Patterns of Democracy
Martin Okolikj
School of Politics and International Relations (SPIRe)
University College Dublin
17 October 2016
Patterns of Democracy
• Definitions of democracy
• 8 criteria proposed by Robert A Dahl
(Polyarchy)
Robert A Dahl (Polyarchy)
1. The right to vote,
2. The right to be elected,
3. The right of political leaders to compete for
support and votes,
4. Elections are free and fair,
Robert A Dahl (Polyarchy)
5.
6.
7.
8.
Freedom of association,
Freedom of expression,
Alternative source of information,
Institutions for making public policies depend
on votes and other expressions of
preference.
Lijphart
• Two main models of democracy:
– Majoritarian model
• Majoritarian definition of democracy: Government by
the majority of the people
– Consensus model
• Consensus definition of democracy: All who are
affected by a decision should have the chance to
participate in making that decision
Majoritarian model
• The Westminster model of democracy
• Pure examples UK, New Zealand, Barbados
• Ten characteristics
Majoritarian model
1. Concentration of executive power in oneparty and bare-majority cabinets
– Coalitions are rare
– Two-parties with approximately equal strength
– Party that wins usually has narrowed majority
Majoritarian model
• 2. Cabinet dominance
– Cabinet is dependent on the confidence of
Parliament
– On paper Parliament “controls” the Cabinet and
can vote a cabinet out of office
– In reality, the relationship is reversed
– Lord Hailsham (1978): “elective dictatorship”
Majoritarian model
• 3. Two-party system
– Examples:
UK: Conservative and Labour
New Zealand: National Party and Labour
Barbados: BLP and DLP
– Tend to be one-dimensional party systems
– The programs and policies of the main parties usually
differ in terms of socioeconomic issues
– Left – Right division
– Working-class – middle class
Majoritarian model
• 4. Majoritarian and disproportional system of
elections
– Members are elected in single-member districts
according to the plurality method
– First past the post: the candidate with majority vote
or largest minority vote wins
– High disproportionality
– The disproportionality of the plurality method can
produce an overall winner who fails to win a plurality
of the votes (Conservatives 1951)
Majoritarian model
• 5. Interest groups pluralism
– Free for all pluralism
– Opposite from interest group corporatism
– Multiplicity of interest groups that exert pressure
on the government in an uncoordinated and
competitive manner
Majoritarian model
• 6. Unitary and centralized government
– Local government under central government
authority
– Local government powers are not constitutionally
guaranteed
– Financially dependent on the central government
Majoritarian model
• 7. Concentration of legislative power in a
unicameral legislature
– Single house or chamber
Majoritarian model
• 8. Constitutional flexibility
– Unwritten constitution
– Rules can be changed by Parliament
– Laws equal weight as the constitution
Majoritarian model
• 9. Absence of judicial review
– No higher law no need for judicial review
Majoritarian model
• 10. A central bank controlled by executive
– Central banks are responsible for the monetary
policy
– Under the influence of the executive
Consensus Model
• The Consensus model of democracy
• Pure examples Switzerland, Belgium, EU
• Ten characteristics
Consensus Model
• 1. Executive power-sharing in broad coalition
cabinets
– Let all or most of the important parties share
executive power in broad coalition
Consensus Model
• 2. Executive-legislative balance of power
– Independent executive and legislative
– Balanced relationship
Consensus Model
• 3. Multiparty system
– Multiparty system without any party that comes
close to majority status
– Loose alliances
Consensus Model
• 4. Proportional representation
– Division of parliamentary seats among the parties
in proportion to the votes they recieve
Consensus Model
• 5. Interest group corporatism
– Meeting take place between the representatives of
the government, labour unions, and employers’
organisations to seek agreement on socioeconomic
policies
– Coordination referred to as concentration and
agreement called tripartite pacts
• Social corporatism: Labour unions predominate
• Liberal corporatism: business associations are the strong
force
Consensus Model
• 6. Federal and decentralised government
– Divided between the central and local government
– Constitutionally guaranteed independence
– Financially independent
– Rights to implement local policies: education,
health, culture etc.
Consensus Model
• 7. Strong bicameralism
– The upper house to be elected on a different basis
then the lower house
– Upper house must have real power
– Ideally the power between upper and lower house
should be equal
Consensus Model
• 8. Constitutional rigidity
– Written constitution
– A single document containing the basic rules of
governance
– Can be changed only by a special majorities
Consensus Model
• 9. Judicial review
– Supreme court
– Interpretation of the constitutional provisions
concerning the separation of powers between the
central, community, and regional governments
Consensus Model
• 10. Central bank independence
– Independent from the executive
– Longer term of governors
Consolidated democracy?
• Institutionalism and Democracy
– Majoritarian
– Consensus
Models of Democracy
Plurality Electoral System Proportional
Representation (PR)
Presidential
Quasi-majoritarian
Less majoritarian
Government, checks and (potential for extreme
balances
deadlock)
Parliamentary Westminster model
(highly majoritarian)
Consensus model
(coalition government)