EXPOSÉ
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings
on materialist consumption behavior
Submitted by
Arianna Pozzatti
European Master in Business Studies
Universitӓt Kassel
Kassel, Germany
21st September 2015
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
1
ABSTRACT
Title
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior.
Background
Previous studies propose that self-discrepancies together with the endorsement of
materialistic values are the drivers of compulsive consumptions. However, there are no
studies showing the dimensions of self-discrepancy that lead to a materialistic behavior. At
the same time, there is no clear indication of the nature of the goods bought as a
consequence of a behavior that tries to close the self-discrepancy gap with a materialistic
behavior. While previous literature is only focusing on the UK and the US, this study will
focus mainly on Italy and a comparison with the US will be carried out.
Purpose
The aim of this study is to examine in depth the behavior of consumers affected by selfdiscrepancy feelings and present the discrepancies that are more likely to cause a
materialistic consumption. Moreover, the study also seeks to explain which are the goods
or services that are more likely to be acquired when such a materialistic behavior occurs.
Method
Questionnaires will be designed with Sphynx and they will target only women in the age
range 18-50. The questionnaires will be spread in the US and in Italy both through
personal contacts in both counties and the help of Amazon Mechanical Turk.
Keywords: self-discrepancy, materialism, compulsive consumption, consumer behavior
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ..........................................................................................................................1
Title....................................................................................................................................1
Background ........................................................................................................................1
Purpose...............................................................................................................................1
Method ...............................................................................................................................1
Keywords: ..........................................................................................................................1
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................2
LIST OF FIGURES ...............................................................................................................3
Table 1. Self-discrepancy scale for ideal self ........................................................................3
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................4
1.1 Background and problem statement ............................................................................4
1.2 Research questions.......................................................................................................5
1.3 Contributions ...............................................................................................................5
2. HYPOTHESES..................................................................................................................6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................7
3. METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................................................13
4. OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS ........................................................................................15
5. PLAN OF WORK ...........................................................................................................16
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ...........................................................................................................17
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
LIST OF FIGURES
Table 1. Self-discrepancy scale for ideal self
3
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
4
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and problem statement
In the past ten years, the increases of personal disposable income together with the
blooming possibilities to obtain a credit have contributed to the growth of an increasing
phenomenon: compulsive buying of material goods (Dittmar, 2005; Reisch, Neuner &
Raab, 2004). Previous studies have largely covered the motives that underlie this atypical
behavior. The two factor theory (Dittmar, 2005) which is based on the self-completion
theory (Wicklung & Gollwitzer, 1982), proposes that self-discrepancies together with the
endorsement of materialistic values are the drivers of compulsive consumptions. While the
literature describes the different dimensions of self-discrepancies and the different types of
mood they lead to (Higgins, 1987), previous studies do not show the dimensions of selfdiscrepancy for which some materialistic behaviors are more likely to be observed.
Additionally, previous literature focuses on the role that materialism has had in the
construction or compensation of our identity based on the possession of material goods.
(Chang, & Arkin, 2002; Dittmar, 2005; Dittmar, 2000; Park & John, 2011). However, no
previous author conducted a research on the nature of these materialistic consumptions.
Therefore, there aim of this paper is to explore the dimensions of self-discrepancy based
on the classification made by Higgins that lead to a materialistic behavior and the nature of
these consumptions. The term dimension refers to the different type of self-discrepancy
that leads to a different psychological mood, but this topic will be deepened in the
literature review section.
Another important thing to highlight is that even though in the past ten years we have seen
an increase in the compulsive spending, there are no recent studies which focus on the
relationship between materialism, compulsive behavior and self-discrepancies. Moreover,
most of the previous studies were conducted in the USA, with a few exceptions in the UK.
While previous literature focused only on one country, our study will target at two
different countries, the US and Italy, and we will create a link between the two. According
to a poll run by Ipsos Mori in September 2013 for Global Trend 2014, Italy and the US
result to be much closed to each other in the materialist scale.
