , o w n e r s h i p , a n d originality.
W h i l e o w n e r s h i p is a s l o p p y a n d a l m o s t u n d e f i n a b l e quality in the
blues tradition, there is a real a n d significant claim to originality in
blues m u s i c . Blues originality is just v e r y different from the standard
E u r o p e a n m o d e l . Originality in the blues is p e r f o r m a n c e - b a s e d . P e n
a n d p a p e r n e v e r enter the e q u a t i o n unless the song is c o n s i d e r e d for
recording a n d distribution. In his 1978 e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d y Blues
from
the Delta, folklorist William Ferris argues that blues artists h a v e a n o t i o n
of authorship a n d originality that lies n o t in the r a w materials e m p l o y e d for the c o m p o s i t i o n , b u t in the style a n d presentation. Ferris
states that m a n y blues singers s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a d m i t learning a particular s o n g f r o m a n o t h e r artist a n d claim a u t h o r s h i p for it. S o m e artists
e v e n claim authorship of classic folk ballads like " J o h n H e n r y . " Ferris
exemplifies this p o i n t t h r o u g h a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h b l u e s a n d g o s p e l
singer S o n n y M a t t h e w s :
I'll hear somebody else sing it and then I'll put my words like I want
them in there. . . . I just sing it in my voice and put the words in there
like I want them. Them my words there. I spaced them words like that
on a contention that so many peoples singing alike, till you know
that's just about to put a ruination on the gospel singing in this part.
So many peoples is trying to imitate other folks, you know. . . . I will
sing their songs, but I will put the words my way.
Ferris also quotes A r t h u r L e e Williams of Birdie, Mississippi, o n the
process of blues c o m p o s i t i o n : " Y o u sit d o w n a n d h u m to yourself. You
try to see if that fits a n d if that d o n ' t w o r k , y o u h u m y o u s o m e t h i n g else.
A n d then too y o u m a y pick out a v e r s e f r o m s o m e other s o n g a n d
switch it a r o u n d a little b i t . " T h e blues tradition v a l u e s " o r i g i n a l i t y "
w i t h o u t a confining sense of " o w n e r s h i p . " In the b l u e s tradition, w h a t
is original is the " v a l u e - a d d e d " aspect of a w o r k , u s u a l l y delivered
through performance.
12
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
125
Creativity a n d c o m p o s i t i o n ethics w i t h i n the blues tradition derive
from West African a n t e c e d e n t s . W h i l e the cultures of West Africa are
diverse a n d c o m p l i c a t e d , s o m e cultural f o r m s h e l p e d f o r m a " c u l t u r a l
c o m m o n s " that exists t o d a y across the Atlantic, linking m a n y of those
in the West African diaspora to those o n the continent t h r o u g h a w e b of
familiar signs a n d tropes. A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a n d musicologists h a v e emp h a s i z e d the i m p o r t a n c e of the " c i r c l e " as the site of b o t h creativity and
c o m m u n i t y in African cultures. T h e m u s i c , lyrics, a n d d a n c e that emanate from the circle often reflect these attributes: r h y t h m i c c o m p l e x i t y
a n d syncopation; individual i m p r o v i s a t i o n a n d stylization; call-and-response; e n g a g e m e n t b e t w e e n individuals a n d the c o m m u n i t y at large;
c o m m e n t a r y in the f o r m of satire, parody, or boastful c o m p e t i t i o n ; and
a sense of g r o u p c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e tension b e t w e e n individual improvisation a n d c o m m u n a l flow p r o d u c e s a n d celebrates b o t h a balance
b e t w e e n individuals a n d the c o m m u n i t y a n d a safe s p a c e for individual expression of d a r i n g a n d excellence. E a c h v a l u e d e p e n d s o n the
other. T h e c o m m u n i t y r e w a r d s b o t h individual " s t y l i z a t i o n " a n d m a s tery of a c a n o n . W h i l e other traditions a r o u n d the w o r l d e m p l o y these
d y n a m i c s as w e l l , West African aesthetic principles h a v e h a d a clear
a n d p r o f o u n d effect on A m e r i c a n culture t h r o u g h m u s i c , dance, prose,
poetry, a n d h u m o r . T h e " s h a p e " of West African creativity is a circle, n o t
a line.
13
This h a s created a cultural v a l u e s y s t e m a m o n g West African-derived traditions that differs f r o m the " p r o g r e s s i v e " v a l u e s y s t e m that
e m a n a t e s f r o m the E u r o p e a n artistic tradition a n d i n f o r m s E u r o p e a n
a n d A m e r i c a n copyright l a w .
14
This does not m e a n that A m e r i c a n c o p y -
right law, as d e s i g n e d a n d e m p l o y e d t h r o u g h m o s t of A m e r i c a n history,
conflicts w i t h African principles of expression. In fact, w h e n a c o p y r i g h t
s y s t e m is loose a n d b a l a n c e d , it c a n a m p l i f y the positive e l e m e n t s of
West African aesthetic tradition. In principle, copyright l a w does n o t
prevent artists f r o m taking from the " c o m m o n s . " It s u p p o r t s the idea
that n e w artists build u p o n the w o r k s of others. It r e w a r d s improvisation w i t h i n a tradition. But originally, c o p y r i g h t regulated o n l y the proliferation of physical a n d c o m p l e t e c o p i e s . N o w c o p y r i g h t regulates
(but does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y forbid) p e r f o r m a n c e , t r a n s f o r m a t i v e w o r k s ,
slight a n d o b l i q u e reference, a n d e v e n access. A n d c o p y r i g h t s u s e d to
expire o n definite dates, thus constantly enriching the public d o m a i n
with n e w material. N o w , c o p y r i g h t terms last far b e y o n d m o s t people's life span, a n d C o n g r e s s k e e p s extending t h e m , m a k i n g c o p y r i g h t
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HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
protection virtually p e r p e t u a l . A m e r i c a n c o p y r i g h t as it h a s b e e n corr u p t e d at the turn of the twenty-first c e n t u r y clearly conflicts w i t h the
aesthetic principles of West African m u s i c a n d dance. Yet A m e r i c a n
copyright regulates West African m u s i c a l styles m o r e t h a n ever.
Very little A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r m u s i c since 1956 h a s n o t b e e n influe n c e d b y the b l u e s tradition. T h e r e f o r e a p r e p o n d e r a n c e of the musical
p r o d u c t s on the A m e r i c a n m a r k e t since 1956 h a v e e m e r g e d from the
p e r f o r m a n c e - b a s e d blues aesthetic. Simultaneously, the stakes for control of p u b l i s h i n g a n d recording ( k n o w n as " m e c h a n i c a l " ) rights h a v e
c l i m b e d e x p o n e n t i a l l y as the record b u s i n e s s has a s s u m e d a major place
in the A m e r i c a n economy. A n d as the c o m p a n i e s that control a n d rep r o d u c e the p r o d u c t s that carry this creative w o r k h a v e consolidated
a n d g r o w n m o r e p o w e r f u l , the legal a n d c o m m e r c i a l b a l a n c e of the
copyright s y s t e m h a s shifted to h e a v i l y favor established w o r k s . T h e s e
shifts h a v e h a n d c u f f e d n e w e r artists w h o w a n t to participate in the
chain of creativity.
POISONING THE WELL
Just before the Beatles b r o k e u p , lead guitarist G e o r g e H a r r i s o n w a s
b u s y c o m p o s i n g s o n g s for his first solo a l b u m , All Things
Must
Pass.
H a r r i s o n a n d his n e w b a n d , w h i c h i n c l u d e d k e y b o a r d p l a y e r Billy Preston, w e r e playing a concert in C o p e n h a g e n , D e n m a r k , in 1970. D u r i n g
a b a c k s t a g e press c o n f e r e n c e , H a r r i s o n slipped away, g r a b b e d
an
acoustic guitar, a n d started p l a y i n g a r o u n d w i t h s i m p l e c h o r d structures. H e e a s e d into a p a t t e r n of alternating a m i n o r II c h o r d w i t h a
major V chord. T h e n h e c h a n t e d the w o r d s " H a l l e l u j a h " a n d " H a r e K r i s h n a " over the chords. S o o n other m e m b e r s of his b a n d a n d e n t o u r a g e
g a t h e r e d a r o u n d h i m , joining in on the s o n g in four-part h a r m o n y . B e t w e e n c h o r u s e s of " H a l l e l u j a h " a n d " H a r e K r i s h n a " H a r r i s o n i m p r o v i s e d s o m e verses that i n c l u d e d lyrics s u c h as " M y S w e e t L o r d , " " D e a r ,
dear L o r d , " a n d " I really w a n t to see y o u ; I really w a n t to b e w i t h y o u . "
Over the n e x t f e w w e e k s , H a r r i s o n a n d Preston returned to that j a m ,
c o m p o s i n g a n d recording the entire text of w h a t b e c a m e H a r r i s o n ' s first
solo hit, " M y S w e e t L o r d . "
1 5
After the s o n g g a i n e d w i d e acclaim a n d b r o a d distribution, a b a n d
called the B e l m o n t s r e c o r d e d a t o n g u e - i n - c h e e k v e r s i o n of " M y S w e e t
L o r d " that a p p e n d e d the c h o r u s lyrics from the 1962 Chiffons tune
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
127
" H e ' s So F i n e , " c o m p o s e d b y R o n a l d M a c k a n d p r o d u c e d b y Phil S p e c tor, to the H a r r i s o n hit. T h e similarities b e t w e e n " M y S w e e t L o r d " and
" H e ' s So F i n e " w e r e not lost on B r i g h t Tunes M u s i c C o r p o r a t i o n either.
Bright Tunes w a s the publishing c o m p a n y that controlled the rights to
" H e ' s So F i n e . " Bright Tunes filed suit against Harrison, a n d the case
w e n t to trial in 1976. In his decision, the district j u d g e closely e x a m i n e d
the b u i l d i n g b l o c k s of b o t h s o n g s . " H e ' s So F i n e " consists of t w o " m o tifs," J u d g e R i c h a r d O w e n c o n c l u d e d . T h e first motif (A) is the array of
notes " s o l - m e - r e . " T h e s e c o n d motif (B) is the p h r a s e " s o l - l a - d o - l a - d o . "
O w e n g r a n t e d that s t a n d i n g a l o n e n e i t h e r of these motifs is n o v e l
e n o u g h to qualify for protection.
