International Journal of Environmental Science and Toxicology Research (ISSN: 2408-7262) Vol. 4(7) pp. 111-117, August, 2016
Available online http://www.internationalinventjournals.org/journals/IJESTR
Copyright ©2016 International Invention Journals
Review
Watershed Management: The role and challenges for
dry lands and deserts downstream – the case of the
Nile Basin
Dr. David R. Mutekanga, PhD
Lecturer, Environment Management and Biodiversity Conservation, African Rural University, P. O. Box 24 Kagadi,
Uganda
Corresponding Email: [email protected]; Tel.: +256 772 508491
Received 25 July, 2016; Accepted 23 August, 2016
This is a preliminary discussion paper of the roles and challenges faced in managing watersheds which
are the sources of the waters being used in dry lands and deserts downstream using the Nile Basin in
Africa as an example. It aims at raising the role of managing watersheds which play a significant role in
cross border dry lands and deserts. The Nile basin consists of the following countries: Burundi,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania
and Rwanda. Of these Egypt, Sudan and South Sudan are mainly covered by dry land and desert land.
They depend mainly on the River Nile for water source. However, the Nile comes from Lake Victoria and
this lake gets its waters mainly (70%) from the watersheds of Rwanda. Using an example from Rwanda,
the paper analyses the roles of watersheds as an important source of water for Lake Victoria and River
Nile and in turn the dry lands and deserts in Egypt, Sudan and South Sudan. Effective management of
these watersheds which are currently over 20 and belong to the 5 sub-basins in Rwanda is very
significant in ensuring water availability in Lake Victoria hence the deserts and dry lands north of Lake
Victoria. The paper lists some of the emerging challenges which include the fact that this issue is
significance down played. There is need at global level to identify these cross border critical
watersheds whose role in deserts and dry lands is very significant. The difficulties in doing this are well
known but there is need to identify the watersheds and a global initiative taken to manage them.
Keywords: Watersheds, Nile Basin, Rwanda, Drylands, Deserts.
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
This paper is a preliminary discussion of the roles and
challenges faced in managing watersheds which are the
sources of the waters being used in cross border dry
lands and deserts downstream. The paper uses the Nile
Basin in Africa as an example. It aims at raising
awareness of the role of managing watersheds and the
challenges faced trying to do this.
Specifically this paper highlights the Nile Basin and
how it is currently being managed through the Nile Basin
Initiative (NBI). It further outlines the relationship
between watersheds, sub-basins and Basins of the Nile
River using the water Basins in Rwanda as an example.
Finally the paper also discusses the role and challenges
of managing watersheds for effective and sustainable
utilization of the Nile waters.
The Nile Basin
The Nile River is the longest river in the world. From its
major source, Lake Victoria in East Africa, the White Nile
flows generally north through Uganda and into Sudan
where it meets the Blue Nile at Khartoum, which rises
from the Ethiopian highlands. From the confluence of the
White and Blue Nile, the river continues to flow
northwards into Egypt and on to the Mediterranean Sea.
From Lake Victoria to the Mediterranean Sea the length
of the Nile is 5584 km (3470 mi). From its remotest
headstream, the Ruvyironza River in Burundi, the river is
6671 km (4145 mi) long. The river basin has an area of
more than 3,349,000 sq. km (1,293,049 sq. mi) (Nile
Basin Initiative 2012a, 2012b and 2012c).
112 Int. J. Environ. Sci. Toxic. Res.
The Nile Basin consists of the following countries
through which the Nile starts and flows till it empties in
the Mediterranean Sea: Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya,
Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda
(Figure 1).
These countries have recognized the significance of
this basin and formed the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)
which is an inter-Governmental organization made up of
representatives from these countries with a full time
secretariat based in Uganda and country offices in each
of the basin countries.
This initiative started in 2002 and has been
operational since then. Its mission is “to achieve
sustainable socio-economic development through the
equitable utilization of, and benefit from, the common
Nile Basin water resources". They are doing this through
effective management of the Nile Basin to ensure
sustainable utilization of the Nile waters from the
sources to the Mediterranean Sea. In the last 10 years it
has been able to undertake the following major activities
and initiatives:
Development of investment projects in a number of
membership countries. These have included hydropower stations for electricity generation and Agricultural
production projects; applied Training Projects in
developing human and institutional capacity; and
development of a network of professionals who are
interdisciplinary in the Nile Basin countries (NBI, 2012).
CURRENT CHALLENGES FACING THE NILE BASIN
The human population in the Nile Basin is currently
estimated at 200 million people but is expected to
increase by between 61% to 82% (ESS 1995 - 2013).
These countries which make up the Nile Basin
(Burundi, DR Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya,
Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda)
are among the least developed countries and facing
major challenges including environmental degradation,
drought, weak institutions, low financial capacity,
inadequate infrastructure and social instability which
perpetuate poverty in the region.
