OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE
Stereotypes about Aboriginal Canadians do not reflect the true nature of the beliefs and values
of these First Nations. With over 500 Aboriginal groups across North America, Aboriginal
cultures demonstrate a rich diversity of lifestyles, spirituality, traditions, and social systems.
This course is designed to help you as an employer or supervisor of Aboriginal employees
understand the current social, economic, and political situation of Aboriginal peoples and
provide you with the tools to increase Aboriginal employment and retention.
The course will begin with brief descriptions of the culture and history of Aboriginal people in
Canada, with an emphasis on the impact this has on the everyday life. The focus of the course is
not on history, but on the real-life issues that face Aboriginal Canadians and their employers
today.
For most Canadians, understanding the practice of traditional Aboriginal cultures is particularly
difficult because we have been taught to view narrow and inaccurate stereotypes of Aboriginal
cultures. The images of Aboriginal cultures presented in schools, popular culture, history books,
and Hollywood films are totem poles, stone carvings, pow-wow dancing, moccasins and feather
headdresses. These images tend to present Aboriginal peoples as a vanishing culture, or as
primitive in development. Viewed in this way, culture is no more than a collection of objects and
rituals, observed in isolation from their vitality and meaning within a particular cultural context.
If an individual accepts a narrow and limited view of Aboriginal cultures, or the idea that the
only ‘real’ Aboriginal people existed in another time and space, we misunderstand the true
essence, vitality, and longevity of Aboriginal cultures.
It is little wonder that Aboriginal peoples
were perceived not as they were but as they
“had” to be – from a European point of view.
They were whisked out of the realm of the
real and into the land of the make-believe.
Aboriginal people became invariably super or
subhuman, never ordinary. They dealt in
magic, not judgment. They were imagined to
be stuck in their pasts, not guided by its
precedent.
Michael Dorris, author
©USAY 2007
The core foundations, values, and belief systems of Aboriginal cultures have dynamically adapted
to the modern era. This series will provide you with the tools for understanding Aboriginal
culture and your Aboriginal employees, increasing recruitment and retention as well as
increasing job satisfaction.
This course consists of five modules:
Culture
History
Cross Cultural Communication
Recruitment and Hiring
Management and Retention
The first two modules provide information regarding some of the historical events and cultural
influences that affect First Nations youth as they head out into the work world where you will be
encountering them. The third module discusses the way this history and culture influences
communication. The fourth and fifth modules will show you how this knowledge will provide you
with an advantage in the interview room or on the shop floor because you will become a better
recruiter or boss through your increased understanding of the cross cultural differences between
mainstream Canadian culture and First Nations cultures of Canada.
These modules will provide you with an introduction to some of the issues surrounding Aboriginal
employment and your organization’s role in it and are not meant to simply be a history lesson,
but to provide you with some basic tools for increasing aboriginal participation in your workforce.
©USAY 2007
CULTURE RESOURCES PAGE
Cultural Transmission
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
Nest of Snow Owl
Aboriginal Oral Traditions PDF
“Aboriginal” encompasses multiple cultures
Labrador Inuit Through Moravian Eyes digital archive
Métis Museum of Canada
Métis Nation of Alberta
Canada’s First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times. Olive Patricia
Dickason. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Rites of passage, ceremonies, spirituality
Storytelling: The Art of Knowledge
Northwest Coast Potlatch
©USAY 2007
CULTURAL TRANSMISSION
Many things influence and shape the way that culture is expressed including physical
environments, language, enculturation, and cross-cultural adaptation. While culture is always
fluid and dynamic, the culture of a people is the intergenerational accumulation and expression
of knowledge, beliefs, practices, customs, norms, and behaviour patterns.
There are four predominant and interrelated means for the transmission of culture: education,
language, group modeling & the family, and place.
Our languages, our spirituality and everything that we are – that
was given to us and that was carried before by our ancestors, our
grandparents who have passed on. When they couldn’t carry it any
longer and they went to join that spirit world, they handed it to us
and they said; ‘now you are the real ones. You have to carry it.’
Charlie Patton, Mohawk Trail Longhouse, Kahnawake, Quebec
Education:
• Culture transmitted formally & informally.
• Culture transmitted formally through schools.
• Culture transmitted informally through intergenerational communication
To quote Verna Kirkness, language is the principal means by which culture is
accumulated, shared and transmitted from generation to generation. The key to
identity and retention of culture is one’s ancestral language.
Dawna LeBlanc, North Shore Tribal Council, Anishnabe Language Teachers Association
Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
©USAY 2007
Language:
• Language shapes the way we view the world
• Many Aboriginal languages are verb oriented - a dynamic view of the world including
cycles of birth, growth, death, and renewal
The family is the foundation of Inuit culture, society, and economy. All our social
and economic structures, customary laws, traditions and actions have tried to
recognize and affirm the strength of the family unit.
Henoch Obed, Labrador Iniut Alcohol and Drug Abuse Program, Nain,
Newfoundland & Labrador
Group Modeling & the Family:
• Families guide: appropriate behaviour, beliefs & customs
• They use modeling and reinforcement
It is on this land that important lessons are learned, lessons that are
central to the Inuvialuit worldview. It is also on the land that families
grow together, where children learn the language and traditions of
their ancestors … And it is on the land that people of the Inuvialuit
community came together to celebrate and to grieve. Their ancient
songs, dances, and stories are about their relationship to each other,
to the land and animals.
Perspectives and Realities: Royal Commission on Aboriginal People,
Final Report
Place:
• Cultural groups identify strongly with ancestral place
• Culturally significant stories include this landscape
• Environment shapes worldview, concepts of identity, humanity, and spirituality
©USAY 2007
CULTURE RESOURCES PAGE
Cultural Transmission
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
Nest of Snow Owl
Aboriginal Oral Traditions PDF
“Aboriginal” encompasses multiple cultures
Labrador Inuit Through Moravian Eyes digital archive
Métis Museum of Canada
Métis Nation of Alberta
Canada’s First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times. Olive Patricia
Dickason. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Rites of passage, ceremonies, spirituality
Storytelling: The Art of Knowledge
Northwest Coast Potlatch
©USAY 2007
“ABORIGINAL” ENCOMPASSES MULTIPLE CULTURES
For the past five centuries First Nations and their descendants have been collectively termed
‘Indians.’ The term originates in a misnomer by Columbus and the first European explorers who
insisted that the lands that they stumbled upon were the islands of the Indian sub-continent. All
of the diverse peoples of the Americas were lumped together into a single and seemingly
homogeneous mass.