H o w e v e r , w h a t matters is n o t the b u i l d i n g blocks t h e m s e l v e s , b u t
their a r r a n g e m e n t a n d order within the greater structure. " H e ' s So
F i n e " contains the pattern A - A - A - A - B - B - B - B . T h e pattern of four repetitions of A f o l l o w e d b y four repetitions of B is " a h i g h l y u n i q u e patt e r n , " O w e n ruled. T h e n , e x a m i n i n g " M y S w e e t L o r d , " O w e n stated
that the H a r r i s o n s o n g u s e d the s a m e m o t i f A four t i m e s , a n d then motif
B three t i m e s . In p l a c e of the fourth repetition of B, H a r r i s o n e m p l o y e d
a transitional p a s s a g e (T) of the s a m e length as B . " M y S w e e t L o r d " goes
A - A - A - A - B - B - B - T . In b o t h s o n g s , the c o m p o s e r s u s e d a slippery " g r a c e
n o t e " in the fourth refrain of B (or in the substituted transitional p h r a s e
T, in the case of " M y S w e e t L o r d " ) . In addition, O w e n w r o t e , " t h e harm o n i e s of b o t h s o n g s are i d e n t i c a l . " H a r r i s o n ' s expert w i t n e s s e s asserted that the differences b e t w e e n the s o n g s m a t t e r e d m o r e t h a n the
similarities. T h e y a r g u e d that the lyrics, the syllabic patterns, a n d syncopations distinguished each song. F o r instance, the h i g h l y m e a n i n g ful t e r m s " H a l l e l u j a h " a n d " H a r e K r i s h n a " in " M y S w e e t L o r d " replace the n o n s e n s e w o r d a n d r h y t h m i c p l a c e h o l d e r " d u l a n g " from
" H e ' s So F i n e . "
1 6
In stark contrast to the c o m p l e x a n d n u a n c e d " w e b of e x p r e s s i o n "
analysis that J u d g e L e a r n e d H a n d prescribed for m o t i o n picture cases
c o n c e r n i n g derivative w o r k s , federal courts ask t w o questions to determ i n e w h e t h e r a s o n g infringes o n the c o p y r i g h t for a n earlier song. T h e
plaintiff m u s t s h o w that the s e c o n d c o m p o s e r h a d access to the first
song a n d that the s e c o n d s o n g s h o w s " s u b s t a n t i a l s i m i l a r i t y " to the
first. Similarity w i t h o u t access, the result of a r a n d o m coincidence,
w o u l d not infringe. T h e r e are o n l y eight n o t e s in a major scale, after all.
A c c i d e n t s do h a p p e n . T h e n e e d to establish access necessarily protects
hits better t h a n obscure s o n g s . O n the other h a n d , hits are m o r e likely
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to stick in p e o p l e ' s m i n d s , m o r e likely to flow t h r o u g h m u s i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s as influences a n d inspirations, a n d m o r e likely to a d d elem e n t s to the musical " w e l l . "
1 7
G e o r g e H a r r i s o n w e n t to the w e l l o n c e too often. H e w a s raised in
the b l u e s tradition, as e m b o d i e d b y the English w o r k i n g class in the
1950s a n d 1960s. H e a n d his pals s p e n t their y o u t h m e m o r i z i n g riffs
from C h u c k Berry, M u d d y Waters, a n d B u d d y H o l l y records. A m e r i c a n
r h y t h m a n d blues w e r e irresistible sources of p o w e r f u l stories a n d e m o tions, a n d influenced e v e r y t h i n g H a r r i s o n a n d his peers did. B o t h H a r rison a n d Preston testified v e h e m e n t l y that neither o n e of t h e m considered " H e ' s So F i n e " a n inspiration for " M y S w e e t L o r d . " T h e Chiffons
song n e v e r entered their m i n d s , t h e y said. But " H e ' s So F i n e " t o p p e d
the p o p m u s i c chart in the U n i t e d States for five w e e k s in the s u m m e r
of 1963. It r e a c h e d the n u m b e r 12 spot in E n g l a n d d u r i n g that s a m e
t i m e — a s u m m e r w h e n the top s o n g o n the British p o p charts b e l o n g e d
to the Beatles. B o t h Preston i n the U n i t e d States a n d H a r r i s o n in England h a d a m p l e access to the C h i f f o n s ' recording. T h e y b o t h k n e w of the
song, but neither c o n s c i o u s l y a p p e a l e d to it as a s o u r c e for " M y S w e e t
L o r d . " J u d g e O w e n a g r e e d : " S e e k i n g the w e l l s p r i n g s of m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n — w h y a c o m p o s e r chooses the s u c c e s s i o n of n o t e s a n d the h a r m o n i e s h e d o e s — w h e t h e r it b e G e o r g e H a r r i s o n or R i c h a r d W a g n e r is
a fascinating inquiry. It is apparent f r o m the extensive c o l l o q u y b e t w e e n
the C o u r t a n d H a r r i s o n covering forty p a g e s in the transcript that n e i ther H a r r i s o n nor Preston w e r e c o n s c i o u s of the fact that t h e y w e r e utilizing the ' H e ' s So F i n e ' t h e m e . H o w e v e r , t h e y in fact w e r e , for it is p e r fectly o b v i o u s to the listener that in m u s i c a l t e r m s , the t w o s o n g s are
virtually identical except for o n e p h r a s e . " T h e n , precipitously e m p l o y ing the p a s s i v e v o i c e , O w e n leapt to a conclusion that p o i s o n e d the w e l l
for s u b s e q u e n t artists:
What happened? I conclude that the composer, in seeking musical materials to clothe his thoughts, was working with various possibilities.
As he tried this possibility and that, there came to the surface of his
mind a particular combination that pleased him as being one he felt
would be appealing to a prospective listener; in other words, that this
combination of sounds would work. Why? Because his subconscious
knew it already had worked in a song his conscious mind did not remember. Having arrived at this pleasing combination of sounds, the
recording was made, the lead sheet prepared for copyright and the
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
129
song became an enormous success. Did Harrison deliberately use the
music of "He's So Fine?" I do not believe he did so deliberately. Nevertheless, it is clear that "My Sweet Lord" is the very same song as
"He's So Fine" with different words, and Harrison had access to "He's
So Fine." This is, under the law, infringement of copyright, and is no
less so even though subconsciously accomplished.
18
U n d e r this s t a n d a r d , w h i c h m a k e s " s u b c o n s c i o u s " influence illicit,
s o m e t h i n g a n artist m u s t struggle to a v o i d , M u d d y Waters w o u l d h a v e
h a d great difficulty k e e p i n g u p w i t h w h o h a d r e c o r d e d a n d m a r k e t e d
particular a r r a n g e m e n t s that w e r e c o n s i d e r e d c o m m o n property in the
Mississippi Delta, m u s i c that c a m e " f r o m the cotton f i e l d , " o r f r o m the
w e l l of tradition. T h e s t a n d a r d u s e d in the H a r r i s o n case p u t s a h e a v y
b u r d e n o n those w h o snatch a groove out of the air a n d insert it as o n e
part of a c o m p l e x creative process.
Over the n e x t t w e l v e years, e m b o l d e n e d b y the H a r r i s o n suit, c o m p o s e r s a n d p u b l i s h i n g c o m p a n i e s that retained rights to classic A m e r i can songs c o n s i d e r e d p u r s u i n g legal action against m o r e recent songwriters. In 1 9 8 1 , the c o m p a n y that o w n e d the rights to the 1928 G u s
K a h n a n d Walter D o n a l d s o n s t a n d a r d " M a k i n ' W h o o p e e " filed suit
against Yoko O n o , collaborator a n d s p o u s e of f o r m e r Beatle J o h n Lenn o n , for her s o n g " I ' m Your A n g e l " on the 1981 a l b u m Double
Fantasy.
Jazz pianist K e i t h Jarrett p u r s u e d action against Steely D a n s o n g w r i t e r s
D o n a l d F a g e n a n d Walter B e c k e r for j a z z - t i n g e d cuts f r o m their a l b u m
Gaucho.
A c t i o n s s u c h as these did n o t h i n g to p r o m o t e originality and
n e w m u s i c . In fact, the p u b l i c i t y a b o u t s u c h suits p r o b a b l y retarded creativity b y generating a n a u r a of fear a n d t r e p i d a t i o n .
19
T h e n , in 1 9 8 8 , a n o t h e r artist w h o " w e n t to t h e w e l l " of t h e A m e r i c a n r h y t h m a n d b l u e s tradition w o n a m a j o r c a s e that w a s strikingly
s i m i l a r to t h e H a r r i s o n o r d e a l . O n l y this t i m e , the s o n g w r i t e r in q u e s tion, J o h n Fogerty, h a d w r i t t e n b o t h t h e o r i g i n a l s o n g a n d the later
o n e . F o g e r t y w a s a c c u s e d of c o p y i n g f r o m h i m s e l f . F o g e r t y h a d b e e n
the leader, d r i v i n g force b e h i n d , a n d chief s o n g w r i t e r of the s u c c e s s ful 1 9 6 0 s c o u n t r y - b l u e s - r o c k b a n d C r e e d e n c e C l e a r w a t e r R e v i v a l .
L i k e m a n y y o u n g a n d n a i v e s o n g w r i t e r s , i n c l u d i n g Willie D i x o n , F o g e r t y h a d s i g n e d a c o n t r a c t earlier in his c a r e e r that g r a n t e d all rights
to his s o n g s to a p u b l i s h i n g c o m p a n y , J o n d o r a , w h i c h w a s o w n e d b y
F a n t a s y R e c o r d s . A f t e r F o g e r t y split w i t h his b a n d a n d F a n t a s y in the
e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s , h e r e f u s e d to p l a y hits f r o m h i s old c a t a l o g u e b e c a u s e h e
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r e s e n t e d t h e p e r f o r m a n c e royalties f l o w i n g to F a n t a s y a n d its president, S a u l Z a e n t z . T h o s e y e a r s of b i t t e r n e s s p u s h e d F o g e r t y out of the
r o c k s p o t l i g h t . H i s refusal to p l a y his o l d s o n g s d i s c o n n e c t e d F o g e r t y
f r o m his f a n s . T h e n , in 1985, F o g e r t y r e l e a s e d his " c o m e b a c k " a l b u m ,
Centerfield.
T h e a l b u m y i e l d e d a n u m b e r of hits that g e n e r a t e d a i r p l a y
a n d sales, i n c l u d i n g " R o c k a n d R o l l G i r l s , " w h i c h s h a r e s a c h o r d pattern a n d b e a t w i t h classics s u c h as R i t c h i e V a l e n s ' s " L a B a m b a " a n d
the I s l e y B r o t h e r s ' " T w i s t a n d S h o u t , " a n d t h e title cut " C e n t e r f i e l d , "
w h i c h q u o t e s a line f r o m C h u c k B e r r y ' s s o n g " B r o w n - E y e d H a n d s o m e M a n , " s i g n i f y i n g that the a l b u m w a s j u s t the latest link in the
r h y t h m a n d b l u e s chain. H o w e v e r , t w o of t h e s o n g s o n the a l b u m
s e e m e d to b e direct a t t a c k s o n F o g e r t y ' s n e m e s i s , F a n t a s y p r e s i d e n t
Z a e n t z . " M r . G r e e d , w h y y o u g o t t a o w n e v e r y t h i n g that y o u see? Mr.
Greed, w h y you put a chain on everybody livin' free?" Fogerty sang
on t h e s o n g " M r . G r e e d . " A n d t h e final s o n g o n t h e a l b u m w a s called
" Z a n z K a n ' t D a n z . " T h e refrain i n c l u d e s the line " b u t h e ' l l steal y o u r
money."
