A Teacher's Toolkit
Sangath, Goa.
Produced by
' Yuva Mitr'
A Community based Project
to Promote Health & Wellbeing of Youth
Funded By :
John T. & Catherine D. Foundation, U.S.A.
Contact :
Registered Office:
House No. 1272/A, Sonarwaddo, Santemol, Raia, Salcette, Goa. India. Pin - 403 720
Tel: +91-832-2777307/2776716 Email: [email protected]
Administrative Office:
841/1, Behind Electricity Department, Alto Porvorim, Bardez, Goa, India Pin -403 521
Tel: +91-832-2414916/2417914 Email: [email protected]
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Background
2
Adolescence an Overview
4
Common Health Problems of Young People
9
Working with Disturbed Young People
11
Enhancing Self Esteem in the Classroom
25
Counselling
27
The Problem Solving Approach
32
Alternatives to Lecturing
42
Teacher Burnout
52
Referrences
55
1
BACKGROUND
The global focus on the health of young people has, in recent times, gained emphasis
in India. Not surprising considering the fact that there are almost 350 million young
people (aged 10 - 24) in the country, nearly a third of the total population.
Sangath has been offering clinical services to young people since its inception; a
relevant observation was that they proved reluctant to come to the clinic to avail the
services and in general problems reported by them appeared linked to reproductive
and psychosocial factors and affected healthy development.
Young people face various problems in their day-to-day life both within schools and
communities. A cross sectional study among students in class XI from eight higher
secondary schools in South Goa, showed a high prevalence of sexual and other forms
of violence, and co-morbidity with risk behaviours.
The study found that the school environment could influence the risk of coercive sex.
Another key finding being that the adverse impact of coercive sex leading to
depression and substance abuse is heavily influenced by the quality of the parentchild relationship.
A cohort study followed among young people aged 12-16 years found the main
reasons for dropping out of school were difficulties with learning and failure in
exams. Their knowledge level on sexuality was low and though they had healthy
relationship with their parents, they were not comfortable discussing sex related
issues with them.
Putting together the findings led to an understanding of the issues that young people
face as - difficulty with choosing a career, difficulties with studies, violence,
depression, self-harm and reproductive and sexual health (RSH).
It was felt that the ideal approach would be to address all of them in an integrated
manner. This is what led to the development of the intervention project 'Yuva Mitr'
literally “Friend of the Youth”
The project was to develop services to address the issues identified earlier as RSH,
mental health, education and careers through resources in the community, to
ensure sustainability.
The intervention programme has two components, i.e. working with young people
and working with teachers.
The youth programme is focused on training peer leaders in the community and
educational institutions. The teacher programme focuses on enhancing teacher
skills to deal with young people and encouraging teachers to guide peer leaders
within their institutions to carry the programme forward. Young people are to be
2
actively involved throughout the process, to be evaluated rigorously.
The results of the project are to be disseminated through workshops and
publications, for the benefit of organisations both within the country and abroad to
make use of the model to promote health for young people.
This work is aimed at involving teachers in the process, looking what a teacher might
face in dealing with young people and covers what we have gathered in the course of
our study on areas that a young person might need guidance or assistance. It is
hoped that it helps one adopt a considered approach in communicating with young
people on a regular basis. To this end a brief guide on the practice of counselling is
also provided.
A mere reading up may not turn one into a counsellor for young persons with severe
difficulties. The information provided should, however, be enough to help teachers
identify young people who need help and need to be referred to other professionals.
3
ADOLESCENCE AN OVERVIEW
Adolescence is a transitional stage of development between childhood and full
adulthood, a period of time when a person may not have attained full emotional
maturity but is biologically an adult. The person's body undergoes dramatic changes
physiological, psychological, intellectual and social. The intense growth and
accompanying changes are a time of confusion and upheaval for both the young
person and the adults in their lives.