At the time of contact, there were over 500 distinct Aboriginal nations in North America
representing over fifty distinct languages, and eleven generally unrelated linguistic groups. Cree
is the most common Aboriginal language spoken in Canada today. Culturally and linguistically
speaking, the Aboriginal nations of North America were, and to a great extent remain, far more
ethnically diverse than are the inhabitants of Europe.
From: Canada’s First Nations: A History of the Founding Peoples from Earliest Times, 3rd edition, by Olivia Patricia
Dickason Copyright © 2002 Oxford University Press Canada. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
©USAY 2007
While Aboriginal groups may differ in language, geographical distribution, use of resources,
spirituality, or history, certain core concepts are common across Aboriginal cultures and
profoundly shape the way that Aboriginal peoples view the world.
Aboriginal cultures across Canada are numerous and extremely diverse. It is inappropriate to
assume that all Aboriginal people speak the same language, share the same spiritual beliefs, or
conduct their lives in the same way. Therefore, it is important to gain an understanding of the
particular Aboriginal community you wish to engage.
Key concepts #1
It is inappropriate to assume all Aboriginal people are the same
There are, however, certain commonalities among Aboriginal cultures. This includes concepts of
interconnectedness, harmony, balance, respect, individual autonomy, community responsibility,
and the responsibility of acting as stewards of the land.
Key concept #2
Commonalities like harmony, autonomy, community and stewardship exist
Land is a central aspect of many Aboriginal cultures. For Aboriginal peoples, land is not simply
about possession of property; land is viewed as a gift from the Creator, a gift that is to be
cherished and used responsibly. In this way, land does not simply encompass the physical ground,
but all of nature including the wind, stars, moon, sun, animals, and all animate and inanimate
beings.
Key concept #3
Land is central and a gift from the Creator
Aboriginal cultures have ancient and rich histories, and forms of political and economic
organization that have thrived on Turtle Island long before Europeans arrived. These cultures are
as sophisticated as any in the world, and offer a rich variety of languages, traditions, economics,
and social organization. Aboriginal cultures are not static and have adapted and changed over
time, while keeping many of these core values intact.
Key concept #4
Aboriginal cultures are sophisticated and dynamic
©USAY 2007
Glossary of Terms
Aboriginal Peoples: The descendents of the original inhabitants of North America. The Canadian
constitution recognizes three groups of Aboriginal peoples – Indians, Métis, and Inuit.
These are separate peoples with unique heritages, languages, and cultural practices.
Aboriginal Title: A legal term that recognizes Aboriginal interest in the land. It is based on their
longstanding use and occupancy of the land as descendants of the original inhabitants of
Canada.
Assembly of First Nations (AFN): Canadian Pan-Indian organization that replaced the National
Indian Brotherhood of Canada in 1982, and works to promote the restoration and
enhancement of a relationship of peaceful co-existence between the government of
Canada and First Nations based on equitable sharing of lands and resources, respect,
recognition and enforcement of Aboriginal rights.
Custom: A traditional Aboriginal practice. For example, First Nations people sometimes marry or
adopt children according to custom, rather than under Canadian family law. Band
councils chosen “by custom” are elected or selected by traditional means, rather than by
the election rules contained in the Indian Act.
First Nation: A term that came into common usage in the 1970’s to replace the misnomer
‘Indian,’ which many people found offensive. Although the term First Nation is widely
used, no legal definition of it exists. Among it’s uses, the term “First Nations peoples”
refers to the Indian people of Canada, both Status and Non-Status. Many Indian people
have also adopted the term “First Nation” to replace the word “band” in the name of
their community.
Indian: The term “Indian” refers to all Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are not Inuit or Métis.
Indian peoples are recognized by the Canadian constitution as one of the three
Aboriginal groups in Canada. As mentioned earlier, the term “Indian” is a misnomer,
derived from Christopher Columbus’ assumption that he discovered the western sea
route to Indian, and many Indian people prefer the term “First Nation” as a signifier of
their ancestry. According to government definitions, however, the term Indian is still
utilized and consists of three categories: Status Indians, Non- Status Indians, and Treaty
Indians.
Métis: The word “Métis” is French for ‘mixed blood.’ The term Métis applied to children of
French fur traders and Cree women in the Prairies, and English and Scottish fur traders
and Dene women in the North. Today, the term is used broadly to describe people with
mixed First Nation and European ancestry who identify themselves as Métis, as distinct
from Indian peoples, Inuit peoples, or non-Indian peoples. The Métis have a unique
culture that draws on their diverse ancestral origins such as Scottish, French, Ojibwa,
and Cree. Métis organizations across Canada have differing criteria for establishing
membership. The Canadian constitution recognizes Métis as one of the three groups of
Aboriginal peoples in Canada.
Inuit: The word “Inuit” means people in Inuktitut (the Inuit language). Inuit are the Aboriginal
peoples of the far Canadian North, living mostly above the tree line in the Northwest
Territories, Nunavut, Northern Quebec, and Labrador.
©USAY 2007
2
Non-Status Indian: Non-Status Indians are people who consider themselves to be Indians or
members of a First Nation, but whom the Government of Canada does not recognize as
Indians under the Indian Act, either because they are not able to prove their status, or
they have lost their status rights. Many Indian people in Canada, especially women, lost
their Indian status as a result of discriminatory legislation in the past. Non- Status Indians
are not entitled to the same rights as Status Indians.
Off-Reserve: A term to describe people, services, or objects that are not located on a reserve,
but relate to First Nations.
Reserve: A reserve is a tract of land that is set aside for the use and benefit of an Indian band.
Many First Nations now prefer the term “First Nation community.”
Potlatch: Gift-giving and exchange ceremony often practiced among peoples of the Northwest
Coast on occasion of the transfer of titles or privileges to new owners. It can also serve
as an oral account of clan history. The Canadian government banned the potlatch
ceremony in 1884 and did not lift the ban until the mid 20th century.
Status Indian: Status Indians are people who are entitled to have their names included on the
Indian Register, an official list maintained by the federal government.
Certain criteria determined by the federal government determine who can be registered
as a Status Indian. Only Status Indians are recognized as Indians under the Indian Act,
which defines an Indian as “a person who, pursuant to this Act, is registered as an Indian,
or who is entitled to be registered as an Indian.” Status Indians are entitled to certain
rights under the law.
Treaty Indian: A Status Indian who belongs to a First Nation that signed a Treaty with the Crown.
Treaty Rights: First Nations signed treaties with various British colonial, and later, Canadian
governments before and after Confederation in 1867. No two treaties are identical, but
they usually provide for certain rights including reserve lands, annuities, hunting and
fishing rights. The treaty rights of an individual Treaty Indian will depend on the precise
terms and conditions of the treaty that his or her First Nation signed.