2 0
Z a e n t z filed suit. But h e h a d f o u n d a stronger claim t h a n d e f a m a tion or libel o n w h i c h to attack Fogerty. Z a e n t z a r g u e d that the o p e n i n g
song o n Centerfield,
" T h e Old M a n d o w n the R o a d , " contains a b a s s line,
r h y t h m , a n d guitar b r i d g e that are similar to those of the 1970 Creed e n c e C l e a r w a t e r Revival hit " R u n t h r o u g h the J u n g l e . " W h i l e Fogerty
h a d w r i t t e n " R u n t h r o u g h the J u n g l e , " Z a e n t z still o w n e d the rights to
it. D u r i n g the j u r y trial in S a n F r a n c i s c o , b o t h sides called a series of m u sicologists to discuss influence a n d originality in m u s i c . T h e n F o g e r t y
took the stand w i t h his guitar in h a n d . O v e r a d a y a n d a half, F o g e r t y
p l a y e d for the j u r y s u c h songs as " P r o u d M a r y , " " D o w n o n the C o r n e r , "
a n d " F o r t u n a t e S o n " to explain his creative process. M o s t importantly,
F o g e r t y p l a y e d tapes of old H o w l i n ' Wolf a n d Bo D i d d l e y s o n g s , then
p i c k e d u p his guitar a n d p l a y e d a B o D i d d l e y s o n g called " B r i n g It
to J e r o m e , " w h i c h contains riffs a n d r h y t h m s similar to b o t h " R u n
t h r o u g h the J u n g l e " a n d " T h e O l d M a n d o w n the R o a d . " T h e j u r y
f o u n d for F o g e r t y after t w o h o u r s of d e l i b e r a t i o n .
21
T h e H a r r i s o n a n d F o g e r t y cases s h o w that the case l a w c o n c e r n i n g
the reuse of tropes a n d e l e m e n t s f r o m older s o n g s m a k e s little or n o
space for p e r f o r m a n c e - b a s e d m o d e l s of o r i g i n a l i t y — c o n t r i b u t i o n s of
style or delivery. J u d g e s s u c h as O w e n in the H a r r i s o n case h a v e tried
to e m p l o y the structuralist reading m e t h o d that J u d g e L e a r n e d H a n d
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
131
d e v e l o p e d (although O w e n ' s o p i n i o n s e e m s to o w e s o m e t h i n g to F r e u d
as w e l l ) . But these cases h a v e n o t yielded a n y t h i n g close to a simple or
clear s t a n d a r d for d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r o n e s o n g in the blues tradition
infringes o n another. T h e ruling in the H a r r i s o n case s e e m e d to b e n d in
favor of older c o m p o s e r s , putting the b u r d e n of clearing influences on
n e w e r s o n g w r i t e r s . Yet the j u d g m e n t in the F o g e r t y case s e e m e d to
grant " C r e e d e n c e " to the n o t i o n that s o n g w r i t e r s s h o u l d b e a l l o w e d to
d r a w from the blues tradition well.
T h e H a r r i s o n a n d F o g e r t y cases are c o n c e r n e d w i t h h o w songwriters m i g h t t r a m p l e o n the c o m p o s i t i o n r i g h t s — t h a t is, the actual notes
a n d s t r u c t u r e — o f a n o l d e r song. But there are t w o o t h e r m a j o r rights
in the " b u n d l e " of rights that m a k e u p m u s i c a l copyright: p e r f o r m ance rights a n d m e c h a n i c a l rights. P e r f o r m a n c e rights c o n c e r n public
concerts, radio play, j u k e b o x play, a n d other m e d i a exhibitions. Perform a n c e rights are u s u a l l y l i c e n s e d — a n d royalties c o l l e c t e d — t h r o u g h
c o n s o r t i u m s s u c h as the A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y of C o m p o s e r s , A u t h o r s ,
a n d P u b l i s h e r s ( A S C A P ) a n d B r o a d c a s t M u s i c , Inc. ( B M I ) . M e c h a n i c a l
rights are the rights to r e p r o d u c e particular recordings of the song or
a l b u m . Before the 1980s, i n f r i n g e m e n t suits that dealt w i t h m e c h a n i c a l
rights generally c o n c e r n e d large-scale pirating of records a n d tapes.
Suits over c o m p o s i t i o n rights dealt w i t h the re-use of melody, h a r m o n y ,
or l y r i c s .
22
H o w e v e r , digital t e c h n o l o g y a n d the rise of u r b a n h i p - h o p culture
c o m p l i c a t e d that dichotomy. R a p does n o t u s e m e l o d y a n d h a r m o n y in
the s a m e w a y s that other f o r m s of m u s i c do. In fact, r a p artists often
" s a m p l e " bits of o t h e r s ' m e l o d y a n d h a r m o n y , a n d use those " s a m p l e s "
as part of a r h y t h m track, c o m p l e t e l y t r a n s f o r m i n g a n d recycling those
pieces of m u s i c . R a p is R e v o l u t i o n a r y b e c a u s e it did n o t e m e r g e directly
from the A m e r i c a n blues tradition. It is an e x a m p l e of a n d expression of
" A f r o d i a s p o r i c " b l a c k culture, derived in f o r m a n d function from
Caribbean music more than from American rhythm and blues.
23
How-
ever, in the U n i t e d States, rap artists u s e d w h a t e v e r b u i l d i n g b l o c k s
t h e y f o u n d in their e n v i r o n m e n t to construct a n A m e r i c a n r a p tradition.
So instead of playing similar riffs or m e l o d i e s f r o m o t h e r artists o n their
o w n i n s t r u m e n t s , early rap c o m p o s e r s w e a v e d s a m p l e s from familiar
songs into a n e w m o n t a g e of s o u n d . B y the early 1990s c o p y r i g h t cases
c o n c e r n i n g m e c h a n i c a l rights intersected w i t h the unstable principles
of c o m p o s i t i o n rights.
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FEAR O F A S A M P L I N G PLANET: H O W RAP BUM-RUSHED
COPYRIGHT
LAW
O v e r the raunchy, driving J i m m y P a g e guitar chords of the L e d Z e p pelin s o n g " K a s h m i r , " Philadelphia rapper S c h o o l l y D b e l l o w s the
w o r d s " W a y w a y d o w n in the j u n g l e d e e p " — s i g n a t u r e of the African
A m e r i c a n folk p o e m " S i g n i f y i n g M o n k e y . " In the traditional p o e m , the
trickster m o n k e y u s e s his w i t s a n d his c o m m a n d of diction to o u t s m a r t
a m o r e p o w e r f u l adversary. T h e " S i g n i f y i n g M o n k e y " h a s a p p e a r e d in
various f o r m s in blues recordings, folktale e t h n o g r a p h i e s , the p o e t r y of
Larry N e a l , a n d the blacksploitation film Dolomite.
O n l y this t i m e , the
trickster tale turns u p as the lyrics to the song " S i g n i f y i n g R a p p e r " on
S c h o o l l y D ' s 1988 a l b u m Smoke Some Kill. J i m m y P a g e did not j o i n D in
the recording studio. N o r did P a g e or L e d Z e p p e l i n g a r n e r a n y credit
on the label of Smoke
Some
Kill. But the c o n t r i b u t i o n — a n d the m e s -
s a g e — i s u n m i s t a k a b l e . S c h o o l l y D is " s i g n i f y i n g " o n L e d Z e p p e l i n , a
m o r e p o w e r f u l cultural force t h a n h e is. A m o n g the r a w materials available to creative b l a c k y o u t h in the deindustrialized R e a g a n - e r a cities
w e r e piles of w a r p e d vinyl, scraps of s o u n d s . Pretentions to " a u t h e n t i c i t y " s e e m e d silly. " C r e d i t , " in all its v a r i o u s m e a n i n g s , w a s n o t forthc o m i n g to b l a c k y o u t h o r b l a c k culture. W h y s h o u l d t h e y g i v e it w h e n
they w e r e n ' t receiving it? L e d Z e p p e l i n did n o t " c r e d i t " the blues m a s ters as often as t h e y c o u l d h a v e , so w h y s h o u l d Schoolly D do a n y t h i n g
b u t reciprocate? Yet b y rapping a n u p d a t e d a n d u n e x p u r g a t e d version
of a n African A m e r i c a n folktale, Schoolly D w a s p r o c l a i m i n g his connection to s o m e t h i n g that w a s o n c e " r e a l , " b y constructing a musical
w o r k that felt n o t h i n g like " r e a l " m u s i c . R e p e a t i n g a n d reusing the
guitar riff from " K a s h m i r " w a s a transgressive a n d disrespectful a c t — a
" d i s " of L e d Z e p p e l i n a n d the culture that p r o d u c e d , r e w a r d e d , a n d
honored Led Zeppelin.
24
Schoolly D released " S i g n i f y i n g R a p p e r " a d e c a d e after rap first attracted the attention of y o u n g p e o p l e a n d m u s i c executives a r o u n d the
w o r l d . T h e first rap record to attract radio p l a y a n d w i d e s p r e a d sales,
the Sugarhill G a n g ' s " R a p p e r ' s D e l i g h t " (1979), rode the t h u m p i n g instrumental track f r o m C h i c ' s " G o o d T i m e s , " a disco hit that also served
as the b a c k i n g track for m a n y free-form rap s o n g s of the 1970s. F r o m the
late 1970s t h r o u g h the early 1990s, m o s t rap s o n g s a d h e r e d to a n d imp r o v e d on the f o r m u l a p o p u l a r i z e d b y " R a p p e r ' s D e l i g h t , " s p o k e n
r h y m e s p u n c t u a t i n g a b a c k g r o u n d m o n t a g e c o n s t r u c t e d from u n a u -
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
133
thorized pieces of p r e v i o u s l y recorded m u s i c . T h e e x p a n s i o n of the
m a r k e t for rap m u s i c w a s p h e n o m e n a l . In 1987, rap records represented
11.6 percent of all the m u s i c sales in the U n i t e d States. B y 1990, rap w a s
18.3 percent of the m u s i c b u s i n e s s .
25
R a p ' s rise f r o m a n u r b a n h o b b y to a major i n d u s t r y rocked the status quo of n o t o n l y the m u s i c industry, b u t the legal w o r l d as w e l l . Since
the late 1970s, r a p artists h a v e p u s h e d the b o u n d a r i e s of free expression
with sexually explicit lyrics a n d descriptions of v i o l e n c e b y a n d against
l a w enforcers. T h e y h a v e raised questions a b o u t society's p o w e r structures from the ghettos to the Gallerias. In m a n y cases, legal a n d societal
traditions h a d n o w a y to deal w i t h these fresh a n d strong sentiments
that d r o v e t h r o u g h A m e r i c a in a n o p e n j e e p , p o w e r e d b y a h e a v y beat.
That's w h a t h a p p e n e d w h e n a n e n t r e n c h e d a n d exciting h i p - h o p
tradition, s a m p l i n g , energized b y digital technology, e n c r o a c h e d u p o n
o n e of the m o s t a m b i g u o u s areas of the A m e r i c a n legal tradition: A m e r ican c o p y r i g h t law. C o m p l i c a t i n g the clash, the c o n c e p t of c o p y r i g h t h a s
b e e n d e e p l y e n t r e n c h e d in w e s t e r n literary tradition for centuries, b u t
does n o t p l a y the s a m e role in African, C a r i b b e a n , or African A m e r i c a n
oral traditions. It's far too s i m p l e a n d inaccurate to declare that c o p y righting h a s b e e n a w h i t e thing; s a m p l i n g , b o r r o w i n g , or q u o t i n g h a s
b e e n a b l a c k thing. T h e t u r m o i l that r a p h a s created in c o p y r i g h t l a w is
m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n just a clash of stereotypically o p p o s e d cultures. It's
not just a case of mistrust a n d m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g . R a p — f o r a m o m e n t —
revealed g a p i n g flaws in the p r e m i s e s of h o w copyright l a w gets a p plied to m u s i c a n d s h o w n the l a w to b e i n a d e q u a t e for e m e r g i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n technologies, t e c h n i q u e s , a n d aesthetics.