Physiological changes
Changes noticed during adolescence begin around the age of eleven for girls and
thirteen for boys. The hormonal changes responsible may begin even earlier and
produce periods of moodiness and restlessness. Girls as experiencing these changes
much earlier, will for the first three or four years, appear to be maturing faster.
Pubertal or early adolescent growth is primarily a rapid somatic maturation leading
to an adult body structure, sexual developments resulting in the functioning of the
Gonads and the appearance of secondary sex characters that highlight male and
female characteristics.
The pubertal spurt occurs usually between eleven and fourteen for girls and between
twelve and a half and almost sixteen for boys. This pattern of accelerated growth is
influenced chiefly by changes in the functioning of the endocrine gland system as
affected by nutrition, health and other environmental influences.
The onset of puberty is accompanied by a number of noticeable changes among
adolescents which include:
1 Pimples and acne
1 Laziness and sleepiness due to excessive utilization of energy for the spurt in
growth and development
1 Headaches
1 Bodily discomforts
1 Stomach pains
1 General fatigue or tiredness
All adolescents do not grow at the same pace, some may mature very early while
changes in others may be more gradual both need a lot of reassurance, especially if
they see themselves as different from friends.
Sexual Changes
With the exception of primary sex characteristics, boys and girls are quite similar in
childhood. With puberty comes the change in appearance, the growth of the skeletal
system related to the appearance of secondary sex characteristics.
They are:
Boys
Broadening of shoulders
Maturation of testes
Distribution and pigmentation of
pubic hair
Changes in voice
Broadening of hips
Appearance of pubic hair
Growth of facial hair
Ability to ejaculate
Girls
Maturation of breasts
Menstruation
Broadening of hips
Appearance of pubic hair
4
The onset of sexual maturation in girls is frequently an abrupt phenomenon and
requires immediate emotional and social readjustments. It is not so sudden for boys
for whom it takes approximately a year.
Intellectual Changes
Adolescence is accompanied by an increasing ability to think abstractly and engage
in more sophisticated and elaborate information processing strategies, considering
multiple dimensions of a problem at once, and reflecting on one's self and
complicated problems.
There is a steady increase in learning strategies, their knowledge of different topics
and subject areas, the ability to apply knowledge to new learning situations, and an
awareness of one's strengths and weaknesses as a learner.
With practice these new cognitive skills can help make adolescents more efficient
with relatively advanced topics in many different subject areas. These cognitive
changes also affect the individuals' self-concepts, thoughts about their future, and
understanding of others. They come to a deeper understanding of themselves within
the social and cultural contexts in which they live.
The new found abilities allow adolescents to question inconsistencies they find in the
world. They may question old beliefs - held by themselves, their parents or significant
adults. They become more interested in understanding the psychological
characteristics of others, friendships come to be based on a perception of shared
similarities. Having to deal with a number of issues including sexuality, peer
pressure etc. they often experience confusion and chaos.
Psychological & Social changes
During Adolescence there is a general increase in interest in peers and peer-related
social activities. Many adolescents attach great importance to activities undertaken
with their peers substantially more than they attach to academic activities or
activities with family members.
Friendship networks of the period are often organized into relatively rigid cliques - of
a different social standing within the school and another outside in the community
setting.
The existence of these cliques reflects adolescents' need to establish a sense of
identity, the need for social acceptance and to conform to peers peaks during early
adolescence.
Much has been written about how this peer conformity creates problems for
adolescents, and how "good" children are often corrupted by the negative influence of
peers, particularly by adolescent gangs.
However, more often than not, adolescents agree more with their parents' views on
"major issues” such as morality, politics, religion, and the importance of education.
Peers mostly influence choices of clothing, styles, music, or activities. Adolescents
are seen to socialize with peers who hold similar views, as their parents, on the major
issues listed above.
Changes in Family Relations
Parent-child relations change during adolescence, as adolescents physically mature
5
there is a tendency to seek more independence and autonomy. They may begin to
question family norms and roles, leading to conflicts centred particularly around
their choice of clothes, appearance and friendships.