Wampum: White and purple cylindrical beads made from the shell of the sea snail which were
made into strings and belts by the people of the Northeast. These were used as jewelry,
but also served as standards of value in mutual exchange. Wampum was also used in
strings and belts to record history, agreements, and for diplomacy.
©USAY 2007
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION AT THE TIME OF EUROPEAN CONTACT
From: Canada’s First Nations: A History of the Founding Peoples from Earliest Times, 3rd
edition, by Olivia Patricia Dickason Copyright © 2002 Oxford University Press Canada.
Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
©USAY 2007
CULTURE RESOURCES PAGE
Cultural Transmission
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
Nest of Snow Owl
Aboriginal Oral Traditions PDF
“Aboriginal” encompasses multiple cultures
Labrador Inuit Through Moravian Eyes digital archive
Métis Museum of Canada
Métis Nation of Alberta
Canada’s First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times. Olive Patricia
Dickason. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Rites of passage, ceremonies, spirituality
Storytelling: The Art of Knowledge
Northwest Coast Potlatch
©USAY 2007
GROUP AND KINSHIP STRUCTURES
As with most cultures of the world, Aboriginal social organization is based largely on the family
and extended family units. In Aboriginal societies, the family is seen as a mediating institution
between the individual and the larger society.
The family helps individuals understand and respond to society’s expectations, assists the
community to engage individuals in constructive ways, and provides discipline should family
members venture on a course that conflicts with prevailing social values and expectations of
behavior.
The smallest social unit is the nuclear family; also important in many Aboriginal societies, was
the extended family. The relationship between nuclear and extended families was
interdependent, and mutually supportive, as cooperation was essential in hunting and food
gathering activities, as well as in raising children.
Nuclear family
Extended family
Nuclear family and Extended family support and cooperate for:
• obtaining necessities of life
• raising children
Kinship patterns involve certain behavioral expectations and rules. Some relationship required
the utmost formality, while others are considered ‘joking relationships.’ In Aboriginal societies,
the family mediates between the individual and larger society by helping individuals understand
and respond to society’s expectations, engaging in the community in constructive ways, and
providing discipline should family members come into conflict with prevailing social values and
expectations of behavior.
Individual
Family
Society
The family, clans, and extended family, are the principal avenues for political representation in
Aboriginal societies however, this is expressed differently in different regions. Consensus
building is an essential part of leadership among most Aboriginal societies. With the exception of
©USAY 2007
some Pacific coast groups, leadership is not an exercise in authority, but rather, an exercise in
engagement with community members typically through face-to-face interaction and influence
through oratory skills, and ability to provide for and protect the community.
Aboriginal political representation is based on:
• Family
• Clan
• Extended family
It emphasizes consensus building; and
Leaders are good orators who provide for the community.
There is a high emphasis on children in Aboriginal societies and children were seen as gifts from
the Creator. This emphasis extends to both present and future generations.
Children are gifts from the creator and highly valued
Elders are a vital part of Aboriginal families, and communities, and are well respected among
community members. Elders are individuals who have amassed knowledge and wisdom over many,
many years and who pass on the ancient wisdom, traditions, ceremonies, languages and cultural
values of their culture.
The authority of Elders is not self-prescribed, but given by the community. Age alone does not
make an individual an Elder, and many Aboriginal people have a special word or name that
distinguishes them from what Canadians would call ‘senior citizens.’ Elders set examples,
provide guidance, and are recognized for their wisdom, stability, and knowledge of what is
appropriate in a particular situation.
Elders are wise and pass on:
• Traditions
• Ceremonies
• Language
• Cultural values
Not everyone old is an elder and elders are recognized as such by the community.
©USAY 2007
CULTURE RESOURCES PAGE
Cultural Transmission
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
Nest of Snow Owl
Aboriginal Oral Traditions PDF
“Aboriginal” encompasses multiple cultures
Labrador Inuit Through Moravian Eyes digital archive
Métis Museum of Canada
Métis Nation of Alberta
Canada’s First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times. Olive Patricia
Dickason. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Rites of passage, ceremonies, spirituality
Storytelling: The Art of Knowledge
Northwest Coast Potlatch
©USAY 2007
SPIRITUALITY
The values, worldviews, and social, cultural, and spiritual systems of Aboriginal societies are
reflected and expressed through ceremonies, symbols, and everyday interaction between
members of the society, and members of society and the spiritual world. The following are a few
examples and there is by no means a universal form by which Aboriginal societies express their
relationships with the social and spiritual world.
Central to Aboriginal worldviews is the concept of the interconnected nature of the universe: all
things material, cultural, physical, and spiritual are in a balanced relation to each other and
viewed as gifts from the Creator. Both animate and non-animate objects have their place and
purpose and are interconnected in the web of life, thus all are deserving of respect. Balance,
both within the individual and in the natural world is key to sustaining this harmony and unity.
Nature is interconnected
Balance sustains harmony and unity
The centrality of the circle in Aboriginal worldviews, and the interconnected nature of the world,
is reflected in the Medicine Wheel. In the East, we greet the sun and appreciate the potential for
new learning. From the South we experience growth, where everything in life is replenished and
in full bloom. From the West we encounter reflection and insight. From the North we experience
purity, like the snow. Each direction is associated with experience, aspects of human nature,
and the nature of the universe as a whole.
Winter
Spiritual
Winter
Purity
Elder
West
Intellectual
Fall
Reflection
Adulthood
East
Physical
Spring
Knowledge
Childhood
South
Emotional
Summer
Growth
Adolescence
©USAY 2007
The Medicine Wheel teaches us that we each have four aspects to our nature: the physical,
intellectual, emotional, and spiritual, and that all of these aspects must be equally developed.
Each revolution of the wheel brings a new lesson that can guide us on our path. With each step
of the journey, we encounter other beings who guide us to the next place on the wheel. The
Drum is important as it represents the circle of life, and the heartbeat of Mother Earth.
The pipe is used by many Aboriginal groups across Canada. Smoking the pipe is representative of
a direct link, through prayer, to Creator, and the smoke is seen as the vehicle in which the
prayer is carried. Those who gather to share the pipe create both a social and spiritual
community. Accepting and smoking the pipe is one manner in which agreements are secured,
friendships are strengthened, and trust is established.
Smoking of pipe creates social and spiritual community
Aboriginal groups use symbols to express their relationships with the Creator, nature, family,
community, and spirit world. Often individuals would carry their own personal bundles or
symbols that are representative of particular dreams, kinship networks, totems, or particular
spiritual connections and powers.