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
5
1.2 Research questions
This paper will reply to the two following questions:
‒ Which are the dimensions of self-discrepancy that lead to a materialistic behavior?
‒ What is the nature of the goods resulting from the materialistic consumption, in an
attempt to deal with the self-discrepancy?
1.3 Contributions
The results of this paper will have an influence and impact on both firms and the society.
As the results of this study will show which are the dimensions that results in
materialistic behavior and which are the objects or services that are favored by consumers
affected by those dimensions, companies could potentially exploit this information for
marketing purposes. This will allow them to create tailor-made marketing campaigns
targeting at those sensitive products.
The study will be of particular importance also for the society. By knowing the
discrepancy feelings that lead to a given psychological mood, which could be caused both
by the absence of positive outcomes or by the presence of negative outcomes (Higgins,
1987), therapists and psychologists can have a better insight on the behavior, suggesting
therefore a more appropriate intervention to the patient.
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
6
2. HYPOTHESES
Hypotheses 1: The dimensions which are more likely to lead to a materialistic behavior are
the ones that include the “other” standpoint.
As there are no previous studies that correlates the different types of self-discrepancies to
the materialistic consumption, this hypothesis has been formulated based on personal
assumptions. However, evidences from the literature also support this assumption. For
instance, it is said that the fear of negative evaluations from others is likely to lead to
greater level of compulsive buying behavior (Roberts at al., 2014). This implied therefore
that a self-discrepancy between the actual-own and either ideal-other or ought-other will
lead a person to believe that by not matching what others expect from him/herself, there
will be negative evaluations that will result in materialist consumptions.
Standpoint is defined as “a point of view from which you can be judged that reflects a set
of attitudes or values” (Higgins, 1987, p.321) and it can be either the “own” personal
standpoint or the “other” standpoint, who is represented by someone significant for the
subject.
Hypotheses 2: The goods bought as a materialist consumption to cope with selfdiscrepancies are clothes and jewelry.
Previous studies have already the explored the nature of goods bought by compulsive
buyers and results have shown how clothes and jewelry are the most bought categories
(Dittmar, 2005). The study was conducted in the UK. As we have no other information
available for the US and for Italy, we came to the assumption that the same type of
behavior can be observed also in the target countries.
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review focuses mainly on three topics: the concept of selfdiscrepancy, materialism and . Apart from these two categories, we will also review some
concepts of possessions and consumer behavior.
TOPIC
Selfdiscrepancy
theory
TITLE
Self-Discrepancy:
A Theory Relating
Self and Affect
AUTHO
R
(YEAR)
Higgins,
E. T.
(1987)
JOURNAL
CONTENT
TYPE
OF
RESEAR
CH
Psychological
Review, Vol. 94,
No. 3, 319-340
It presents a theory of how different
types of discrepancies between selfstate representations are related to
different kinds of emotional
vulnerabilities.
Findings: Discrepancies between the
actual/own self-state and ideal selfstales signify the absence of positive
outcomes, which is associated with
dejection-related emotions (e.g.,
disappointment, dissatisfaction,
sadness). Discrepancies between the
actual/own self-state and ought selfstates signify the presence of negative
outcomes, which is associated with
agitation-related emotions (e.g., fear,
threat, restlessness).
Mixed
method: First
part
quantitative,
later
qualitative
Shows the relationship between selfesteem discrepancy and materialism
Selfdiscrepancy
in Selfesteem
Possession
More than meets
the eyes: The
influence of
implicit and
explicit selfesteem on
materialism
Park, J.,
& John,
D. R.
(2010)
Possessions and
the Extended Self
Belk, R.
W.
(1988)
Journal of
Consumer
Psychology ,
21, 73–87
The Journal of
Consumer
Research, Vol.