During adolescence, teens are looking for a different kind of support from their
family and the changes may mean a stressful time for the family until a new system
of equilibrium is established. A shift from the parents providing nurturance,
protection, and socialization to providing support and direction. Acceptance, active
understanding, parental expressions of individuality and connectedness can help
the teen to mature without feeling left out or alienated from his/her family (Hauser
and Bowlds, 1990; Steinberg, 1993).
Shifts in the Family System
Pre Adolescence
During Adolescence
Nurturance
Socialisation
Protection
Support & Direction
Sibling Relations
Siblings play a fundamental role in a child's life as “they can be playmates,
caretakers, teachers, sources of support, or major nuisances." Birth order and the
number of siblings plays an important role in the process of adolescence.
Interpersonal sibling relationships can become less intense as the adolescent seeks
being independent of family influences.
Most sibling arguments concern interpersonal issues such as close living conditions,
competition for resources, and personal habits.
Notable Milestones
a) A search for identity
One of the important tasks, which begins in adolescence and continues into
adulthood, is the establishment of an identity for oneself or also known as an,
"individualized definition of self." Erik H. Erikson, defined identity as a "subjective
sense of an invigorating sameness and continuity," as well as a "sense of feeling
active and alive”.
Identity formation is a significant task and takes place over a long period of time.
6
Process of Identity Formation
Values, Beliefs Goals
Formation of unique self
Reshape
Sorting out, trying on
Discard
Forming an identity is a complex task and the adolescent involved could experience
any of the four developmental statuses of identity formation based upon the
dimensions of the exploration, the examination of alternative identities, and a
commitment to, or stable investment in the present state of one's identity.
b) Development of Relationships
Adolescence is marked by significant changes in interpersonal relationships related
to the teenager's emerging independence. A successful transition depends upon the
young person's ability to adapt to the changing forms of relationships with family
members and peers (of both sexes), and to extend these relationships into the
broader community.
Young people with strong interpersonal skills are assertive but not intrusive. They
work well in-groups; resolve interpersonal conflicts peacefully and are comfortable
communicating ideas and feelings.
Socially competent adolescents have an expanded ability to make appropriate
judgements on moral issues, to express positive values and to refrain from
aggressive, violent and antisocial behaviour.
Religious Development
Adolescence is characterized by many cognitive and social changes, which
constitute a transition into adult life. Many factors including religion act upon this
change. 95% of adolescents believe in some sort of deity.
Religiosity plays a key factor in the behaviours of young adults, most notably, a
negative correlate to several risky behaviours.
The effect spirituality has on adolescent development would depend on
· The nature of religious experience in adolescence
· The practical effect religiosity has on risky and social behaviours
· venerated personality traits
victimization or persecution on the basis of religion among adolescents
Parents have a particularly strong effect on belief in their children, especially if the
parent-child relationship is close. However, peers affect the practice of those beliefs
just as strongly as parents do, especially in late adolescence, where parental
monitoring and control is lessened.
7
The development of more complex cognitive abilities leads to more abstract thought,
and “existential experiences”, this is the most common time for a switch in religious
affiliation.
These developments lead to a time of questioning for the adolescent that could end
either in a solidification of their faith, or a departure from it. Regardless of ones
beliefs, religion is an issue every adolescent faces, and family and peer influences
play a part in socializing religiosity, or the lack thereof.
No matter where a person ends up in terms of strength of faith, whether devout or
not, adolescence is a key time for the questioning and development of his or her
religious beliefs.
Religion can be utilized as an avenue for helping adolescents make the transition
into adulthood. Having religious leaders reaching out into the community, to create
youth programs attentive to their needs and guiding them through their experiences
are good places to begin to reach out to youth.
8
COMMON HEALTH PROBLEMS OF YOUNG PEOPLE
Adolescence is a period of good physical health as compared to the other phases of
life, an increasingly focused on today as being a health concern is reproductive
health.