T h e tension in the l a w is not b e t w e e n u r b a n lower class a n d c o r p o rate uberclass. It's n o t b e t w e e n b l a c k artists a n d w h i t e record e x e c u tives. It's not a l w a y s a result of conflicts b e t w e e n w h i t e s o n g w r i t e r s and
the b l a c k c o m p o s e r s w h o s a m p l e t h e m . It is in fact a s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n
the established entities in the m u s i c b u s i n e s s a n d those trying to get established. It is a conflict b e t w e e n old a n d n e w . A s the m a r k e t for r a p and
the i n d u s t r y that supports it g r e w a n d m a t u r e d t h r o u g h the 1980s and
1990s, the l a w shifted c o n s i d e r a b l y in favor of established artists and
c o m p a n i e s , a n d against e m e r g i n g o n e s . S o b y the late 1990s, r a p artists
w i t h o u t the s u p p o r t of a m a j o r record c o m p a n y a n d its l a w y e r s , without a large p o o l of m o n e y to p a y license fees for s a m p l e s , h a d a choice:
either d o n ' t s a m p l e or d o n ' t m a r k e t n e w m u s i c . C o p y r i g h t l a w is designed to forbid the u n a u t h o r i z e d c o p y i n g or p e r f o r m a n c e of a n o t h e r ' s
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w o r k . A u t h o r i z a t i o n m e a n s licensing. Licensing m e a n s fees. Violations
b r i n g lawsuits. L a w s u i t s b r i n g settlements. B u t the practice of digital
s a m p l i n g , h a v i n g g a i n e d access to the a i r w a v e s a n d record stores less
than t w o d e c a d e s a g o , is relatively n e w to the m u s i c b u s i n e s s a n d its
l a w y e r s . For the longest t i m e , n o o n e s e e m e d to b e able to agree o n a fair
price for licensing s a m p l e s . N o o n e s e e m e d to k n o w the best w a y to
structure the fees. N o o n e s e e m e d to k n o w exactly h o w existing statutes
a n d case l a w w o u l d a p p l y to alleged violations of m u s i c a l copyrights.
A n d b e f o r e 1 9 9 1 , n o o n e h a d p u r s u e d a s a m p l i n g case t h r o u g h to a j u dicial r u l i n g .
26
Yet e n t e r t a i n m e n t l a w y e r s , a l a r m e d o v e r these a n d other issues, reacted w i t h v a r y i n g degrees of a n g e r a n d c o n c e r n . J u a n C a r l o s Thorn, a
Los A n g e l e s lawyer, m u s i c i a n , p l a y w r i g h t , a n d actor, w r o t e in 1988:
Digital sampling is a pirate's dream come true and a nightmare for all
the artists, musicians, engineers and record manufacturers. Federal
courts must update their view of piracy and interpretation of the
[Copyright] Act to meet the sophistication of digital technology.
Sounds are not ideas, but expressions, and therefore copyrighted
works. . . . Unchecked digital sampling will present the incongruous
result of a copyrighted work which is both protected by copyright but
is also part of the public domain. By any standard, digital sampling is
nothing but old fashioned piracy dressed in sleek new technology.
27
A s it e m e r g e d o n the A m e r i c a n m u s i c s c e n e in the late 1970s, h i p - h o p
m u s i c w a s c o m p o s e d of t w o layers of creative r a w material. O n the top
w a s the vocalization, the rap itself. T h e r h y m e s w e r e — a n d still a r e —
in h e a v y dialect, u r b a n African A m e r i c a n , C a r i b b e a n , or S p a n i s h , a n d
w e r e originally i m p r o v i s e d . R a p p e r s focus m u c h of their efforts on
b o a s t i n g of their o w n abilities in arenas as diverse as sex, sports, money,
k n o w l e d g e , or r h y m i n g ability. S o m e t i m e s raps s e r v e to s h o w disrespect for p e o p l e in authority, or e v e n o t h e r r a p p e r s . M a n y of the vocal
habits of r a p p e r s are easily traced to the African A m e r i c a n tradition of
" t o a s t i n g , " or " p l a y i n g the d o z e n s , " a n d ultimately to the A f r i c a n oral
tradition of " s i g n i f y i n g . "
28
In addition, rap styles of the last t w e n t y
years b e a r significant r e s e m b l a n c e a n d o w e a h e a v y d e b t to scat singers
like C a b Calloway, r h y t h m a n d b l u e s p e r f o r m e r s like Otis R e d d i n g , a n d
rock precursors like B o Diddley. A m o r e direct d e b t s h o u l d b e paid to
J a m e s B r o w n , Isaac H a y e s , G e o r g e Clinton, a n d M u h a m m a d A l i .
29
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
135
U n d e r l y i n g the rap v o c a l tracks is the b e d of m u s i c . B e c a u s e the art
w a s originally p e r f o r m e d a n d perfected b y disk j o c k e y s , the r h y t h m s
a n d m e l o d i e s of the tunes w e r e essentially lifted f r o m records that w e r e
p o p u l a r d a n c e t h e m e s at the t i m e . So w h i l e the oral traditions of dissing a n d signifying c a n b e easily l i n k e d , the vinyl traditions are of m o r e
obscure l i n e a g e .
30
E a r l y DJs scratched a n d s a m p l e d w h a t e v e r records
t h e y h a d , a n d listened specifically for f u n k y b r e a k s , or at least f u n n y
c o m b i n a t i o n s . T h e y f u s e d a m i s h m a s h m o s a i c of s a m p l e s that w o u l d
c o n f o u n d a n y b o d y trying to a s s e m b l e a s i m p l e ethnic g e n e a l o g y for the
birth a n d g r o w t h of r a p .
31
W h a t d e v e l o p e d i n rap in the 1970s a n d 1980s h a s b e e n c o m p a r e d
to w h a t h a p p e n e d to jazz in the 1940s a n d 1950s, w h e n D i z z y Gillespie
a n d Charlie Parker took it h i g h e r b y cutting u p a n d i m p r o v i s i n g o n top
of stale s t a n d a r d s like " I G o t R h y t h m " a n d " H o w H i g h the M o o n . "
3 2
If
w e c o u l d trace the tradition of b o r r o w i n g other p e o p l e ' s m u s i c , m a k i n g
it o n e ' s o w n , a n d i m p r o v i s i n g o n top of it, b a c k t h r o u g h A f r i c a n A m e r ican m u s i c a l h i s t o r y to Africa, a simple thesis w o u l d e m e r g e : T h e rap on
s a m p l i n g w o u l d b e that A m e r i c a n l a w s d o n ' t deal w i t h African traditions. T h e history, as w e h a v e seen w i t h blues m u s i c , is n o t that simple. In Africa, m u s i c a n d p o e t r y are n o t s i m p l y c o n s i d e r e d c o m m u n i t y
property. S o m e cultural anthropologists h a v e c l a i m e d that authorship
a n d c o m p o s i t i o n h o l d little or n o v a l u e in A f r i c a n societies, b u t this is
an oversimplified a n d ethnocentric n o t i o n .
33
I n s t e a d , it is easier, a n d p e r h a p s m o r e a c c u r a t e , to trace this tradition b a c k a l o n g t w o lines: o n e t h r o u g h m i d - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n r h y t h m
a n d b l u e s a n d j a z z , a n d t h e o t h e r t h r o u g h m o r e recent i m m i g r a n t inf l u e n c e s f r o m the C a r i b b e a n i s l a n d s . C a r i b b e a n i s l a n d e r s , s o m e w h a t
freer of t h e s p e c i a l social c o n s t r a i n t s that A m e r i c a n b l a c k s felt, h a d
the ability to b u i l d a n d control their o w n m u s i c industry. T h e y also
h a d t h e b e n e f i t of c h o o s i n g the b e s t of A m e r i c a n , British, a n d A f r i c a n
i n f l u e n c e s to b l e n d into their m u s i c . A n d in J a m a i c a , m o r e t h a n in
m o s t c u l t u r e s , the c o n c e p t of m u s i c as c o m m u n i t y p r o p e r t y is i m p o r tant to the d e v e l o p m e n t of c o m m e r c i a l l y v i a b l e art f o r m s .
3 4
Dick Heb-
dige, a m u s i c s c h o l a r w h o s p e c i a l i z e s i n h o w C a r i b b e a n m u s i c h a s
affected w o r l d m u s i c in g e n e r a l , c l a i m s that " v e r s i o n i n g , " the rep e a t e d b o r r o w i n g a n d r e c y c l i n g of a p o p u l a r s t a n d a r d , is t h e k e y to
n o t o n l y r e g g a e , b u t all A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n a n d C a r i b b e a n m u s i c . H e b d i g e w r i t e s that o f t e n w h e n a r e g g a e r e c o r d is r e l e a s e d , h u n d r e d s of
dif-ferent v e r s i o n s of the s a m e r h y t h m or m e l o d y w i l l b e r e l e a s e d in
136
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
the s u b s e q u e n t w e e k s . E v e r y n e w v e r s i o n w i l l s l i g h t l y m o d i f y the
original t u n e .
35
In the m i d - 1 9 7 0 s , s k a a n d reggae p r o d u c e r s i n v e n t e d a n e w w a y to
version. T h e y b e g a n f a d i n g instrumental tracks in a n d out, p l a y i n g b a s s
off of vocals, s l o w i n g d o w n the r h y t h m , a n d t h r o w i n g in e c h o e s . T h e y
called this process " d u b b i n g . " It i n v o l v e d different r a w materials than
s a m p l i n g , b u t the s a m e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s . H e b d i g e w r i t e s that w h i l e
36
the studio e n v i r o n m e n t s p a w n e d d u b b i n g , the d a n c e hall scene incub a t e d the vocal precursor to A m e r i c a n rap: the D J t a l k - o v e r .
37
T h e r e is a recent a n d clear link b e t w e e n N e w York h i p - h o p in the
1970s a n d J a m a i c a n " v e r s i o n i n g " in the 1960s. H i s n a m e is K o o l H e r e .
38
K o o l Here c a m e to the B r o n x f r o m J a m a i c a in 1967. O n his n a t i v e island,
h e h a d h e a r d " t a l k - o v e r " DJs a n d k n e w the scat-singing techniques of
s o m e of the s k a a n d reggae artists w h o h a d c h u r n e d out international
hits during the 1 9 6 0 s .