15, No. 2 (Sep.,
1988), pp. 139168
Findings: Increases in self-esteem
discrepancies between implicit and
explicit cause increases in materialism.
Moreover, those people with larger
gap between implicit and explicit selfesteem are with self-enhancing
benefits more likely to buy products
that can be linked to the self.
Our possessions are a major
contributor to and reflection of our
identities
Findings:
-the main categories of extended self
are: body, internal processes, ideas,
Study 1
Qualitative;
Study 2
Qualitative;
Study 3
Qualitative
Only
literature
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
8
experiences and person/places/things
to which one becomes attached
-the reason we want to possess
something is to enlarge our sense of
self and when we intentional lose a
possession this will result in a loss of
sense of self. It will follow an attempt
to self-restore
- self-extension can occur in four
ways: control of an object, creation of
an object, knowledge of the object and
contamination via proximity to an
object
Materialism
and selfdiscrepancy
Materialism
A New Look at
“Compulsive
Buying”: Self–
Discrepancies and
Materialistic
Values as
Predictors of
Compulsive
Buying Tendency
Materialism: Trait
Aspect of Living
in the Material
World
Dittmar,
H. (2005)
Belk, R.
W. (1985)
Journal of
Social and
Clinical
Psychology.
24(6): 832-859.
Journal of
Consumer
Research, Vol.
12, No 3, pp.
265-280
The aim of the paper is to deepen the
understanding of compulsive buying
by focusing on a two-factors model:
materialism and self-discrepancies
Findings:
-Compulsive buying is motivated by
shortcomings in the self that results in
an urge to compensate acquiring
material goods to symbolize the
aspects that we lack. Compulsive
buyers have chronically high selfdiscrepancies
-A person who endorses materialistic
values believes that the acquisition of
material goods is a key to self-image
and therefore a person construct the
identity through material goods.
Materialistic values jointly with selfdiscrepancies predict compulsive
buying tendencies.
-As youngers have a less defined and
stable sense of identity, ideal-self
buying can be a mayor motivation of
their compulsive purchases.
In this paper the author wants to
present the three subtraits used to
measure materialism :envy, nongenerosity and possessiveness
Findings:
-there is a negative correlation between
envy, non-generosity and
possessiveness and
satisfaction/happiness
-materialism substitutes for a lost sense
of community.
-Three materialistic traits are presented
to measure materialisms:
possessiveness – the inclination to
Study 1:
qualitative
exploration
through
diaries;
Study 2 and
3
Quantitative
surveys
Study 1
qualitative,
Study 2
qualitative
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
9
retain control – nongenerosity – the
unwillingness to share possessions
with others – and envy – displeasure at
the superiority of another in
happiness,success,..
Materialism
Consumer
Behavior
Self-concept
Self-concept
Compulsive
behavior
Materialism as an
Attempt to Cope
with Uncertainty
Chang, L.
C., &
Arkin, R.
M.
(2002)
Personality and
Consumer
Behavior: A
Review
Kassarjia
n, H.
(1971)
Self-Concept in
Consumer
Behavior: A
Critical Review
Sirgy, M.
J.
(1982)
Self-concept, Ideal
Self Concept, and
Consumer
Purchase
Intentions
Objects, Decision
Considerations and
Self-Image in
Men's and
Women's Impulse
Purchases
Landon,
Jr. E. L.
(1974)
Dittmar,
H.,
Beattie, J.
& Friese,
S.
(1996)
Psychology &
Marketing, Vol.
19, Issue 5, pp.
389-406
Journal of
Marketing
Research, Vol.
8, pp. 409-418
Findings: these three studies show that
some people turn to materialism when
they experience uncertainty within the
self (self-doubt) or perceive
uncertainty relating to society
(anomie).
Study 1
Qualitative
The author underlines a negative
Study 2
correlation between materialism and
Qualitative
well-being, quality of life, life
satisfaction and happiness while a
positive correlation can be observed
with social anxiety and selfconsciousness.