This, as adolescents while discovering their sexuality and experimenting often
remain ill informed on the matter because of a social taboo on sexuality and therefore
a lack of sources providing factual, reliable information.
Adolescents face pressures ranging from having to deal with rapid change in
themselves, studies, career choices, and the need to be popular etc. They start
getting involved in family problems and develop deeper relationships with the
opposite sex.
These changes turn lives stressful making Mental Health and Sexual /Reproductive
Health key issues.
Physical Health Problems
Physical development during adolescence has a long lasting effect. Stunted growth
will impact girls/women in that they may face problems during childbirth. The
consequences of health problems in childhood continue through adolescence, or give
rise to new stresses in this phase of life.
Under Nourishment
An ideal diet is one with all the essential nutrients for normal growth in the right
proportion, i.e. proteins for maintenance of body parts, minerals for skeletal
formation, carbohydrates for energy etc.
Young people tend to resort to junk food or restrict diet, to maintain their body figure
or are some may just not able to afford the right food - all or any of which may be
reasons for under nourishment and related health problems.
Anaemia
A condition where haemoglobin levels in the blood are low, a common condition
among adolescent girls. It affects their academic performance, the ability for physical
work, causes infections leads to irregular periods and poor health. Girls need more
iron than boys do as they lose a lot of iron in their monthly menstrual cycles.
Signs of anaemia:
·
·
·
Feelings of excessive tiredness and breathlessness on slight exertion
The palm of the hand nails, and insides of the lower eyelid are whiter
A tingling sensation in the fingers and toes
Swelling of the feet.
To avoid anaemia, one should eat green leafy vegetables, sprouts (moong), rice flakes
(fov), dry fruits, jaggery, egg yolk (in moderation), fish and chicken and avoid
drinking tea or coffee with meals.
Concerns about Body Image
Body image is a picture of our body which we form in our mind. Looks and weight are
common obsessions among the youth, heightened further by, often unrealistic,
standards set by peers and the media.
9
There is this constant worry about pimples, being too fat or too thin, too tall or too
short! Some young persons try their best to conform, negatively affecting their well
being.
Physical distortions that result from a poor body image include a pathological fear of
getting fat, a preoccupation with food, an abnormal eating behaviour ranging from
constant dieting and fasting to binging and vomiting (leading to eating disorders,
described later)
Psychological distortions that result from the perception of a poor body image
include a lowered self esteem leading to anxiety about one's body, one's self, and
one's life
Male and female perceptions of body image
Girls tend to be pressured into thinking they have to be thin. Boys often want to think
of themselves as muscular and tall. Males with poor body image exhibit feelings of
inadequacy, high need for autonomy, low sense of control, low self-assurance.
Girls with negative body image worry that they are not physically normal, good
looking, they may have low problem-solving ability and a low sense of personal
efficacy.
Some girls tend to resort to dieting to trim down, whether healthy or not!
Unsuccessful dieting can sometimes lead to an eating disorder. An eating disorder is
defined as chronic binging or starvation of oneself and is usually the result of an
altered body perception.
Eating disorders can lead to severe medical complications that need psychiatric
intervention. Though not common to India one comes across cases in some urban
areas.
Stress and Anxiety
Stress is a physical, emotional, and mental response to change - positive or negative.
It also has been defined as the extreme physiological and emotional arousal a person
experiences when confronted with threatening situations the body's reaction to a
noxious stimulus.
Stress is the alarm reaction that activates the body to prepare for the fight or flight
response. Anxiety is an outcome of many emotional factors like worry, fear, stress
and concern put together.
Major life changes and stress factors can lead to internalized disorders such as
depression and suicide.