39
H e b d i g e explains h o w K o o l Here i m p o r t e d al-
m o s t all the n e c e s s a r y p r e c u r s o r s to m o d e r n rap m u s i c : B y 1973 Here
o w n e d the loudest a n d m o s t p o w e r f u l s o u n d s y s t e m in his n e i g h b o r h o o d . But w h e n h e d e e j a y e d at h o u s e parties Here f o u n d that the N e w
York A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n c r o w d w o u l d n o t d a n c e to reggae or other
C a r i b b e a n b e a t s . So Here b e g a n talking o v e r the Latin-tinged f u n k that
h e l d b r o a d , m u l t i e t h n i c a p p e a l i n the B r o n x . Gradually, h e d e v e l o p e d a
p o p u l a r a n d recognizable style. Here b e g a n b u y i n g records for the instrumental b r e a k s rather than for the w h o l e t r a c k .
40
Here b e c a m e o n e of
the first—if n o t the first—to discover that h e c o u l d s a m p l e the hearts
out of a pile of vinyl a n d give a r o o m full of p e o p l e p l e n t y to t a s t e .
41
Before too long, o t h e r N e w York DJs p i c k e d u p o n the p o p u l a r i t y of
H e r e ' s style. T h e first c h a n g e s t h e y m a d e w e r e to incorporate classic
r h y t h m a n d blues riffs a n d b r e a k s , a d d i n g the thrill of recognition to the
groove, " s c r a t c h i n g " a record to create a n e w r h y t h m track, a n d rapping
in a n A m e r i c a n dialect full of street s l a n g .
42
To c o m p l e m e n t the linkage
of A m e r i c a n s a m p l i n g w i t h C a r i b b e a n v e r s i o n i n g , there h a v e b e e n suggestions that the v o c a l styles of A m e r i c a n rap m a y h a v e thicker Caribb e a n roots than previously thought. M u s i c critic Daisarm McLarte argues that r a p ' s strongest a n d m o s t o b v i o u s m u s i c a l a n d ideological
links are n o t to Africa b u t to the West Indies a n d the A f r o - C a r i b b e a n
styles of c a l y p s o a n d reggae. C a l y p s o lyrical style, for instance, overflows w i t h double entendres, verbal duels, a n d playful boasts. T h e s e
t h e m e s are c o m m o n in A m e r i c a n rap l y r i c s .
43
In A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r m u s i c , v e r s i o n i n g or b o r r o w i n g is n o t u n -
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
137
heard of, a l t h o u g h it h a s traditionally b e e n w h i t e artists v e r s i o n i n g the
w o r k of b l a c k artists. T h e B e a c h B o y s lifted riffs f r o m C h u c k B e r r y that
d o m i n a t e d their s o n g s to the s a m e extent that Van H a l e n ' s " J a m i e ' s
C r y i n g " guitar riff stands a l o n e as the b a c k i n g track to Tone L o c ' s " W i l d
Thing."
4 4
T h e traditional N e w O r l e a n s r h y t h m a n d blues s o n g " S t a g g e r
L e e " ( w h i c h in its original f o r m is called " S t a c k - o - L e e " ) , is o n e A m e r i can s o n g that h a s b e e n v e r s i o n e d so m a n y times that it h a s served as alm o s t a s i g n a t u r e s o n g for N e w O r l e a n s m u s i c . Stagger w a s a b a d m a n ,
into g a m b l i n g , drinking, a n d fighting. His tales of g l u t t o n y a n d b a d
l u c k h a v e taken on a l m o s t as m a n y plots as voices. It c a n still b e h e a r d
covered in live m u s i c clubs large a n d small all over the U n i t e d S t a t e s .
45
S a m p l i n g , as o p p o s e d to s i m p l y imitating, b e c a m e a big issue in
A m e r i c a n m u s i c after digital t e c h n o l o g y b e c a m e c h e a p a n d easily available a n d its p r o d u c t s b e c a m e i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r .
46
Digital s a m p l i n g is
a p r o c e s s b y w h i c h s o u n d s are c o n v e r t e d into b i n a r y units r e a d a b l e b y
a c o m p u t e r . A digital converter m e a s u r e s the tone a n d intensity of a
s o u n d a n d assigns it a c o r r e s p o n d i n g v o l t a g e . T h e digital c o d e is then
stored in a c o m p u t e r m e m o r y b a n k , or a tape or disc, a n d c a n b e retrieved a n d m a n i p u l a t e d electronically.
47
But w h y do r a p artists s a m p l e in the first place? W h a t m e a n i n g s are
t h e y i m p a r t i n g ? S o m e s o n g s g r a b bits a n d pieces of different p o p culture s i g n p o s t s , w h i l e others, s u c h as Tone L o c ' s " W i l d T h i n g " or H a m m e r ' s " U C a n ' t Touch T h i s , " w h i c h lays lyrics u p o n a b a c k i n g track
m a d e u p a l m o s t entirely of Rick J a m e s ' s " S u p e r F r e a k " instrumentals,
h a r d l y s t a n d a l o n e as s o n g s , b u t are truly " v e r s i o n s " of s o m e o n e else's
hits.
48
S o m e t i m e s , as w i t h S c h o o l l y D ' s s a m p l i n g of L e d Z e p p e l i n ' s
" K a s h m i r " for his s o n g " S i g n i f y i n g R a p p e r , " it c a n b e a political a c t — a
w a y of crossing the s y s t e m , c h a l l e n g i n g expectations, or confronting
the status q u o . O f t e n , the choice of the s a m p l e is an e x p r e s s i o n of a p preciation, debt, or influence. O t h e r times it's just a m a t t e r of h a v i n g
s o m e f u n or s e a r c h i n g for the right a m b i e n t s o u n d , tone, or feel. Certainly Rick J a m e s ' s f u n k y hits of the late 1970s a n d early 1980s influenced n o t o n l y artists of the 1990s b u t their a u d i e n c e s . S a m p l i n g is a
w a y a n artist declares, " H e y , I dug this, t o o . " It h e l p s f o r m a direct connection w i t h listeners, the s a m e w a y a m o v i e m a k e r m i g h t t h r o w in a
M o t o w n hit in a s o u n d t r a c k . B y the early 1990s, at least 180 recordings
b y m o r e t h a n 120 artists c o n t a i n e d s a m p l e s b y s o m e of f u n k g o d f a t h e r
G e o r g e Clinton's P - F u n k school, w h i c h i n c l u d e d 1970s b a n d s F u n k a delic, P a r l i a m e n t , a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r b a n d s h e a d e d b y C l i n t o n o r his
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HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
bassist, B o o t s y C o l l i n s .
49
It's t o u g h to s a y w h e t h e r a n e w s o n g that re-
lies a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y o n s o m e older hit riffs c a n a c h i e v e financial success o n its o w n m e r i t s . T w o of the best-selling rap hits are entirely dep e n d e n t on m a s s i v e l y d a n c e a b l e o l d e r s o n g s a n d are, sadly, lyrically
limited. T h e y are H a m m e r ' s " U C a n ' t Touch T h i s " a n d Vanilla Ice's
1990 single " I c e Ice B a b y , " w h i c h w a s a stiff a n d m e a n i n g l e s s rap over
the b a c k i n g track to the 1982 D a v i d B o w i e - Q u e e n hit " U n d e r Pressure."
50
Village Voice m u s i c critic Greg Tate e x p l a i n e d the aesthetic v a l u e
of sampling: " M u s i c b e l o n g s to the p e o p l e , a n d s a m p l i n g isn't a c o p y cat act b u t a f o r m of r e a n i m a t i o n . S a m p l i n g in h i p - h o p is the digitized
v e r s i o n of h i p - h o p D J i n g , a n archival project a n d a n art f o r m u n t o itself.
H i p - h o p is ancestor w o r s h i p . "
5 1
S a m p l i n g h e l p s forge a " d i s c u r s i v e c o m m u n i t y " a m o n g m u s i c fans.
R a p m u s i c first m a d e that c o n n e c t i o n to w h i t e a u d i e n c e s — a n d thus exp a n d e d the discursive c o m m u n i t y e x p o n e n t i a l l y — i n 1986, w h e n R u n
D M C released its v e r s i o n of the 1977 A e r o s m i t h song, " W a l k This
Way."
52
Within the African A m e r i c a n discursive c o m m u n i t y , rap s o n g s
serve, in historian G e o r g e Lipsitz's w o r d s , as "repositories of social
memory."
5 3
Lipsitz particularly credits the m a t r i x of cultural signs high-
lighted b y s a m p l i n g a n d realistic lyrics that d o c u m e n t the struggles of
inner-city life. S a m p l i n g can b e transgressive or appreciative, h u m o r ous o r serious. It g i v e s a song another level of m e a n i n g , a n o t h e r p l a n e
of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g the artist, p r e v i o u s artists, a n d the a u d i e n c e .
Digital s a m p l i n g also h a d a p o w e r f u l d e m o c r a t i z i n g effect on
A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r m u s i c . All a y o u n g c o m p o s e r n e e d e d w a s a thick
stack of vinyl a l b u m s , a $2,000 sampler, a m i c r o p h o n e , a n d a tape deck,
a n d s h e c o u l d m a k e fresh a n d p o w e r f u l m u s i c . S h e c o u l d m a k e p e o p l e
d a n c e , laugh, a n d sing along. S h e m i g h t , u n d e r the right conditions, be
able to m a k e m o n e y from the practice. A s critic J o h n L e l a n d w r o t e in
Spin: " T h e digital s a m p l i n g device h a s c h a n g e d n o t o n l y the s o u n d of
p o p m u s i c , but also the mythology. It h a s d o n e w h a t p u n k r o c k threatened to do: m a d e e v e r y b o d y into a potential m u s i c i a n , b r i d g e d the gap
between performer and audience."
54
Clearly, s a m p l i n g as a n A m e r i c a n expression w a s raised in the
B r o n x , b u t w a s p r o b a b l y b o r n in the C a r i b b e a n . Its aesthetic a p p e a l is
d e e p l y e m b e d d e d in African A m e r i c a n a n d A f r o - C a r i b b e a n culture, if
not for m o s t of this half century, then certainly over the last twenty-five
years. M o r e significantly, for a w h i l e in the late 1980s, it l o o k e d as if
transgressive s a m p l i n g w a s n o t going to go away. It m a d e too m u c h
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139
m o n e y a n d w a s too i m p o r t a n t to the m e a n i n g a n d m e s s a g e of r a p . D u r ing the first d e c a d e of rap, the legal questions s u r r o u n d i n g s a m p l i n g
g r e w m o r e t r o u b l e s o m e for b o t h artists a n d labels as rap b e c a m e m o r e
p o p u l a r a n d the e c o n o m i c stakes rose. S a m p l i n g s e e m e d to u n d e r m i n e
the v e r y definitions of " w o r k , " " a u t h o r , " a n d " o r i g i n a l " — t e r m s on
w h i c h c o p y r i g h t l a w rests. C o n s i d e r a s o n g w i t h a b a c k i n g m u s i c a l
track filled w i t h bits a n d pieces of other w o r k s , o t h e r s ' applications of
skill, labor, a n d j u d g m e n t . T h e r e ' s a Keith Richards guitar riff h e r e and
there. W e h e a r B o o t s y Collins's t h u m b - p i c k e d a n d h a n d - s l a p p e d bass
filling in the b o t t o m . T h e r h y t h m is kept constant t h r o u g h a n electronic
d r u m m a c h i n e . We h e a r the occasional m o a n of a Staple S i n g e r or a
shout of J a m e s B r o w n . T h e n e w w o r k m a y exist as a n individual w o r k
p e r se. T h e new, c o m p o s i t e , m o s a i c w o r k is a s s e m b l e d f r o m these s a m ples t h r o u g h a n i n d e p e n d e n t application of skill, labor, a n d j u d g m e n t .