Families and clans also adopt symbols that are reflective of membership. Among some Pacific
Coast groups, the clan lineage is traced through totem poles. Each totem pole tells a detailed
description of the lineage history, and sometimes the original animal that the lineage is
descended from. The Eagle and Eagle feather, are common symbols used by many Aboriginal
groups, and it is a high honor to receive this sacred object.
Symbols can be individual or for a community
©USAY 2007
CULTURE RESOURCES PAGE
Cultural Transmission
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
Nest of Snow Owl
Aboriginal Oral Traditions PDF
“Aboriginal” encompasses multiple cultures
Labrador Inuit Through Moravian Eyes digital archive
Métis Museum of Canada
Métis Nation of Alberta
Canada’s First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times. Olive Patricia
Dickason. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Rites of passage, ceremonies, spirituality
Storytelling: The Art of Knowledge
Northwest Coast Potlatch
©USAY 2007
RITES OF PASSAGE AND CEREMONIES
Ceremonies marking transitions from childhood to adulthood are common in most societies. In
western cultures, this might include graduation ceremonies, and the Bah Mitzvah which is an
important coming of age ceremony practiced in some Jewish traditions.
There is great diversity of coming of age ceremonies in Aboriginal traditions. Some Cree groups
in have a ‘First Coming Out’ ceremony when children first learn to walk. Many traditions have
naming ceremonies whereby individuals receive significant names representative of unique
individual abilities and characteristics from Elders.
Two common coming of age ceremonies include the Vision Quest and ceremonies to mark
womanhood. In both, specific instructions on the roles and responsibilities of life are taught and
individuals are prepared for their adult life.
Coming of age ceremonies:
• First coming out
• Naming ceremonies
• Vision quest
• Attainment of Womanhood
Visions and dreams play a powerful role in many Aboriginal societies. They are seen as direct
communications with the Spirit World, and may contain knowledge, warnings, meanings, gifts, or
messages. Animals might appear to teach the dreamer songs or practices which could effectively
be used in hunting, war, or healing the sick.
Individuals seek out particularly powerful visions through ceremony; often called a Vision Quest,
which involves a purification ceremony, followed by fasting, usually for four days. The Vision
Quest is intended to seek knowledge, guidance, and protection for the vision seeker.
A Vision Quest
is direct communication
with the Spirit World
©USAY 2007
Although there is great diversity, the Sweat Lodge Ceremony is conducted in many Aboriginal
traditions; it is primarily used for purification, renewal, and re-birth in which each of the four
elements (earth, air, fire, and water) contribute to physical, emotional, intellectual, and
spiritual cleansing.
Participants gather together inside a circular lodge made of willow woven together to form a
dome for four rounds or cycles within the lodge, during which prayers are recited, sacred songs
are sung, and a pipe is ceremonially smoked by the participants. The Sweat Lodge ceremony can
be conducted on its own, or in preparation for other ceremonies.
The Sweat Lodge ceremony can be conducted on its own or in
preparation for other ceremonies
For many Aboriginal groups, the summer is a time to come together in larger communities to
renew kinship ties, friendships, political alliances, and for communal ceremonies. Among the
Blackfoot, one of the most significant ceremonies is the annual Sun Dance. The ceremony
ordinarily involves about a week or more of activity consisting of a private period of preparations
and prayer, followed by the public phase of dancing.
The Sun Dance is a ceremony of thanksgiving and spiritual renewal, with gifts, songs, prayers,
and dancing being offered to Creator. Dancers often fast and abstain from drinking during the
four days of dancing.
The Potlatch ceremony is common to many groups on the Pacific coast. The chief of one lineage
or clan invites outside dignitaries to this celebration which involves elaborate orations, combined
with feasting, dancing, and gift-giving. Every Potlatch is concluded with the host chief offering
presents to his guest. The more material wealth a chief distributes, the greater the prestige of
the chief and lineage. Each chief would hold their own Potlatch, and were expected to return
the favor by distributing gifts among the participants.
The Sun Dance is a ceremony renewing ties between communities.
The Potlach ceremony uses gift-giving to demonstrate a clan’s wealth
©USAY 2007
HISTORY RESOURCES PAGE
Demographics
StatsCan aboriginal demographics
Origins and common stories
Turtle Island Native Network culture page
Internet Public Library: Native American Authors page
European Contact
Residential School system
The Fur Trade
Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity. David
Hurst Thomas. New York: Basic Books, 2000
Treaties
Canada in the Making: Aboriginal Treaties and Relations
©USAY 2007
DEMOGRAPHICS
In Canada, Aboriginal peoples comprise approximately 3% of the total population. Of these, 65%
of Aboriginal peoples are Indian, 30% are Metis, and 5% are Inuit. In 2001, the median age of
Canada’s Aboriginal population was 24.7 and is 13 years younger than that of the non-Aboriginal
population, as a result of the higher birth rate among Aboriginal peoples.
The Aboriginal population is increasing at almost twice the Canadian average; consequently, the
Aboriginal labour force is growing rapidly. The Aboriginal population grew by about 10 percent
between 1991 and 1995 and by another 11 percent by 2001. According to Stats Canada, between
1991 and 2016, the Aboriginal population is expected to increase by 56 percent and is increasing
in every province and territory.
In the 25 years between 1991-2016 the Aboriginal population is
expected to increase by 56%
The Aboriginal labour force is increasingly highly educated and skilled. In 1969, only 800
Aboriginal peoples had a post-secondary education. By 1991, the number was 150,000. The First
Nations population (on- and off-reserve) with a post-secondary certificate, diploma or degree
increased from 20 to 23 percent from 1996 to 2001. For all Canadians it increased from 35 to 38
percent.
Enrollment rates for post-secondary studies are also increasing. There were nearly 27,000 Indian
and Inuit students enrolled full- and part-time in postsecondary institutions in 1994/95 and over
3,500 Aboriginal peoples graduated from a post-secondary institution.
Post Secondary Education
1969: 800 Aboriginal people had a post-secondary education
1991: 150,000 Aboriginal people had a post-secondary education
2001: 23% of Aboriginals hold post-secondary credentials
38% of all Canadians hold post-secondary credentials
©USAY 2007
Despite the fact that Aboriginal peoples offer diverse skills to the workforce, their participation
in the labour force is lower and their unemployment rate higher than that of non-Aboriginal
Canadians. In 1991, the unemployment rate of Aboriginal peoples was almost twice the Canadian
average at 19.4 percent. In the same year, the unemployment rate for the on reserve Indian
population was three times the Canadian average at 31 percent.