Reasons for stress and anxiety
Negative self talk
·
Insecurity
·
Inconsistency
·
Criticism
·
Permissiveness
·
Perfectionism
·
Neurology
·
Physical disorders
·
Meaninglessness
·
10
WORKING WITH DISTURBED YOUNG PEOPLE
In the transition stage from adolescence to adulthood, young persons develop
knowledge and skills to function as independent adults. They are under tremendous
pressures from own expectations for themselves or the expectations of significant
others in their lives to succeed educationally and in other areas of life. The period
calls for guidance to help them make a healthy transition to adulthood.
The previous chapter act as a guide to addressing questions from the young where
their inability to deal with pressures could lead to a high amount of stress hindering
normal physical and mental functioning. Here we cover expected stress factors and a
few tips for the teacher, if approached for help.
For many young people ongoing, day-to-day stressors are harder to cope with than
just one life event. A pile up of many different stressful life events in a small amount
of time may be more difficult for young people than dealing with just one event.
DEPRESSION
Common events that lead to depression in a young person
$
Social :
Breaking up with a girlfriend or boyfriend, difficulty in making friends, loneliness
Educational :
Not been able to cope with studies, failure.
Familial :
Discord in the family, divorce, family violence etc., getting into trouble because of
their behaviour
Physical :
A disabling illness, handicap, body image and physical looks. Sexual: Abuse,
early pregnancy/ abortion.
$
$
$
Reactions to stress
Young persons react to stress in much the same way as adults do. Common
reactions are excitement, fear, anxiety, sadness and anger. The behaviour of a young
person who is under stress may change, but each young person reacts in a different
way. Some young persons withdraw, some lash out and some actively seek the
comfort of others.
The young person who finds it difficult to cope with stressful situations or life events
tends to get depressed. Sometimes he may manifest aggressive behaviour and in
such cases it is difficult to recognize the underlying depression.
Common signs, symptoms for depressed or disturbed young persons
·
·
·
·
·
Sad and unhappy mood
Physical complaints -headaches, body aches,
stomach aches that cannot be explained medically
Lack of pleasure in ordinary everyday activities
Losing interest in activities that s/he normally enjoys
Disturbed sleep:
Difficulty getting sleep, waking in the night, being unable to get back to sleep, waking
much earlier than usual in the morning. Overt signs are tiredness and lack of energy
during the day.
11
Change in appetite:
A persistent change in attitude towards food is a worrying sign. However dieting is
common among teenagers especially girls and in no way should it be considered as a
sign of depression. A sudden disinterest in food should be noted.
Effects of depression
The effects of depression are often manifest as physical and emotional symptoms.
Depression in young persons leads to various problems like:
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
Restlessness
Changed sleeping patterns
Changed eating patterns
Insecurity with appearance
Difficulty in concentrating
Loneliness, tiredness
Complaints of body pains, headache etc.
Poor school performance
Poor family and peer relationships Increased risk of suicide
Increased risk of risky sexual behaviour
Suicidal thoughts and behaviour:
Fleeting thoughts that life is not worth living are quite common in the young but
persistent hopelessness, considering the future as being bleak and suicidal ideation
should be taken seriously.
12
Suicide
The Global Burden of Disease data for young people in South Asia shows mental
health problems, including suicide, account for nearly a third of the total burden of
disease (Table 1).
Suicide is now reported to be the leading cause of death in young women in
population based studies in India and completed suicides are likely to reflect only a
small fraction of the total number of suicides.
The high rate of non-intentional injuries, especially among men, is at least partly
attributable to alcohol abuse. Thus mental illness and substance abuse is a major,
and almost entirely neglected, youth health priority.
Table 1:
Leading causes of burden of disease in young people (15 to 24 years) in South Asia
Males
Health problems
Infectious &
Parasitic diseases
Unintentional
Injuries
Neuropsychiatric
conditions
Intentional
Injuries
Cardiovascular
diseases
Females
Proportion of
DALYs
23.1
22.8
22.8
10
5.0
Health problems
Neuropsychiatric
conditions
Maternal
conditions
Infectious and
Parasitic diseases
Unintentional
Injuries
Intentional
Injuries
Proportion of
DALYs
22.7
21.3
15.8
15.8
6.4
A research study done by Sangath in Goa (Patel .V and Andrews .G) has shown that
more than one in four adolescents felt that life was not worth living, this does not
signify suicidal thought, but denotes feeling of hopelessness about the future.