Is e a c h of t h e s e s a m p l e s a c o p y r i g h t i n f r i n g e m e n t ? If the artist asks for
p e r m i s s i o n to s a m p l e the K e i t h R i c h a r d s r i f f — w h i c h m i g h t b e a n expression of C h u c k B e r r y ' s or H o u n d o g T a y l o r ' s i d e a — d o e s s h e a d m i t
that p e r m i s s i o n s h o u l d h a v e b e e n s o u g h t for the b a s s line? H o w a b o u t
the m o a n s a n d s h o u t s , w h i c h c o u l d easily b e c o n s i d e r e d " s i g n a t u r e
s o u n d s " a n d t h u s m a r k e t a b l e qualities? If the artist, the a s s e m b l e r of the
m o s a i c , h a d hired studio m u s i c i a n s to imitate these distinctive s o u n d s ,
instead of splicing digital grafts o n t o a n e w tape, w o u l d s h e b e lifting
u n p r o t e c t e d " i d e a s , " instead of tangible p r o d u c t s of actual skill, labor,
a n d j u d g m e n t ? If a p e r s o n recorded a n entire song b a s e d u p o n the
m u s i c to " T h e B o o g i e - W o o g i e B u g l e B o y of C o m p a n y B , " a n d a court
f o u n d the u s e of the score to b e o u t s i d e the d o m a i n of fair use, then the
d e f e n d a n t w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d to p a y the a p p r o p r i a t e p e n a l t y for violating the letter a n d spirit of the c o p y r i g h t law. But w h a t if the d e f e n d a n t
u s e d o n l y the n o t e s a n d w o r d s of the " B o o g i e - W o o g i e " portion of the
refrain, a n d r e p e a t e d t h e m t h r o u g h o u t a s o n g that h a d other creative ele m e n t s in it? H a s the right to the original " w o r k " b e e n infringed?
Courts h a v e v a r i e d in their rulings of h o w m u c h o n e m a y take before a
" w o r k " h a s b e e n violated. Legal scholars agree there is n o clear g u i d e line, a n d the text of the l a w s i m p l y does not deal w i t h the i s s u e .
55
After
e x a m i n i n g this confusion, D a v i d Sanjek, director of the Broadcast
M u s i c , Inc., archives, c o n c l u d e d that the rise of digital s a m p l i n g h a d
r e m o v e d w h a t e v e r claim m u s i c i a n s h a d to " a n a u r a of a u t o n o m y and
authenticity." Sanjek w r o t e : " I f a n y o n e w i t h an available library of recordings, a grasp of recorded material history, a n d talent for ingenious
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HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
collage c a n call t h e m s e l v e s a creator of m u s i c , is it the case that the
process a n d the p r o d u c t n o l o n g e r possess the m e a n i n g o n c e assigned
to t h e m ? "
5 6
In m a n y sectors of the law, w e w o u l d expect courts to clarify issues
like these. Ideally, federal courts w o u l d s l o w l y sift t h r o u g h the c o m p e t ing a r g u m e n t s a n d s e e k a b a l a n c e that w o u l d e n s u r e f r e e d o m for the
e m e r g i n g artists w h i l e protecting the risks a n d i n v e s t m e n t s of established o n e s . But f r o m 1978 t h r o u g h 1 9 9 1 , the courts w e r e silent o n m o s t
of these issues.
T H E ILLIN' EFFECT: H O W C O P Y R I G H T BUM-RUSHED RAP
All w a s n o t w e l l for the creative p r o c e s s before courts w e i g h e d in on
s a m p l i n g issues. A n a r c h y w a s n o t p a r a d i s e . Artists also suffered b e cause of the c o n f u s i o n the practice c a u s e d in the record b u s i n e s s . R e c ord c o m p a n i e s w e r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l y risk averse. B e c a u s e s a m p l i n g
raised s o m a n y questions, labels p u s h e d their m o r e successful acts to
get p e r m i s s i o n for s a m p l e s before releasing a record. T h e p r o b l e m w a s
that n o o n e k n e w w h a t to c h a r g e for a t h r e e - s e c o n d s a m p l e . A s a 1992
n o t e in the Harvard
Law Review stated: " C o n s e q u e n t l y , the m u s i c i n d u s -
try h a s r e s p o n d e d w i t h an a d - h o c , n e g o t i a t e d licensing a p p r o a c h to
valuing m u s i c s a m p l e s . "
5 7
A s i n d u s t r y leaders a n d l a w y e r s , a n d older
songwriters, g r e w m o r e a w a r e of the p r e v a l e n c e of s a m p l i n g a n d of the
potential m o n e t a r y gain f r o m challenging it, artists b e c a m e m o r e concerned w i t h the potential costs of s a m p l i n g . This certainly retarded the
creative p r o c e s s . Artists c h o s e to s a m p l e l e s s - w e l l - k n o w n w o r k s , w o r k s
p u b l i s h e d or p r o d u c e d b y their o w n c o m p a n i e s a n d labels, or w o r k s
w i t h a lower licensing price. W h e n the Beastie B o y s w a n t e d to s a m p l e
the Beatles song " I ' m D o w n , " M i c h a e l J a c k s o n i n f o r m e d t h e m that h e
o w n e d the rights to the s o n g a n d denied t h e m p e r m i s s i o n to use it. T h e
Beastie B o y s e v e n t u a l l y o p t e d against u s i n g that s o n g .
58
Until 1 9 9 1 , n o o n e in the rap or licensing b u s i n e s s e s k n e w w h a t the
guidelines for digital s a m p l i n g w e r e . This m e a n s that on a n y given day,
an artist m a y h a v e b e e n r i p p e d off b y a n o v e r p r i c e d licensing fee, o r a
p u b l i s h i n g c o m p a n y m a y h a v e g o t t e n b u r n e d b y charging too little for
a s a m p l e that h e l p e d p r o d u c e a top h i t .
59
T h a t ' s w h y several legal schol-
ars in the late 1980s a n d early 1990s tried to f o r m u l a t e licensing s y s t e m s
b a s e d o n the use, length, a n d t y p e of s a m p l e . Still, the i n d u s t r y w a s
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
141
waiting for a court to w e i g h in so there c o u l d b e s o m e predictability and
stability in the s y s t e m .
60
Several s a m p l i n g cases w e r e settled out of court before D e c e m b e r
of 1991, p o s t p o n i n g the inevitable g u i d a n c e a judicial decision w o u l d
bring. N o n e t h e l e s s , the publicity s u r r o u n d i n g these cases m a d e older
artists h u n g r y to cash in o n the potential s a m p l i n g licensing m a r k e t . A
song that h a d ceased b r i n g i n g in royalties d e c a d e s a g o c o u l d s u d d e n l y
yield a b i g check. In 1991 M a r k V o l m a n a n d H o w a r d K a y l a n of the
1960s p o p g r o u p the Turtles s u e d the rap trio D e La S o u l for u s i n g a
t w e l v e - s e c o n d piece of the Turtles' s o n g " Y o u S h o w e d M e " in the 1989
rap track "Transmitting L i v e f r o m M a r s . " V o l m a n a n d K a y l a n s u e d for
$2.5 million, b u t r e a c h e d an out-of-court settlement for $1.7 million. D e
La Soul p a i d $141,666.67 per s e c o n d to the Turtles for a sliver of a longforgotten s o n g .
61
T h e n in D e c e m b e r 1991 a federal j u d g e issued a terse sixteen-hund r e d - w o r d ruling that all b u t shut d o w n the practice of u n a u t h o r i z e d
s a m p l i n g in rap m u s i c . In A u g u s t of 1991, Warner Brothers R e c o r d s distributed a n a l b u m released b y a small record label called C o l d Chillin'
Records. T h e artist w a s a y o u n g N e w J e r s e y rapper n a m e d Biz M a r k i e .
T h e a l b u m w a s called I Need a Haircut.
T h e r e w a s n o t h i n g particular,
u n i q u e , or special a b o u t the a l b u m . It w a s p r e t t y s u b s t a n d a r d fare for
rap a l b u m s from the late 1980s a n d early 1990s. T h e r h y m e s w e r e simple. T h e subject m a t t e r w a s juvenile. T h e p r o d u c t i o n w a s pedestrian.
T h e choice of s a m p l e s w a s neither f u n n y nor insightful. 1 Need a
Haircut
m i g h t h a v e b e e n a trivial footnote i n rap history b u t for the second-tolast cut on the album: " A l o n e A g a i n . " F o r that s o n g , Biz M a r k i e took the
first eight b a r s of the n u m b e r one single of 1972, Gilbert O ' S u l l i v a n ' s
" A l o n e A g a i n ( N a t u r a l l y ) . " M a r k i e u s e d o n l y a b o u t t w e n t y s e c o n d s of
p i a n o chords from the original s o n g , w h i c h h e l o o p e d c o n t i n u a l l y to
construct the m u s i c a l b a c k g r o u n d of the song. O ' S u l l i v a n ' s s o n g w a s a
s a p p y ballad a b o u t f a m i l y loss. M a r k i e ' s song w a s a b o u t h o w the rapp e r received n o respect as a p e r f o r m e r b a c k w h e n h e p l a y e d in c o m b o s
with old friends, but since h e h a d b e c o m e a solo p e r f o r m e r his career
h a d b e e n satisfying. M a r k i e ' s use of O ' S u l l i v a n ' s s a m p l e did n o t directly p a r o d y it, b u t it w a s essential to setting the m i n o r - c h o r d m o o d of
M a r k i e ' s tale of d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d self-sufficiency.
62
So w h i l e Biz M a r k i e ' s s o n g did n o t " c u t o n " O ' S u l l i v a n ' s s o n g , or
revise O ' S u l l i v a n ' s s o n g in a w a y that w o u l d replace it in the marketplace or e v e n g e n e r a t e c o n f u s i o n for record b u y e r s , O ' S u l l i v a n p u r s u e d
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HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
the case w i t h righteous indignation. O ' S u l l i v a n ' s attorney, J o d y P o p e ,
stated after the case e n d e d that O ' S u l l i v a n w o u l d not a l l o w his s o n g to
b e u s e d in a h u m o r o u s context, a n d w o u l d license it to b e u s e d o n l y in
its c o m p l e t e , original form. E v e n t h o u g h M a r k i e h a d r e q u e s t e d p e r m i s sion to u s e it, O ' S u l l i v a n failed to g r a n t p e r m i s s i o n b e c a u s e the use did
not m a i n t a i n either the integrity o r the original m e a n i n g of the song.