Attitudes and other barriers to Aboriginal employment exist in many workplaces. A 1995 survey
found that 77 percent of employers faced challenges in hiring and retaining Aboriginal employees.
They cited barriers in communication, culture, skills and training, and misconceptions.
Barriers to Aboriginal Employment
• Communication
• Culture
• Skills & Training
• Misconceptions
©USAY 2007
DEFINING ABORIGINAL POPULATIONS
There are many ways of defining the Aboriginal population, which can result in different
estimates of its size. There is no single or “correct” definition of the Aboriginal population and
the choice of a definition depends on many variables. The 2001 Census provides data that is
based on the definitions of ethnic origin (ancestry), Aboriginal identity, Registered Indian, and
Band memberships.
Some of these terms are defined as follows:
Aboriginal Ancestry: refers to those persons who reported at least one Aboriginal origin (First
Nation, Inuit, or Métis) on the ethnic origin question on the Census. The question asks about the
ethnic or cultural group(s) to which the respondents ancestors belong.
Aboriginal Identity: refers to those persons who reported identifying with at least one
Aboriginal group (i.e. First Nation, Inuit, or Métis). Also included are individuals who did not
report an Aboriginal identity, but did report themselves as a Registered or Treaty Indian, and/or
Band or First Nation membership.
Registered, Status, or Treaty Indian: refers to those who reported that they were registered
under the Indian Act. Treaty Indians are persons who are registered under the Indian Act and can
prove descent from a Band that signed a treaty. The term ‘treaty Indian’ is more widely utilized
in the Prairie Provinces.
Member of an Indian Band of First Nation: refers to those persons who reported being a
member of an Indian Band or a First Nation of Canada.
As of the 2001 census:
Aboriginal Origin 1,319,890
Aboriginal Identity 976,305
Registered Indian 558,175
Band Membership 554,860
The majority of Aboriginal people, 608,850 or 62%, are First Nations, while 292,310 or 30% are
Métis, and 45,070 or 5% are Inuit.
On the international level, Aboriginal peoples’ share of Canada’s total population, 3.3% ranked
second behind New Zealand, whose Maori population accounts for 14% of its total population.
Aboriginal peoples accounted for 2.2% of Australia’s population, and 1.5% of the population of
the United States.
©USAY 2007
HISTORY RESOURCES PAGE
Demographics
StatsCan aboriginal demographics
Origins and common stories
Turtle Island Native Network culture page
Internet Public Library: Native American Authors page
European Contact
Residential School system
The Fur Trade
Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity. David
Hurst Thomas. New York: Basic Books, 2000
Treaties
Canada in the Making: Aboriginal Treaties and Relations
©USAY 2007
ORIGINS AND COMMON STORIES
Storytelling is an important feature of Aboriginal culture. Creation stories, and other stories
that are passed on from generation to generation, serve to explain appropriate social protocol,
beliefs, and behavior so that the listener is familiar with what is expected of him or her, and
creates a sense of belonging and identity. Through stories, we can see key concepts of Aboriginal
worldviews including respect for all things living and non-living, connection to land, and gifts and
responsibilities given by Creator.
There is variation between, and even among, Aboriginal communities, however, most Aboriginal
groups believe in a Creator, or Great Mystery, that underlies the complexity of the universe. Life
and all of its inter-related parts are seen as being gifts from the Creator and therefore deserving
of respect and gratitude.
For many Aboriginal groups, Creator is conceptualized as being within everything, including
human beings. The Creator is referred to differently among different groups: among Mi’kmaq,
Creator is referred to as Gisoolg; among Ojibwa, Creator is called Gitchie Manitou; and among
Dakota and Nakota, as Wakan Tanka
Aboriginal Group
Name of Creator
Mi’kmaq
Ojibwa
Dakota & Nakota
Gisoolg
Gitchie Manitou
Wakan Tanka
There are many different versions of how
Aboriginal people came to call North America
Turtle Island. For thousands of years each
generation learned the lessons and stories of Turtle
Island from preceding generations. The Ojibwa
creation story comes from the Onondaga of the Six
Nations.
©USAY 2007
Long ago, before the Earth was here, all was water. Many creatures lived in the
water, swimming about.
Far above the clouds, there was a land where lived a powerful chief. His wife was
going to have a baby. In that Sky land was a great tree with four large roots,
stretching out to each of the four sacred directions, and bearing many kinds of
fruits and flowers.
One night the chief’s wife dreamed that the great tree had been uprooted. The
chief perceived that this was a dream of great power, and thus must be fulfilled.
With great effort, the tree was uprooted, leaving a large hole in the sky. The
chief’s wife leaned to look through the hole, but lost her balance and fell. Grasping
at the tree as she fell, she only managed to hold onto a handful of seeds. The
water creatures below saw her falling. They realized that she was not a water
creature and tried desperately to think of a way to help her.
“I have heard,” said one, “that there is earth far below the waters. Perhaps we
should try to get some for her to stand upon.” One by one the animals tried to dive
down far enough to retrieve land, but one by one they failed. Finally brave little
muskrat tried one last time.
Deeper and deeper she dove until her little lungs almost burst. Suddenly she found
a bit of land. Scooping it up, she frantically swam to the surface. But alas, where
to put the land? Turtle said, “Put it on my back. I will hold up the Land and the Sky
Woman.”
And so they did. Sky Woman landed safely on the Turtle’s back and was very
thankful. She cast the seeds about. The Land became ever so beautiful. Some
people call that land “America.”
©USAY 2007
HISTORY RESOURCES PAGE
Demographics
StatsCan aboriginal demographics
Origins and common stories
Turtle Island Native Network culture page
Internet Public Library: Native American Authors page
European Contact
Residential School system
The Fur Trade
Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity. David
Hurst Thomas. New York: Basic Books, 2000
Treaties
Canada in the Making: Aboriginal Treaties and Relations
©USAY 2007
EUROPEAN CONTACT
At the time of contact, Europeans wanted access to valuable resources such as fish, fur,
minerals, and gold. Utilizing skills such as hunting, fishing, trapping, trading, and canoeing,
Aboriginal peoples became essential economic partners in almost all trade activity. Politically,
the initial period of contact was also one of mutual recognition, where Aboriginal and nonAboriginal treated each other as political equals.
Increased European settlement, warfare, disease, slavery, and forced labor caused the
Aboriginal population to decline. An era of warfare in the East culminated in the extermination
of many tribes such as the Beothuk, and the deportation of others to the West.