The causes of such feelings are mainly attributed to stress of education and
relationships with parents.
Many a time, there are warning signs if someone is seriously depressed and may be
thinking about or planning a suicide attempt.
Here are some indications
Withdrawal from family and friends
·
No desire to take part in activities enjoyed earlier
·
Trouble concentrating or thinking clearly
·
Sudden changes in eating or sleeping habits
·
·
Major changes in appearance (for example, if a normally neat person looks
very sloppy - as if they're not taking the usual care of themselves
Sudden dramatic changes in academic performance
·
Talk about feeling hopeless or feeling guilty
·
·
Talk about suicide and death
·
Reckless, self-destructive behaviour
·
Abuse of alcohol and/or other drugs.
·
Engaging in risk taking behaviour (reckless driving, fights, and harmful acts
13
·
·
to body, etc.)
Self-destructive behaviour (drinking alcohol, taking drugs, or driving too fast,
for example)
The giving away of favourite possessions (like offering to give away a favourite
piece of jewellery, for example)
Suddenly very happy and cheerful moods after being depressed or sad for a long time
(this may mean that a person has decided to attempt suicide and feels relieved to have
found a "solution")
A previous attempt at suicide often leads to another (four of five people who commit
suicide have made at least one previous attempt).
Paying attention to and responding to these clues can sometimes save a life and
prevent a tragedy. Most times, youth considering suicide are willing to discuss it, if
someone asks them out of care and concern. People are reluctant to ask youth
whether they have been thinking about suicide or hurting themselves for fear of
implanting the idea where none exist.
This is a myth! It is always a good thing to ask and to initiate the conversation with
someone one thinks may be considering suicide.
It allows one to get help for the person, secondly, just talking about it may make the
person feel less alone; less isolated, more cared for and understood - the opposite of
many feelings that may have led to a suicidal thinking to begin with. Thirdly, it may
give the person an opportunity to consider whether there could be another solution.
Sometimes, youth who make a suicide attempt - or who die as a result of suicide seem to give no clue beforehand. This can leave loved ones feeling not only grief
stricken but guilty and wondering if they missed something .For e.g. “How could I not
see it coming! I'm her father!”
It is important for family members and friends of those who die by committing
suicide to know that sometimes there is no warning and they should not blame
themselves.
Self blame and low self esteem:
Depressed young persons tend to take the blame on themselves for anything and
everything right from parents separation to sibling illness. They tend to have a very
low sense of self worth.
Rarely does the young person visit a clinic, if they do come seeking intervention or
counsel it means they are really disturbed.
In working with young persons on a one to one basis a few general tips come in
handy:
The approach has to be focused and to the point.
·
Ensure confidentiality.
·
Keep the talk casual, friendly, at no point become the patronising adult you
will surely lose them.
·
Don't panic if they do not open up in the beginning, once they do you will be
flooded till you want them to stop, and they won't.
·
They may bombard you with convictions they believe in strongly, be prepared they may come up with a totally opposite view, the next day.
·
They want to be taken seriously, but not too seriously.
14
Substance Abuse & Addiction:
During adolescence many young persons begin experimenting with new experiences
and behaviours, they may come under the influence of negative peer pressure and
media projections by way of which they could get into smoking, alcohol or drug
abuse.
A drug is defined by WHO as any substance which when taken into a living organism,
may modify one or more of its function/s. Substance or Drug dependence can be
defined as a state of psychological or physical dependence or both on a drug arising
in a person following administration of that drug on a periodic and continuous basis.