This paper relates relate purchasing
behavior, media choice, innovation,
and other marketing phenomena to
personality.
Reviews important concept for this
Journal of
paper such as definition of selfConsumer
concept, self-esteem an selfResearch, Vol 9.
consistency
Journal of
Consumer
Research, 1(2),
pp. 44-51.
Acta
Psychologica,
Vol. 93, Issues
1-3, pp. 187-206
Findings:
Some consumers prefer to buy objects
that match their ideal self-image while
others that are congruent with their
actual self-image.
The first consumers are called
perfectionists; the other ones actualize.
This paper shows some insight in the
impulsive buy.
Finding
-some consumer durables are more
likely to be bought on impulse than
others and these are clothes and
jewelry.
-impulse-buy objects and decision
Only
literature
review
Only
literature
review
Quantitative
Quantitative
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
10
considerations will be related
systematically to (actual and ideal)
self-perception.
-Perceived self-discrepancies are
important determinants of impulse
buying.
-Goods which relate to self-image are
bought more frequently impulsively
than utility items
Materialism
and selfdiscrepancy
Self-image – is it
in the bag? A
qualitative
comparison
between
“ordinary” and
“excessive”
consumers
Dittmar,
H., Drury,
J.
(2000)
Journal of
Economics
Psychology,
Vol. 21, pp.
109-142
Compulsive
behavior
Contingent SelfEsteen, Selfpresentational
concerns, and
complulsive
buying
Roberts,
J. A.,
Manolis,
C., &
Pullig, C.
(2014)
Psychology and
Marketing, Vol.
31(2), pp. 147160
Dittmar,
H., Long,
K., &
Bond, R.
(2007)
Journal of
Social and
Clinical
Psychology.
Vol. 26(3), pp.
334-361
Compulsive
behavior and
materialistic
values
When a bette self
is only a button
click away:
associations
between
materialistic
Findings:
-Some types consumer goods make
more likely impulse purchase than
others
-“High-impulse” goods are bought for
psychological motivations while for
“low-impulse” goods functional
motivations are most important
-Excessive shoppers are motivated to
buy to bolster their self-image and they
reported a greater self-discrepancy.
They hold stronger materialistic values
believing that acquiring material goods
boosts their identity and happiness
-Buying behavior and motivations can
be predicted from a person’s selfdiscrepancies. Large self-discrepancies
in combination with materialistic
values predict proneness to become an
excessive buyer, but much more
strongly for women than men.
Qualitative:
semistructured
interview or
diaries
Contingent self-esteem lead to greater
level of compulsive buying and fear of
negative evaluation and and social Quantitative
identity play an important role in it
-the endorsement of materialistic
values predicts individuals’ seeking to
enhance their emotions and identity
when they buy goods.
-the paper underlines four main buying
Quantitative
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
values, emotional
and identityrelated buying
motives, and
compulsive buying
tendency online
Selfdiscrepancy
Actual vs.
Ideal self in
Brand
attachment
Materialism
Discrepancies
Between Explicit
and Implicit SelfConcepts:
Consequences for
Information
Processing
Emotional Brand
Attachment and
Brand Personality:
The Relative
Importance of the
Actual and the
Ideal Self
11
motives: economics aspects, socialexperiential, emotional and identityrelated benefits, where the latest
category is a central concern in
compulsive buying.
Petty,R.
E.,
Wheeler,
C., &
Brinol, P.
(2006)
Malär, L.,
Krohmer,
H.,
Hoyer,
W., &
Nyffeneg
ger, B.
(2011)
Journal of
Personality and
Social
Psychology,
Vol. 91, No. 1,
154–170
Journal of
Marketing Vol.
75 (July 2011),
35 –52
Conspicuous
Consumption: A
study of exception
consumer behavior
Journal of
Economic
Mason, R.
Issues, Vol. 17,
S. (1983)
N. 3, pp. 791799
Materialism in
Consumer
Srikant,
M.