European explorers, traders, settlers, and missionaries brought a host of diseases to which First
Nations had no immunity. Smallpox, measles, and influenza spread by direct contact, often as
European traders and Aboriginal peoples migrated from one post to another. These diseases also
spread through infected trade goods such as cloth, and blankets, and there is evidence of
intentional introduction of disease in some cases.
Effects of Disease on Aboriginal populations
•
•
•
1781 some Assiniboine groups lost half their population
1836 the Blackfoot lost 2/3 of their people
The Dene may have lost up to 90% of their people
French and Scottish traders married Aboriginal woman, who were knowledgeable about the land,
local languages, food, medicines, and tanning hides. The Métis, people of this mixed ancestry,
developed a new culture. With their knowledge of both European and Aboriginal tradition and
languages, Métis made excellent intermediaries.
Métis people also forged their own identity with their own language, dress, and ceremonies. The
Michif language of the Métis people is a mixture of French and Cree, with a few English and
Ojibwa words. Métis dress also fuses of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal traditions; the Métis Sash is
an identifiable Métis symbol, but it also serves as a tumpline, first aid kit, washcloth, towel, and
emergency bridle and saddle blanket.
©USAY 2007
30% of Aboriginal Canadians are Métis
300,000 Métis in Canada
The Indian Act provided for the compulsory schooling of Aboriginal children. The residential
school system in Canada aimed at severing the artery of culture that ran intergenerationally
between elder and child.
Upon arrival at school Aboriginal names were replaced by numbers and foreign English names
thus disassociating the child from her/his former identity. Speaking native languages, the
performing of Aboriginal cultural or religions practices, the expression of traditional beliefs, and
the telling of stories were all strictly prohibited and often severely punished. Part of the school
curriculum contained practical training so that Aboriginal children might learn European methods
of industry and agriculture.
The persistent resistance of many Aboriginal students and the incompetence of residential school
administration were the only two factors that preserved Aboriginal languages and cultures.
Aboriginal peoples who attended residential schools were caught in a cycle of abuse. Parenting
skills were un-learned and the effects of residential schools were transferred from one
generation to the next as the cycle of abuse continued.
In 1996, in response to growing public backlash, the Government of Canada issued a formal
apology for its part in the residential school structure.
The Government of Canada acknowledges the role it played in the
development and administration of these schools. Particularly to those
individuals who experienced the tragedy of sexual and physical abuse at
residential schools, and who have carried this burden believing that in
some way they must be responsible, we wish to emphasize that what
you experienced was not your fault and should never have happened. To
those of you who suffered this tragedy at residential schools, we are
deeply sorry.
©USAY 2007
HISTORY RESOURCES PAGE
Demographics
StatsCan aboriginal demographics
Origins and common stories
Turtle Island Native Network culture page
Internet Public Library: Native American Authors page
European Contact
Residential School system
The Fur Trade
Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity. David
Hurst Thomas. New York: Basic Books, 2000
Treaties
Canada in the Making: Aboriginal Treaties and Relations
©USAY 2007
TREATIES
In the early period of contact, treaty relationships were carefully cultivated and relied on
Aboriginal traditions of oratory, wampum, gifting, and smoking the pipe to convey the
sacredness of the agreement. These first Peace and Friendship treaties recognized Aboriginal
societies as self-governing nations, and were designed for co-operation and co-habitation.
On January 19, 1794, the newly established United States of America and the British concluded
the Jay Treaty which recognized the right of Aboriginal peoples to unrestricted passage over the
artificial boundaries dividing traditional territories. Today, Aboriginal people born in Canada are
allowed to travel freely to the U.S. and may work without visas or special permits.
After the war of 1812 peace was called between the warring imperial powers and First Nations
and Métis were no longer of military advantage to the British. European settlers were flooding
into the remaining colonies of British North America, therefore, the British Crown, and later the
Canadian government began a treaty process in an attempt to secure land.
1794 Jay Treaty allows Aboriginal people right to freely
cross U.S. – Canada border
In 1857, the government of the United Provinces passed an ‘Act for the Gradual Civilization of
the Indian Tribes in the Canadas’. Any First Nations man over the age of 21, literate in English
or French, educated to an elementary level, of good moral character, and free of debt could be
declared enfranchised or ‘no longer deemed to be an Indian.’ Also, until 1960, Native Canadians
could not vote unless they gave up their treaty rights.
1857 Any First Nations man could give up his status as Indian to become enfranchised
In the mid-1870’s the Department of the Interior developed a system of ‘scrip’ to settle Métis
land claims. Métis scrip recipients only had to present their scrip notes to the proper federal
authorities and any unoccupied Crown land would be theirs.
©USAY 2007
In theory, land scrip could only be redeemed at face value in the purchase of homestead lands
through a federal land office. In reality, a considerable black market for scrip sold and traded by
recipients at far less than its face value to pay debts and purchase goods rather than land.
1870s Land Scrip system developed to
settle Métis Land claims
In 1876 the federal government of Canada passed The Indian Act. Provisions include the use of
natural resources, Aboriginal lands, and regulations as per the sale of liquor, the election of
band councils and chiefs, tribal governance, and set down conditions describing who was to be
considered an Aboriginal person.
Status Indians are those who are registered with the federal government as Indians according to
the terms of the Indian Act; those not registered are often referred to as non-Status. The Indian
Act stipulated that a Status-Indian woman who married a non-Status Indian man, was no longer
considered to be a ‘Status Indian’, nor were her children. This discrimination lasted until 1985
when amendments to the Indian Act were passed.
1876 Indian Act creates Status Indians and governs all aspects of Native life
Between 1871 and 1923, the Government of Canada signed eleven treaties with Aboriginal groups
stretching across most of present day Canada. Most of the numbered treaties featured similar
provisions; they all provided for reserve lands, the right to hunt and fish over all former
territories, monetary payments, suits of clothing every two to three years for headmen, yearly
ammunition and supplies, allowances for schooling, and provisions for “medicine chests” (which
Aboriginal peoples consider to be health care), and housing.
1871-1923
11 numbered treaties signed
©USAY 2007
NUMBERED TREATIES
Courtesy First Nations Network Evaluation Services Ltd (2004) Aboriginal Engagement Guide
©USAY 2007
CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION RESOURCES PAGE
Cross Cultural Awareness and Competence
Cultural Barriers to Communication (contains additional useful links)
Cross Cultural Competence PDF (contains useful lists of print resources)
The Power Within People: A Community Organizing Perspective Robert Antone, Diane Miller, and
Brian Myers. Canada: Tribal Sovereignty Associates, 1986.