M a r k i e ' s attorneys l a u n c h e d t w o strategies for d e f e n s e , n e i t h e r particularly effective. T h e w e a k e r w a s that O ' S u l l i v a n h i m s e l f w a s not the
copyright holder, a n d thus c o u l d n o t s e e k relief f r o m the court. T h e fact
that M a r k i e ' s l a w y e r s h a d m a i l e d a tape of the s o n g to O ' S u l l i v a n aski n g for p e r m i s s i o n (they received n o reply) p e r s u a d e d the j u d g e that it
w a s clear to e v e r y o n e that O ' S u l l i v a n w a s the h o l d e r of the original
copyright. T h e other defense w a s that e v e r y b o d y in the m u s i c industry
w a s doing it. This did n o t score p o i n t s w i t h either the j u d g e or others in
the m u s i c industry. Biz M a r k i e ' s l a w y e r s did n o t claim that s a m p l i n g in
this context w a s fair u s e . T h e y c o u l d h a v e a r g u e d that o n l y a s m a l l section of O ' S u l l i v a n ' s s o n g c o n t r i b u t e d to a v a s t l y different c o m p o s i t i o n
that did n o t c o m p e t e w i t h the original song in the m a r k e t p l a c e . This fair
u s e d e f e n s e p r o b a b l y w o u l d n o t h a v e s w a y e d the j u d g e either. But they
d i d n ' t e v e n a t t e m p t to m o u n t o n e .
6 3
O ' S u l l i v a n r e q u e s t e d a n injunction against further sale of the song
a n d a l b u m . U.S. district j u d g e K e v i n T h o m a s D u f f y g l a d l y granted
O ' S u l l i v a n his w i s h . D u f f y w r o t e in terms l o a d e d w i t h hints of m o r a l
rights, n a t u r a l rights, a n d p r o p e r t y talk:
"Thou shalt not steal" has been an admonition followed since the
dawn of civilization. Unfortunately, in the modern world of business
this admonition is not always followed. Indeed, the defendants in this
action for copyright infringement would have this court believe that
stealing is rampant in the music business and, for that reason, their
conduct here should be excused. The conduct of the defendants
herein, however, violates not only the Seventh Commandment, but
also the copyright laws of this country.. . .
. . . From all of the evidence produced in the hearing, it is clear that the
defendants knew that they were violating the plaintiff's rights as well
as the rights of others. Their only aim was to sell thousands upon thousands of records. This callous disregard for the law and for the rights
of others requires not only the preliminary injunction sought by the
plaintiff but also sterner measures.
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HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
143
D u f f y c o n c l u d e d b y referring the case to a U.S. district a t t o r n e y to consider criminal prosecution. W h a t D u f f y did n o t w r i t e is as i m p o r t a n t as
w h a t h e did w r i t e . D u f f y ' s ruling did not articulate a n y n u a n c e d standard b y w h i c h a song c o u l d b e s a m p l e d , m a n i p u l a t e d , or revised without permission. It left n o " w i g g l e r o o m " for fair use. It did not consider
w h e t h e r the n e w u s e affected the m a r k e t of the original s o n g in a n y
way. It d i d n o t try to clarify h o w long a s a m p l e m u s t b e to qualify as an
infringement. T h e fact that the s a m p l e in question w a s a m e r e t w e n t y
s e c o n d s did not b o d e w e l l for fair use. D u f f y ' s brevity clarified these issues b y i g n o r i n g t h e m : " h o w m u c h ? " a n d " f o r w h a t p u r p o s e ? " n e e d
not e v e n b e asked after D u f f y ' s ruling. It w a s safe to a s s u m e that a n y
s a m p l e of a n y duration u s e d for a n y p u r p o s e m u s t b e cleared.
S o o n after D u f f y ' s ruling, M a r k i e ' s a t t o r n e y s realized t h e y w o u l d
n o t h a v e m u c h c h a n c e to w i n t h e c a s e b e f o r e Duffy. T h e y s e t t l e d . T h e
r e c o r d c o m p a n y a g r e e d to r e m o v e t h e o f f e n d i n g s o n g f r o m s u b s e q u e n t p r i n t i n g s of t h e a l b u m , a n d O ' S u l l i v a n r e c e i v e d m o n e t a r y c o m p e n s a t i o n . R e a c t i o n to D u f f y ' s ruling w a s also e x t r e m e . O n e of O ' S u l l i v a n ' s l a w y e r s d e c l a r e d a n e n d to s a m p l i n g : " S a m p l i n g is a e u p h e m i s m that w a s d e v e l o p e d b y t h e m u s i c i n d u s t r y to m a s k w h a t is
o b v i o u s l y thievery. This r e p r e s e n t s t h e first j u d i c i a l p r o n o u n c e m e n t
that this p r a c t i c e is i n fact t h e f t . " M a r k V o l m a n of t h e Turtles said,
" S a m p l i n g is j u s t a l o n g e r t e r m for theft. A n y b o d y w h o c a n h o n e s t l y
s a y s a m p l i n g is s o m e sort of c r e a t i v i t y h a s n e v e r d o n e a n y t h i n g crea t i v e . " O n the o t h e r s i d e , D a n C h a m a s , a n e x e c u t i v e w i t h the rap
label D e f A m e r i c a n R e c o r d s , w a r n e d that D u f f y ' s r u l i n g w o u l d " k i l l
hip-hop music and culture."
W h i l e C h a m a s ' s fears w e r e e x a g g e r a t e d , t h e y w e r e n o t u n f o u n d e d .
T h e case did n o t kill the m u s i c . It just c h a n g e d it b r o a d l y a n d deeply.
R a p m u s i c since 1991 has b e e n m a r k e d b y a severe decrease in the
a m o u n t of s a m p l i n g . M a n y groups record b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c a n d then
filter it d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n s o it s o u n d s as if it h a s b e e n s a m p l e d . O t h e r
g r o u p s — t h e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d — p a y for a n d extensively credit all the
sources of their s a m p l e s . M a n y established s o n g w r i t e r s — i n c l u d i n g L e d
Z e p p e l i n — o f t e n refuse requests for s a m p l e s . O t h e r s d e n y s a m p l i n g requests if the n e w song tackles controversial subject m a t t e r like sex,
d r u g s , or violence. W h a t s a m p l i n g d i d occur in the late 1990s w a s n o n trans gressive, n o n t h r e a t e n i n g , a n d too often c l u m s y a n d o b v i o u s . T h e
signifying r a p p e r h a d lost his v o i c e . T h e 1991 ruling r e m o v e d f r o m rap
m u s i c a w h o l e level of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d m e a n i n g that o n c e p l a y e d a
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part in the a u d i e n c e ' s reception to it. T h e Biz M a r k i e case " s t o l e the
s o u l " from r a p m u s i c .
65
T h e death of tricky, playful, transgressive s a m p l i n g occurred b e cause courts a n d the i n d u s t r y m i s a p p l i e d stale, blunt, e t h n o c e n t r i c , a n d
simplistic standards to fresh n e w m e t h o d s of expression. T h e trend
c o u l d h a v e g o n e the other way. Courts a n d the m u s i c i n d u s t r y could
h a v e a l l o w e d for limited use of u n a u t h o r i z e d s a m p l e s if t h e y h a d considered taking several tenets of fair use a n d free s p e e c h s e r i o u s l y — e s pecially the q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r the n e w e r w o r k detracts from the m a r ket of the original. In fact, as has b e e n s h o w n repeatedly, s a m p l i n g often
revives a m a r k e t for a n all b u t forgotten s o n g or artist. T h e best e x a m ple is the revival of A e r o s m i t h since R u n D M C ' s v e r s i o n of " W a l k This
W a y " r e m i n d e d y o u n g listeners of the p o w e r of the original song. A e r o smith, a l m o s t forgotten after a string of hits in the 1970s, collaborated
on that project. But e v e n a n u n a u t h o r i z e d use of the original song
w o u l d h a v e revived interest in A e r o s m i t h , o n e of the m o s t successful
b a n d s of b o t h the 1970s a n d the 1990s.
B e y o n d fair use, courts a n d the record i n d u s t r y c o u l d h a v e considered actually e m p l o y i n g the idea-expression d i c h o t o m y in a n e w way.
M u s i c c o p y r i g h t h a s traditionally protected melody, s o m e t i m e s h a r m o n y , a l m o s t n e v e r r h y t h m . R h y t h m has b e e n c o n s i d e r e d either too
c o m m o n o r too u n i m p o r t a n t to w a r r a n t p r o t e c t i o n .
66
B u t w h a t actually
h a p p e n s w h e n a rap p r o d u c e r injects a s a m p l e into a n e w m e d i u m is
this: a n expression of m e l o d y b e c o m e s a b u i l d i n g b l o c k of r h y t h m . T h e
claim that s a m p l e s cease transmitting their original m e a n i n g s — c e a s e
operating as expressions o n c e t h e y are taken out of c o n t e x t — i s best expressed b y C h u c k D of Public E n e m y , w h o sang:
Mail from the courts and jail
Claim I stole the beats that I rail
Look at how I'm living like
And they're gonna check the mike, right? Sike
Look how I'm livin' now, lower than low
What a sucker know
I found this mineral that I call a beat
I paid zero
I packed my load 'cause it's better than gold
People don't ask the price but it's sold
They say I sample but they should
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
145
Sample this, my pit bull
We ain't goin'for this
They say I stole this
Can I get a
witness?
67
For C h u c k D , a s a m p l e is a " m i n e r a l . " It is r a w material for a n e w
composition. S a m p l i n g is a transformation: u s i n g a n expression as an
idea; using w h a t w a s o n c e m e l o d y as a beat, a n e l e m e n t of r h y t h m .
S a m p l i n g is not theft. It's recycling. If w e define a n expression b y w h a t
it d o e s , instead of w h a t it did, it n o longer c o u n t s as a n expression (or
that particular expression) in the n e w context. T h e e x p r e s s i o n does n o t
do the s a m e w o r k in its n e w role. C o n t e x t m a t t e r s to m e a n i n g . A n old
expression is n o longer the s a m e expression, a n d n o t e v e n the s a m e
idea, if the context c h a n g e s radically.
T h e r e c o u l d b e r o o m for u n a u t h o r i z e d s a m p l i n g w i t h i n A m e r i c a n
copyright law. It c o u l d a n d s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d fair u s e . Digital s a m ples are m o r e often t h a n n o t small p o r t i o n s of s o n g s . T h e s e portions are
b e i n g u s e d in c o m p l e t e l y different w a y s in the n e w s o n g s . B e c a u s e they
are n o t w o r k i n g in the s a m e w a y as in the original s o n g , t h e y are inherently different from their sources. B u t m o s t importantly, s a m p l e s a d d
value. T h e y are p i e c e s of l a n g u a g e that g e n e r a t e n e w m e a n i n g s in their
n e w contexts. T h e n e w m e a n i n g s are clear a n d distinct from their original m e a n i n g s . A n e w s o n g that s a m p l e s a n old s o n g does n o t replace
the old s o n g in the m a r k e t p l a c e . O f t e n , it does the opposite. D e s p i t e all
the p a n i c digital s a m p l i n g g e n e r a t e d a m o n g legal experts in the late
1980s, s a m p l i n g does n o t threaten the f o u n d a t i o n of the law. In fact, if
copyright l a w is to c o n f o r m to its constitutional charge, to " p r o m o t e the
progress of science a n d useful a r t s , " it s h o u l d allow transgressive and
satirical s a m p l i n g w i t h o u t h a v i n g to clear p e r m i s s i o n from original
copyright o w n e r s . A looser s y s t e m — a n d a b r o a d e r definition of fair
u s e — w o u l d e n c o u r a g e creativity. A tightly regulated s y s t e m does nothing but s q u e e z e n e w coins out of old m u s i c a n d intimidate e m e r g i n g
artists.