According to FAO 1997, the high population growth
and the resultant pressure on natural resources
increases the degradation of these resources. FAO
(1997) further reports that agriculture already uses more
than 80 percent of renewable water resources in the Nile
basin, as a result the:
"Nile water allocation has therefore become a near
zero-sum game…..So it becomes very, very important
that water authorities have detailed information for good
water accounting, and planning tools that let them weigh
the costs and benefits of their policies and their resource
management choices."
The Nile Basin has both very wet and indeed very
dry lands and deserts (see Figure 2 below, Hatfield
2006).
The very wet countries are the basic sources of the
waters which either flow directly into forming the River
Nile or flow into Lake Victoria which is the primary
source of the Nile River. These countries include
Ethiopia in the North East of Lake Victoria, Uganda to
the North of Lake Victoria, Rwanda to the West of Lake
Victoria and Tanzania and Kenya to the South and East
of Lake Victoria respectively.
The above countries contribute differently to the
waters which end up in the River Nile. For example,
studies show that the sub-basins of Rwanda through the
Kagera River (Figure 2) provide over 70% of the waters
fed into Lake Victoria (The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia 2012).
This paper focuses on the role of managing the
watersheds from the wet countries which in turn affect
the water flow into Lake Victoria and eventually the Nile
River. Emphasis is being given to the watersheds of
Rwanda which feed the Kagera River before it empties
into Lake Victoria.
The watersheds in Rwanda are very important
because the Ruvyironza in Rwanda (regarded in some
circles as the ultimate source of the Nile) forms a major
upper branch of the Kagera River. The Kagera, which
follows the boundary of Rwanda northward, turning
where the borders of Rwanda, Uganda and Tanzania
meet, drains into Lake Victoria. On leaving Lake Victoria
in Uganda, the Nile, as described by the Nile Basin
Initiative (2012) moves at first northwest and then west,
until it enters Lake Albert. The section between the two
lakes is called the Victoria Nile. The river leaves the
northern end of Lake Albert as the Albert Nile, flows
through northern Uganda, and at the Sudan border
becomes the Bahr al Jabal. At its junction with the Bahr
al Ghazal, the river becomes the Bahr al Abyad, or the
White Nile. Various tributaries flow through the Bahr al
Ghazal district. At Khartoum the White Nile is joined by
the Blue Nile, or Bahr al Azraq. These are so named
because of the colour of the water (NBI 2012).
The above description makes the wet watersheds in
Rwanda very significant in ultimately providing water to
the Nile River and this paper will use one of the major
watersheds in Rwanda as an example.
The Water Sheds of the Nile Basin
Since it is the longest freshwater river, the Nile and its
basin has the largest number of watersheds spanning an
area of about 3.3 million square kilometres (Figure 3,
Hatfield 2006). Most of these watersheds have not yet
been completely mapped out due to a number of issues
including instability in the area and the vastness of the
area hence lack of resources to carry out the
demarcation.
Some of the countries in the basin are finalizing their
watersheds demarcation for example Rwanda, while
others like Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya have
Mutekanga 113
Figure 1. Map of the Nile Basin (Katrina Manson and
Borzou Daragahi, 2013. Water: Battle of the Nile)
Figure 2. Wetlands, Drylands and Deserts of the Nile Basin (Created by
Hatfield Consultants Ltd., 2006)
114 Int. J. Environ. Sci. Toxic. Res.
Figure 3. Watersheds of the Nile River Basin (Created by Hatfield
Consultants Ltd., 2006)
almost fully demarcated their watersheds.
Because of the significance of Rwanda as a major
source of most of the water for Lake Victoria (The
Colombia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2012), this paper
uses just one of the watersheds called Karangaza to
illustrate the roles and challenges of watershed
management which affects cross border dry lands and
deserts downstream.
The Watersheds of Rwanda
Rwanda Background
Rwanda is one of the smallest countries in Africa
(26,338 Km2 ) and it is land locked bordering with
Uganda in the North, Democratic Republic of Congo in
the West, Burundi in the South and Tanzania in the East
(Figure 2). Despite a recent history of internal conflicts,
war and genocide, Rwanda has in the last 20 years
emerged from this history with a very good and well
balanced political leadership and effective government
management. It has one of the highest economic growth
rates in Africa (World Fact Book 2012).
Basins and Watersheds in Rwanda
Rwanda is an ecotone zone as far as the major Africa
Basins are concerned. The massive Congo Basin and
the Nile Basin meet in Rwanda and therefore part of the
Western side of Rwanda literary empties its run off in the
Congo Basin; while the central and eastern parts of the
country empties its run off including major rivers in the
Nile Basin (Figure 4).