Management
Individuals with discrepancies between
explicit and implicit self-conceptions
might similarly be motivated to engage
in processing of discrepancy-related
information, even though they might
not be aware of the discrepancy.
Findings: As the discrepancy between
the explicit and implicit measure
increased,
people engaged in more thinking about
information framed as related to the
self-dimension on which the
discrepancy existed. Individuals might
be motivated to examine relevant
information as a strategy to minimize
the implicit doubt that accompanies an
inconsistency between explicit and
implicit self-conceptions.
One way to accomplish emotional
brand attachment this is to match the
brand’s personality with the
consumer’s self. A key question,
however, is whether the brand’s
personality should match the
consumer’s actual self or the
consumer’s ideal self.
Findings: Actual self-congruence has
the greatest impact on emotional brand
attachment. Product involvement, selfesteem, and public self-consciousness
increase the positive impact of actual
self-congruence but decrease the
impact of ideal self-congruence on
emotional brand attachment.
-Materialism as a socio-cultural
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
Behavior and
Marketing: A
Review
(2003)
and Marketing
Challenges for
the Knowledge
Society, Vol. 8,
No. 2, pp. 329352
phenomenon as well as an individual
phenomenon;
-Materialism as an individual
phenomenon based on a conceptual
framework materialism
conceptualizations in consumer
behavior
-Ten different materialism
measurement scales were discussed.
-A newer materialism
conceptualization proposed and the
advantages of the newer definition of
materialism over prevailing definitions
are explained.
Consumption
behavior
What drives
college-age
Generation Y
consumers?
Noble, S.,
Haytko,
D., &
Phillips,
J.
(2009)
Journal of
Business
Research
Volume 62,
Issue 6, June
2009, Pages
617–628
Motivations behind the Generation Y
consumption behavior.
Findings: Issues related to
socialization, uncertainty reduction,
reactance, self-discrepancy and
feelings of accomplishment drive Y
consumers’ product purchases.
12
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
13
3. METHODOLOGY
For the purpose of this study, there are no primary data that can be analyzed and we
therefore need to collect on secondary data.
The research method should aim at gathering data that include the following information:
‒ level of SD of respondent;
‒ whether the respondent is a compulsive vs. normal buyer;
‒ nature of goods bought through compulsive behavior
‒ level of materialism or materialistic values that a respondent shows.
By gathering data on the discrepancies of respondents and on their value of materialism
and compulsive behavior, we are able to put the variables in correlation to reply to the first
research question, and therefore illustrating which are the discrepancies that lead to larger
materialistic values. Furthermore, to analyze the type of goods that will be bought in an
attempt to cope with the self-discrepancy, we need to understand what types of goods a
respondent buys as a planned purchase and which one as an impulse purchase. Knowing
already the level of materialism and self-discrepancy that the respondents have, we are
able to reply to the second research question.
Data will be gathered with a quantitative survey. The questionnaire aims at gathering 300
responses in the US and 300 responses in Italy. The questionnaire will be developed with
Sphynx and it will be spread in the target countries through personal contacts and Amazon
Mechanical Turk.
As far as the target is concerned, the study will target only women because literature has
proven that men are not likely to try to close the actual-ideal-self gap through the
acquisition of material goods (Dittmar, 2005) and therefore men data would not show any
insight on materialistic consumption.
In order to measure self-discrepancies of respondents a pre-existing scale will be used: the
Selves Questionnaire, or SQ (Higgins, 1985). In our SQ, respondents are asked to fill three
different columns by indicating five traits for each category that represent the actual self,
the ideal self and the ought self. Initially, the SQ requires indicating ten traits, but previous
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
14
studies indicate five as the optimal number (Francis et. Al, 2006). After writing the
adjectives in a free way, participants are given a list of 100 traits to implement or modify
the list created before. This list will be shown only after the first phase. The 100 traits are
selected from Anderson’s 555 traits list. In the second step, respondents are asked to
indicate from a scale from 1 to 5 how much they think their ideal- and ought-self
correspond to their actual self at that time. The traits are graded as followed: “1 =
completely applies to me, 2 = applies to me very much, 3 = applies to me somewhat, 4 =
applies to me a little, and 5 = doesn’t apply to me at all” (Hardin & Lakin, 2009, p. 248).