Aboriginal World View
Aboriginal Language development
An Approach to Aboriginal Cultural Landscapes
Canada World View – Aboriginal Planet
©USAY 2007
CROSS CULTURAL AWARENESS
Our identities are rooted in our cultural experiences. Understanding another culture can be
difficult because it requires us to appreciate, without having lived the same experiences,
another people’s way of comprehending the world. We have to set aside assumptions, beliefs,
and cultural ethnocentricity in order to try and see the world as others see it.
As an individual encounters a culture different from their own, they move through four stages in
their learning journey: At first encounter, the other culture may seem exotic, bizarre, and
unbelievable and exposure to the culture often comes only through media, tourism, and existing
stereotypes.
In the second stage, an individual may become aware of traits different from their own. These
traits may be frustrating, or appear irrational, and lead to cultural conflict situations.
In the third stage, individuals often engage the other culture on an intellectual basis. In this
stage, individuals often become more aware of the other culture, but it is still only understood
in terms of difference.
The final stage involves direct experiences of the other culture in the form of cultural immersion;
the individual becomes aware of how another feels from the standpoint of an insider.
©USAY 2007
LEVELS OF CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS
As an individual encounters a culture different from their own, they move through four stages in
their learning journey, as seen in the following table.
Understanding another culture can be difficult because it requires us to appreciate, without
having lived the same experiences, another people’s way of comprehending the world. We have
to set aside assumptions, beliefs, and cultural ethnocentricity in order to try and see the world
as others see it.
If we are successful, we may be able to perceive how other people, in very different
circumstances, conceive of their environment and their place, both physical and spiritual, within
it. It may even achieve an understanding of their shared meanings and ideas, including the
intellectual, moral, and aesthetic standards that guide them.
In our attempt to understand another culture, we too must be aware that we are subject to our
own cultural interpretations and worldviews and that these shape how we view social, behavioral,
physical, and spiritual phenomena. It is imperative that we not only become aware of the culture
of another, but also of our own cultural influences as well. Essentially, it becomes important for
us to examine how we know what we know.
©USAY 2007
CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION RESOURCES PAGE
Cross Cultural Awareness and Competence
Cultural Barriers to Communication (contains additional useful links)
Cross Cultural Competence PDF (contains useful lists of print resources)
The Power Within People: A Community Organizing Perspective Robert Antone, Diane Miller, and
Brian Myers. Canada: Tribal Sovereignty Associates, 1986.
Aboriginal World View
Aboriginal Language development
An Approach to Aboriginal Cultural Landscapes
Canada World View – Aboriginal Planet
©USAY 2007
DEVELOPING CROSS CULTURAL COMPETENCE
Our attitudes, language, beliefs, and values are all products of our culture and although we learn
these things as children, they come to feel natural. The beliefs, values and attitudes of people
from other cultures come to seem strange to us, but cultural competence is a skill that anyone
can learn. Our thoughts, emotions and behaviour are the things that need to be changed to gain
cultural competence, and communication is the key to breaking down cross-cultural barriers.
Cultural competence is defined as “a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes and policies that
come together in a system, agency, or among professionals and enables that system, agency or
those professionals to work effectively in cross cultural situations.”
Cultural competence = a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies
Prejudice is “any preconceived opinion or feeling, either favourable or unfavourable;
unreasonable feelings, opinions, or attitudes, especially of a hostile nature, regarding a racial,
religious, or national group”. Discrimination is “treatment or consideration of, or making a
distinction in favour of or against, a person or thing based on the group, class, or category to
which that person or thing belongs rather than on individual merit; unfair treatment of a person
or group on the basis of prejudice”
Discriminatory practices based on ethnicity are illegal and protected by the Charter of Rights and
Freedoms. Prejudice tends to be more insidious because it does not translate into specific
practices and those who hold prejudices often do so unconsciously. This makes it important for
an organization that wants to hire more Aboriginal Canadians to be aware of any prejudices in
the workplace that would make the workplace uncomfortable for its employees.
There are some basic skills that apply to all communication, including cross cultural
communication:
•
•
•
•
Identifying your own attitudes, opinions and biases makes it easier to understand other
worldviews and how they might differ from yours.
Take time while listening allows the other person time to finish their expressing their
thoughts.
Encouraging feedback and asking questions ensures your communication is received in
the spirit you gave it.
Seeking commonality and trying to become sensitive to the needs, values and goals of
others also encourages communication.
©USAY 2007
There are three types of barriers to cross cultural understanding:
•
•
•
Cognitive barriers consist of our world view through which we evaluate and integrate
new information.
Behavioural barriers emerge from our culture’s rules about verbal and nonverbal
communication; they are what we understand as proper etiquette. For example, looking
someone in the eye while talking is valued by some cultures, but not by others.
Emotional barriers are the ways in which culture dictates the expression of emotion,
which varies from culture to culture. For example, some cultures express emotion while
debating an issue while others value hiding emotions and focusing only on the facts.
In general, when communicating with someone from another culture, never make assumptions
about your communication. When in doubt about cross cultural etiquette, ask; the spirit of
etiquette more important than letter. The reverse goes as well, something that strikes you as
rude might just be different rules of etiquette.
Remember that body language may be different, including strength of handshake, proximity
rules, eye contact, and touch. Be careful with jokes and sarcasm because they can backfire.
Also be aware of tone, loudness, and pace as you speak. Verbal self-praise necessary in some
interview questions may be seen as arrogant in some cultures; you may need to rely on
references or work experience to determine competency. Carefully parcel out compliments;
sometimes they can backfire by calling attention to the worker that they don’t want.
Cross Cultural communication guidelines
•
•
•
•
•
Body language may be different
Tone & loudness of voice may differ
Ask when something doesn’t seem right
Be careful in the use of humour
Self-praise or compliments may not be desired
©USAY 2007
CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION RESOURCES PAGE
Cross Cultural Awareness and Competence
Cultural Barriers to Communication (contains additional useful links)
Cross Cultural Competence PDF (contains useful lists of print resources)
The Power Within People: A Community Organizing Perspective Robert Antone, Diane Miller, and
Brian Myers. Canada: Tribal Sovereignty Associates, 1986.
Aboriginal World View
Aboriginal Language development
An Approach to Aboriginal Cultural Landscapes
Canada World View – Aboriginal Planet
©USAY 2007
ABORIGINAL WORLD VIEW
Although there are over 500 Aboriginal nations, they each share several important values. The
Aboriginal world view places importance on the family, spirituality, autonomy, and the land. In
Aboriginal culture, the needs of the group and the individual must be in balance.