In Rwanda the two basins are divided into 5 subbasins which include: Congo, Akanyaru, Akagera,
Nyabarongo, and Mulindi sub-basins.
Only the Congo sub-basin empties into the Congo
basin and the waters here flow through Democratic
Republic of Congo into the Pacific Ocean. The other 5
sub-basins empty into the Lake Victoria which in turn
through the River Nile empties into the Mediterranean
Sea. This means the largest number of watersheds in
Rwanda are very significant in providing water to the
Lake Victoria and the River Nile.
The various rivers in Rwanda in the 5 sub-basins
lead up to the Kagera River which leaves Rwanda and
partly passes through Tanzania and Uganda before
entering Lake Victoria. This Kagera River provides over
80% of the water which enters Lake Victoria and is seen
by a number of authors as the most important water
source for Lake Victoria and hence River Nile (The
Colombia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2012; NBI 2012).
Two of the sub basins (Akanyaru and Akagera) for
example have together over 20 watersheds (Figure 5). 8
watersheds are found in Akanyaru and 12 watersheds
are found in Akagera.
Better management of these watersheds easily
contributes to effective flow of the waters into Lake
Mutekanga 115
(Source: UNESCO IHE Report, 2011)
Figure 4. Hydrological Basins of Rwanda
(Source: UNESCO IHE, 2011)
Figure 5. Watersheds in the two sub basins of Akanyaru and Akagera
116 Int. J. Environ. Sci. Toxic. Res.
(Source: UNESCO IHE Report to GLOWS Rwanda Integrated Water Security Program, 2011)
Figure 6. Karangaza Watershed in Akagera sub-Basin of Rwanda
Victoria and in turn into River Nile hence the upstream
drylands and deserts in Southern Sudan, Sudan and
Egypt receiving the much needed waters in the Nile.
However due to many factors including increasing
human population and human developments effective
management of these watersheds face many
challenges. The sections below out line the roles and
challenges faced in the management of watersheds
using these examples from Rwanda.
Most of the watersheds are generally small not more
2
than 75 km but have numerous small rivers and springs
which generally flow in the same direction and most of
them join to form the larger river. The example below is
the Karangaza Watershed (Figure 6) in North Eastern
Rwanda whose small rivers empty into Kagera River.
The management of this relatively small watershed
Mutekanga 117
affects directly the amount of water eventually getting to
the dry lands and deserts of Southern Sudan, Sudan
and Egypt. Effective management also leads to
production of good water quality and quantity.
management plans for the effective and sustainable
conservation of watersheds.
CONCLUSION
Roles and Challenges of Managing the Watersheds
Watersheds upstream inevitably play a major role in
protecting the water sources which end up, in this
particular case, providing clean and enough water in the
Nile for the drylands and deserts downstream.
The major roles of these watersheds include:
 They are a source of water for the rivers and in this
case for example source of water for the Akanyaru river
which combines with the Akagera river to form the
Kagera River providing over 70% of the water in put to
Lake Victoria.
 They clean this water for example reducing the silt
so that it flows into Lake Victoria when it is clear and
clean.
 Provide water related services which include hydro
power generation, irrigation for crop production and
domestic purposes especially local communities living in
and around them.
The major challenges in managing the watersheds
include:
 Absence of detailed biophysical information about
these watersheds. For example from as little as knowing
how much water the watershed is actually producing to
what the actual demands and pressures are on these
watersheds.
 Absence of coordinated planning and development
program implementation in these watersheds in most
cases than most resulting in damage of the watersheds
instead of sustainable utilization. This includes the lack
of coordination and detailed effective collaboration
among some of the major players in this case the Nile
Basin Initiative and other development partners.
 Lack of resources – especially qualified personnel
and equipment at the decentralised levels where these
watersheds are located and managed from.
 Lack of knowledge and interest by the local
communities on the significance of these watersheds
beyond the village borders. For example the fact that
they play a very important role at both national and
international levels.
To address the above challenges some possible
practical remedial solutions would include:
 Need for a detailed and elaborate biophysical
information data collection for watersheds in the Nile
Basin. The Nile Basin Initiative could take a lead and
guide this issue.
 The National Governments should take lead in
mobilising the local communities in the development of
The relatively limited information about watersheds
makes it very difficult to use them as environment
management landmarks yet they do play a very
significant role especially upstream. The situation is
more important for those rivers and water bodies which
are close and / or related to dry lands.
The recommendation to have a detailed study of all
watersheds for sustainable management of the rivers
and water bodies cannot be re-emphasised.
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How to cite this article: Mutekanga DR (2016). Watershed
Management: The role and challenges for dry lands and deserts
downstream – the case of the Nile Basin. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Toxic.
Res. Vol. 4(7): 111-117