However, this questionnaire will reveal only intormation on the self-standpoint and gives
us no information regarding the other standpoint.
An alternative to the Selves Questionnaire is the use of self-discrepancy scale developed
by Philippot (2015). The only problem is that the scale is in the process of validating and
currently nothing has been written. However, we were able to get the scale directly from
Philippot and it will be shown in the following table.
Table 1. Self-discrepancy Scale for ideal self
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
15
Table 1 shows only the process for the Ideal Self from the own standpoint. Respondents
are asked to reply to four sections that look like Table 1 but that will include: ideal self
“own”, ought self “own”, ideal self “other” and ought self “other”.
A pre-existing compulsive buying scale developed by Valence, D’Astous and Fortier will
be used to measure the compulsive vs. normal buyer behavior. In this questionnaire, 11
sentences are shown and respondents are asked to indicate the extent to which they agree
or disagree with the following statements on a scale from 1 to five where “5 = Strongly
agree, 4 = Somewhat agree, 3 = Neither agree nor disagree, 2 = Somewhat disagree, 1 =
Strongly disagree”. The points will be added up and a score equal or above 36 shows that
the respondent might be a compulsive buyer.
A scale to measure the materialism level will be chosen subsequently.
4. OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS
LIST OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
Title
Background
Purpose
Method
Keywords
TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF TABLES
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and problem statement
1.2 Research questions
1.3 Future implications
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Self-discrepancy theory
2.2 Consumption Behavior
2.3 Materialism
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Quantitative research method
3.1.1Sample
3.1.2 Research design
3.1.2 Measurements instruments
3.1.3 Procedures
3.2 Data analysis
4. CONCLUSIONS
4.1 Theoretical implications
4.2 Firms implications
4.3 Limitations
5. REFERENCES
6. APPENDIX
5. PLAN OF WORK
Period
Activity
Description
1.09.15-22.09.15
Exposé
Selection of the topic, literature
review.
23.09.15-31.10.15
Research design
Design of the questionnaires,
interviews and other research
methods. Find people to
interview.
1.11.15-30.11.15
Field Research
Run the survey and interview
people.
1.11.15-30.11.15
Introduction and
Methodology
While the survey is running,
start writing the introduction
and methodology.
1.12.05-20.12.15
Analysis
Analysis of the survey and
interview.
21.12.15-deadline
Final thesis
Writing results and conclusion
16
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
17
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Belk, R. W. (1985). Materialism: Trait Aspect of Living in the Material World. Journal of
Consumer Research, Vol. 12, No 3, pp. 265-280.
Belk, R.W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self, Journal of Consumer Research,
Vol. 15, pp. 139-168.
Chang, L. C., & Arkin, R. M. (2002). Materialism as an Attempt to Cope with Uncertainty.
Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 19, Issue 5, pp. 389-406.
Dittmar, H. (2005). A New Look at “Compulsive Buying”: Self–Discrepancies and
Materialistic Values as Predictors of Compulsive Buying Tendency. Journal of
Social and Clinical Psychology: 24(6): 832-859.
Dittmar, H., Beattie, J. & Friese, S. (1996). Objects, Decision Considerations and
SelfImage in Men's and Women's Impulse Purchases. Acta Psychologica, Vol. 93,
Issues 1-3, pp. 187-206.
Dittmar, H. & Drury, J. (2000). Self-image – is it in the bag? A qualitative comparison
between “ordinary” and “excessive” consumers. Journal of Economics Psychology,
Vol. 21, pp. 109-142.