A S F U N N Y A S T H E Y W A N N A BE
T h e r e is social v a l u e in a l l o w i n g t r a n s f o r m a t i v e uses of c o p y r i g h t e d
m u s i c w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n . T h e U.S. S u p r e m e C o u r t in 1994 articulated
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HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
this p r i n c i p l e in a l a n d m a r k case that i n v o l v e d rap m u s i c . But it w a s n o t
a case a b o u t s a m p l i n g per se. It w a s the case that m a d e A m e r i c a safe for
parody.
D e s p i t e its brief tenure on the m u s i c charts, n o g r o u p in the history
of rap h a s b e e n as controversial as the 2 Live Crew. A B r o w a r d C o u n t y
sheriff p r o s e c u t e d a record store o w n e r for selling the g r o u p ' s 1990
a l b u m As Nasty As They Want to Be, w h i c h relied o n sexist a n d explicit
lyrics a n d a c o m p l e x m o n t a g e of digital s a m p l e s . Scholars a n d m u s i c o l ogists lined u p b o t h for a n d against the g r o u p a n d its leader, L u t h e r
C a m p b e l l . Within a year, C a m p b e l l h a d recast h i m s e l f f r o m n a s t y r a p p e r a n d talented p r o d u c e r to a hero for the First A m e n d m e n t . But it w a s
2 L i v e C r e w ' s " n i c e " v e r s i o n of the a l b u m , As Clean As They Want to Be
that b r o u g h t the g r o u p to the U.S. S u p r e m e C o u r t . It c o n t a i n e d a cut entitled " P r e t t y W o m a n " that relied h e a v i l y o n the m e l o d y a n d guitar riff
of R o y O r b i s o n ' s 1964 hit " O h , Pretty W o m a n . " O r b i s o n ' s p u b l i s h i n g
company, A c u f f - R o s e M u s i c , Inc., h a d denied 2 L i v e C r e w p e r m i s s i o n
to p a r o d y the song. C a m p b e l l decided to do it anyway, a n d relied o n a
fair u s e defense w h e n the lawsuit c a m e . T h e U.S. district court granted
a s u m m a r y j u d g m e n t in favor of 2 L i v e Crew, ruling that the n e w song
w a s a p a r o d y of the original a n d that it w a s fair u s e of the material. B u t
the Sixth Circuit C o u r t of A p p e a l s reversed that decision, a r g u i n g that
2 L i v e C r e w t o o k too m u c h from the original a n d that it did so for blatantly c o m m e r c i a l p u r p o s e s . T h e U.S. S u p r e m e C o u r t ruled u n a n i m o u s l y that the a p p e a l s court h a d n o t b a l a n c e d all the factors that p l a y
into fair use. T h e S u p r e m e C o u r t reversed the appeals court a n d ruled
in favor of C a m p b e l l a n d 2 Live C r e w .
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Besides failing to u n d e r s t a n d the playfulness of p a r o d y i n g a c a n o n ical w h i t e p o p s o n g in a b l a c k rap context, the Sixth Circuit C o u r t of A p peals s h o w e d that it's not a l w a y s clear that a silly s o n g that s o u n d s like
an old s o n g is p a r o d i c . F o r a w o r k to qualify as a parody, it m u s t m a k e
s o m e critical s t a t e m e n t a b o u t the first w o r k . It's n o t g o o d e n o u g h to b e
just funny. T h e critical s t a t e m e n t m u s t b e directed at the s o u r c e text itself. If the s e c o n d w o r k does not clearly target the original w o r k , the second w o r k m o r e likely operates as satire, not parody. For e x a m p l e , the
S e c o n d Circuit C o u r t of A p p e a l s ruled in 1981 that a s o n g f r o m the
o f f - B r o a d w a y erotic m u s i c a l Let My People
Come called " C u r m i l i n g u s
C h a m p i o n of C o m p a n y C " w a s n o t a p a r o d y of the song " B o o g i e W o o gie B u g l e B o y of C o m p a n y B . " T h e court ruled that the infringing song
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
147
did not m a k e sufficient f u n of the original, b u t instead satirized sexual
m o r e s in general. T h e court a r g u e d that the s h o w ' s writers c o u l d h a v e
m a d e the s a m e satirical point b y either revising a s o n g in the public
d o m a i n or w r i t i n g a n original song. T h e r e w a s n o n e e d to revise the
"Bugle B o y " song.
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Courts h a v e h a d a difficult t i m e carving out the fair use e x e m p t i o n
for parody. O n e of the first significant p a r o d y cases, Loew's Inc. v. Columbia Broadcasting
System, h a d a stifling effect o n parody. T h e plaintiff
s t o p p e d c o m e d i a n J a c k B e n n y from televising a p a r o d y of the m o t i o n
picture Gaslight
i n 1956. T h e court r u l e d that the p a r o d y c o u l d n o t b e a
form of criticism b e c a u s e of the d e f e n d a n t ' s strong profit m o t i v e .
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Slowly, t h r o u g h o u t the 1960s a n d 1970s, courts b e g a n recognizing that
p a r o d y h a d cultural v a l u e . In 1 9 6 4 Mad Magazine
p u b l i s h e d parodic
versions of the lyrics to s o m e s o n g s written b y Irving Berlin. T h e Seco n d Circuit rose a b o v e the decision that h a d s t o p p e d J a c k B e n n y and
h e l d that Mad w a s n o t liable for i n f r i n g e m e n t . T h e court stated that " w e
believe that p a r o d y a n d satire are d e s e r v i n g of substantial f r e e d o m —
b o t h as e n t e r t a i n m e n t a n d as a f o r m of social a n d literary c r i t i c i s m . "
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B y the late 1970s, televised p a r o d y w a s a staple of A m e r i c a n comedy. In
1978, the N B C s h o w Saturday
Night Live ran a p a r o d y of the p r o - N e w
York jingle " I L o v e N e w Y o r k . " It w a s called " I L o v e S o d o m . " T h e
district court f o u n d that " I L o v e S o d o m " n e i t h e r c o m p e t e d w i t h n o r
h a r m e d the v a l u e of " I L o v e N e w Y o r k . "
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M u s i c p a r o d i e s h a d also
proliferated d u r i n g the 1970s a n d 1980s w i t h the p o p u l a r i t y of Weird
Al Y a n k o v i c h a n d o t h e r s . In 1985, disk j o c k e y R i c k D e e s p r o d u c e d a
t w e n t y - n i n e - s e c o n d p a r o d y of the J o h n n y M a t h i s s o n g " W h e n S u n n y
Gets B l u e " called " W h e n S u n n y Sniffs G l u e . " T h e N i n t h Circuit C o u r t
of A p p e a l s ruled that the p a r o d y w o u l d not c o m p e t e in the m a r k e t with
the original. T h e court also c o n c l u d e d that a p a r o d y necessarily takes a
large p o r t i o n — p e r h a p s e v e n the h e a r t — o f the original, o r else fails in
its effort. M o s t significantly, the court ruled that " c o p y r i g h t l a w is n o t
d e s i g n e d to stifle c r i t i c s . "
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Rick D e e s ' s success at defending his p a r o d y m a d e 2 Live C r e w ' s
eventual success a little m o r e likely. Relying o n recent p r e c e d e n t s such
as the D e e s case, Justice D a v i d Souter criticized the Sixth Circuit for basing its j u d g m e n t on a p r e s u m p t i o n that, since the p a r o d y w a s p r o d u c e d
for c o m m e r c i a l sale, it c o u l d n o t b e fair use. T h e Sixth Circuit h a d decided o n the s a m e faulty basis on w h i c h the J a c k B e n n y case h a d b e e n
148
HEP CATS A N D COPY CATS
d e c i d e d . Souter also c o n c l u d e d that a p a r o d y is unlikely to directly
c o m p e t e in the m a r k e t w i t h a n original w o r k b e c a u s e it serves a different function—criticism. S o u t e r w r o t e ,
Suffice it to say now that parody has an obvious claim to transformative value, as Acuff-Rose itself does not deny. Like less ostensibly humorous forms of criticism, it can provide social benefit, by shedding
light on an earlier work, and, in the process, creating a new one. Parody needs to mimic an original to make its point, and so has some
claim to use the creation of its victim's (or collective victims') imagination, whereas satire can stand on its own two feet and so requires
justification for the very act of borrowing.
S o u t e r c o n c l u d e d that 2 Live C r e w did target O r b i s o n ' s s o n g , not just
society at large. But Souter also w a r n e d that this case s h o u l d n o t b e read
as an o p e n license to revise o t h e r s ' w o r k s for m e r e l y satirical p u r p o s e s ,
a n d that e a c h case s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d individually. " T h e fact that
p a r o d y c a n claim l e g i t i m a c y for s o m e a p p r o p r i a t i o n does not, of course,
tell either parodist or j u d g e m u c h a b o u t w h e r e to d r a w the line. A c cordingly, parody, like a n y o t h e r use, h a s to w o r k its w a y t h r o u g h the
relevant factors, a n d b e j u d g e d case b y case, in light of the e n d s of the
copyright l a w . "
7 4
W h i l e S o u t e r w a s c a r e f u l n o t to s e n d too strong a m e s s a g e to p o tential p a r o d i s t s , his ruling set d o w n s o m e p r e t t y firm p r i n c i p l e s
u p o n w h i c h f u t u r e c a s e s m i g h t b e d e c i d e d . Significantly, S o u t e r declared f r o m t h e h i g h e s t p e r c h that p a r o d y h a s social v a l u e , a n d that
c o u r t s m u s t t a k e s u c h fair u s e c l a i m s seriously. B u t the U . S . S u p r e m e
C o u r t h a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d a c a s e in w h i c h t r a n s g r e s s i v e or p a r o d i c
s a m p l i n g in r a p m u s i c w a s d e f e n d e d as fair u s e . B a s e d o n t h e principles S o u t e r o u t l i n e d , it's n o t likely that the c o u r t w o u l d s m i l e u p o n
u n a u t h o r i z e d digital s a m p l i n g that i n d i r e c t l y c o m m e n t e d o n the
culture at l a r g e — t h a t i s — m o s t s a m p l i n g . B u t s a m p l i n g that directly
c o m m e n t s u p o n its s o u r c e , p o s i t i v e l y or negatively, m i g h t h a v e a
c h a n c e for c o n s i d e r a t i o n . F u n d a m e n t a l l y , c o u r t s , C o n g r e s s , a n d the
p u b l i c s h o u l d c o n s i d e r h o w creativity h a p p e n s in A m e r i c a . E t h n o centric n o t i o n s of creativity a n d a m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of political p o w e r
in f a v o r o f e s t a b l i s h e d artists a n d m e d i a c o m p a n i e s h a v e a l r e a d y
s e r v e d to stifle e x p r e s s i o n — t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e of the d e c l a r e d p u r p o s e of c o p y r i g h t l a w .
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