Before the arrival of Europeans, approximately 500 Aboriginal nations existed in North America.
These nations were diverse in modes of language, spirituality, and social organization, and had
belief systems which reflected their own unique understanding and perception of their place in
the world.
As Robert Antone, writer and healer explains, “from their understanding of creation, Aboriginal
people personified the forces of nature into such beings as the creator, mother earth,
grandmother moon, and the elder brother sun. The relationship to all things in creation is
understood to be one of kinship. The human relationship to mother earth is in all respects the
same relationship to one’s own natural mother.”
To Europeans, North America was seen as an ‘empty land,’ ‘terra nullius,’ primarily because
European conceptions of agriculture necessitated land ownership. For many Aboriginal groups,
owning the land was as foreign a concept as owning one’s mother. Instead, many Aboriginal
groups saw themselves as stewards of the land, entrusted with the sacred responsibility of
ensuring balance and harmony among related parts.
Aboriginal groups, or even families, clans, or bands within any one particular group exercised
‘use rights’ that had been handed down from one generation to the next. By custom, other clans
would not use another clan’s territory without consultation and agreement.
For many Aboriginal groups, owning the land is as
foreign a concept as owning your mother
In most Aboriginal communities, the individual is imbued with a strong sense of personal
autonomy and an equally strong sense of responsibility to the community.
©USAY 2007
Individuals are encouraged, and often assisted by Elders, to find their own gifts and talents
which are then nurtured by the community. Again, these talents are seen as gifts from the
Creator and interfering with the fulfillment of an individual’s gifts can be seen as interfering
with natural law.
Visions and dreams are powerful
Generosity and the sharing of resources was highly valued in most Aboriginal cultures and
contributed to community survival. Among many Plains groups, entire families participated in
the Buffalo hunt where each individual had a particular role.
Some individuals obtain great spiritual powers for the benefit of the whole community
One of the most important and respected attributes of a person in Inuit society is their degree
of independence and ability to meet life’s challenges with innovation, resourcefulness, and
perseverance. Traditionally, these were traits that would greatly increase the chance of
survival for the individual and group…In addition to a strong value being placed on individual
independence, the practice of sharing was held to be of the utmost importance.
The Family Gathering Strength: Royal Commission on Aboriginal People,
Final Report
Balance of individual skills and community sharing
©USAY 2007
CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION RESOURCES PAGE
Cross Cultural Awareness and Competence
Cultural Barriers to Communication (contains additional useful links)
Cross Cultural Competence PDF (contains useful lists of print resources)
The Power Within People: A Community Organizing Perspective Robert Antone, Diane Miller, and
Brian Myers. Canada: Tribal Sovereignty Associates, 1986.
Aboriginal World View
Aboriginal Language development
An Approach to Aboriginal Cultural Landscapes
Canada World View – Aboriginal Planet
©USAY 2007
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ABORIGINAL & MAINSTREAM CULTURE
There are several important differences between Aboriginal and mainstream Canadian culture
which makes it very important to keep an open dialogue about those differences, and ask
questions when in doubt.
Communication differences include dialect, word choice, narrative structure, as well as nonverbal cues. In addition, tradition, placidity and the importance of the group are highly valued
in Aboriginal culture but clash with the individualism and competition valued in general Canadian
culture.
Speech differs between Aboriginal and mainstream Canadian culture. In a First Nations dialect,
the sound d may be used in places where Standard English uses th, in words like that or other.
Inflection, such as verb or noun endings that indicate person or number, may also differ.
Unlike Standard English, some First Nations English dialects may use the same form for all
present tense verb forms: Mandarin, Indonesian, and many other languages have similar regular
verb paradigms. In some First Nations English dialects, pronouns are optional when they can be
inferred from the context. These differences do not necessarily indicate a lack of language skills.
Remember: there are speech differences between mainstream Aboriginal dialects of English
According to psychologist Michael Chandler, “Rank-and-file Euro-American adolescents are shown
to be steeped in a standard brew of essentialist thought. By contrast, 'First Nations' youth
commonly adopt a more narrative approach to the problem by weaving together the various
threads of their lives into some culturally available fabric.” Time is viewed as flowing and
narrative includes storytelling and the reporting of events. Because of a difference in worldview,
some First Nations English dialects structure narratives differently.
Standard English
narrative structure
Alternative narrative
structures
Chronological sequencing
Thematic sequencing
Explicit connections
between ideas
Implicit connections
between ideas
Elaboration is valued
Brevity is valued
©USAY 2007
Verbal and non-verbal communication may be different. In many First Nations communities,
listening and observing are valued as much as talking. In mainstream Canadian conversations,
listeners are expected to look the speaker in the eye, and provide active listening responses.
These behaviours may be seen as rude and interrupting in some First Nations cultures.
Some First Nations people may be accustomed to speech that is quieter and slower than
mainstream Canadian speech. Aboriginal culture also has a higher tolerance for silence.
Verbal and non-verbal communication varies across cultures
Aboriginal values often differ from those of mainstream Canadians. For First Nations peoples,
tradition is important. Children participate in adult activities and may be taught very early in
life their responsibility to each other. Part of this responsibility involves learning to be quiet and
to listen. Patience and good listening and observation skills are developed in this way. ‘Words’
have power because they constitute a portion of the sacred and should be used carefully.
Egalitarianism, generosity and hospitality are valued in relationships; whatever First Nations
people have, they share. Connectedness to all things and a commitment to spiritual life and
health are important. Humour is important and governed by a set of rules based on the social
positions of the individuals involved: often one of the very first acts of acceptance within a
traditional community involves a willingness to tease outsiders.
These values are frequently inconsistent with the values of individualism, competition, hierarchy,
change, material success, and personal achievement that the dominant society holds.
Aboriginal values
Mainstream values
Tradition
Individualism
Placidity
Competition
Responsibility
Hierarchy
Listening
Change
Generosity
Material success
Spirituality
Personal achievement
Humour is valued
©USAY 2007
WHERE TO GO FROM HERE
The programs you develop to increase recruitment and retention of Aboriginal employees will
depend in part upon the kinds of programs your organization already has in force. These
programs include: diversity programs, liaising with local Aboriginal groups, mentoring programs,
recruitment and interviewing protocols.
Additional Resources
A Perspective of Aboriginal Employment in the Federal Public Service - Highlights of Good
Practices
Aboriginal Inclusion Network Promising Practices (community relationships, recruitment and
retention, employee development)
Aboriginal Job Centre
National Aboriginal Economic Development Board
Mentoring Canada
National Association of Friendship Centres
©USAY 2007