Dittmar, H., Long, K., & Bond, R. (2007). When a better self is only a button click away:
associations between materialistic values, emotional and identity-related buying
motived, and compulsive buying tendency online. HJournal of Social and Clinical
Psychology, Vol. 26(3), pp. 334-361.
Francis, J. J., Boldero, J. M., & Sambell, N. L. (2006). Self-Lines: A new,
psychometrically sound, ‘user-friendly’ idiographic technique for assessing selfdiscrepancies. Cognitive Therapy and Research, Vol. 30, pp. 69–84.
Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to
Measure Self-Esteem and Self-Concept. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 2000, Vol. 79, No. 6, pp. 1022-1038.
Hardin, E. E., Lakin, J. L. (2009). The Integrated Self-Discrepancy Index: A Reliable and
Valid Measure of Self-Discrepancies. Journal of Personality Assessment, Vol.
91(3), pp. 245-253.
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
18
Higgins, E.T. (1987). Self-discrepancy; A theory relating self and affect, Psychological
review, Vol. 94, pp. 319-340.
Higgins, E. T., Klein, R., & Strauman, T. (1985). Self-concept discrepancy theory: A
psychological model for distinguishing among different aspects of depression and
anxiety. Social Cognition, Vol. 3, pp. 51-76.
Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment:
Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, Vol. 72, pp. 515-525.
Kassarjian, H. (1971). Personality and Consumer Behavior: A Review. Journal of
Marketing Research, Vol. 8, pp. 409-18.
Landon, Jr. E. L. (1974). Self-concept, Ideal Self Concept, and Consumer Purchase
Intentions. Journal of Consumer Research, 1(2), pp. 44-51.
Malär, L., Krohmer, H., Hoyer, W., & Nyffenegger, B. (2011). Emotional Brand
Attachment and Brand Personality: The Relative Importance of the Actual and the
Ideal Self. Journal of Marketing, Vol. 75, pp. 35 –52.
Mason, R. S. (1983). Conspicious Consumption: A study of exception consumer behavior.
Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 17, N. 3, pp. 791-799.
McDaniel, B. L., & Grice, J. W. (2005). Measuring Self-Discrepancies on the Big Five
Personality Trains with the Repertory Grid. Personal Construct Theory & Practice,
Vol. 2, pp. 18-31.
Neuner, M., Raab, R., & Reisch, L. A. (2004). Compulsive buying in maturing consumer
societies: An empirical re-inquiry. Journal of Economic Psychology.
Noble, S., Haytko, D., & Phillips, J. (2009). What drives college-age Generation Y
consumers? Journal of Business Research. Vol. 62, Issue 6, pp. 617–628.
Park JK and John DR (2011). More than meets the eye: The influence of implicit and
explicit self-esteem on materialism. Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 21, pp.
73–87.
Influence of self-discrepancy feelings on materialist consumption behavior
19
Petty, R. E., Wheeler, C., & Brinol, P. (2006). Discrepancies Between Explicit and
Implicit Self-Concepts: Consequences for Information Processing. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 91, No. 1, pp. 154–170.
Roberts, J. A., Manolis, C., & Pullig, C. (2014) Contingent Self-Esteem, SelfPresentational Concerns, and Compulsive Buying. Psychology and Marketing, Vol.
31(2), pp. 147-160.
Sirgy, M. J. (1982). Self-Concept in Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review. Journal of
Consumer Research, Vol.9, pp. 287-297.
Srikant, M. (2003). Materialism in Consumer Behavior and Marketing: A Review.
Management and Marketing Challenges for the Knowledge Society, Vol. 8, No. 2,
pp. 329-352.
Valence, G., d’Astous, A. & Fortier, L. (1998). Compulsive Buying: Concept and
Measuremen,”. Journal of Consumer Policy, Vol. 11, pp. 419-433
Wicklund, R. A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1982). Symbolic self–completion. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.