Addictions are the habitual use of narcotic drugs. Alcohol and cigarettes are the
most commonly used substances.
Reasons for Substance Abuse
Easy availability
Curiosity and experimentation
Starts with social drinking
Seemingly safe
Personality factors
Cultural factors
Peer group pressure and for a feeling of oneness with the group
·
Perceptions that the use of drugs alters moods.
·
False belief that certain drugs can enhance creativity
·
Relief from pain
·
Increased vulnerability due to performance pressure and high expectations
·
from parents
Ignorance on the adverse effects of drugs
·
Smoking & Alcohol
Substances like tobacco and alcohol are highly addictive and can cause serious
physical and mental health problems. It is a habit that can develop easily and is hard
to break. Young persons may take to alcohol because they feel it represents a symbol
of adulthood, defiance of authority, declaration of virility, and a sign of being one
with the group.
Effects
Excessive smoking can affect the lungs & cause respiratory problems
Excessive Alcohol affects the Central nervous system
Concentration and judgement are impaired
Caution and inhibition is reduced
Self control is lessened
Senses are dulled
Sensitivity to pain is reduced when alcohol is consumed in large quantities
Other Drugs
Drugs such as painkillers, tranquillizers, sleeping pills have a potential for misuse.
Other drugs used exclusively for their mind altering properties are heroin, cannabis
(charas, ganja) cocaine, LSD, etc.
Sedatives, Valium, stimulants, opiates are considered highly addictive.
Excessive use of drugs can cause
Impaired memory
·
Lung damage
·
Psychological dependence
·
Problems in social relationships
·
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Reproductive and Sexual Health
Sexual Harassment Sexual harassment can be any kind of unwelcome sexual
advances, requests for sexual favours and other verbal or physical conduct of sexual
nature that explicitly or implicitly affects a person's performance or creates an
intimidating, hostile or offensive environment which threatens the person's right to
live with dignity.
Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs)
A urinary tract infection is most often a result of not practising good hygiene.
Symptoms of UTIs include;
· Burning or pain during urination
· Frequent urination
· A feeling of the need to pass urine even though little or no urine actually comes
out
· Bloody or foul-smelling urine.
Preventing UTIs:
Go to the bathroom frequently, avoid holding back.
After urination, girls should wipe from front to back with toilet paper.
After bowel movements, be sure to wipe from front to back to avoid the spread of
bacteria.
Keep the genital area clean and dry, change cloth/pads regularly during periods.
Boys should retract the foreskin of the penis to clean any accumulations
Reproductive Tract Infections (RTIs)
RTIs are defined as any infections of the reproductive system. The result of
overgrowth of bacteria and other organisms normally living in the vagina or
infections from inadequate prevention practices of health care providers.
Some facts about Reproductive Tract Infections (RTIs)
· Infections of the reproductive system may result from overgrowth of bacteria
due to poor hygiene or inadequate infection prevention practices by health
care providers.
· RTI's also include all sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
· Research finds women more susceptible and less likely to seek treatment for
RTI
· The severity of the symptoms associated with different RTI's may vary.
· One cannot always tell if a person has an STI, and people without visible
symptoms often transmit the infection to others unknowingly.
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
STI stands for sexually transmitted infections caused by viruses, bacteria and
parasites. Most STI's can be cured.
Some facts about STI's
· Those caused by viruses include genital warts, hepatitis B and genital herpes
· Bacterial STIs include gonorrhoea and syphilis.
· Scabies, trichomonas and pubic lice are parasite related STIs.
16
Certain STIs, if not treated early, can lead to long-lasting health problems in both
male and female, e.g. damage to the reproductive organs so that a woman is no
longer able to have children, cancer of the cervix, heart and brain damage, and
possibly death.
In many STIs, the early symptoms are often difficult to recognize, and many people
ignore them until more severe damage is caused. This is especially true for women.
This makes early diagnosis and treatment difficult.
An abnormal discharge from the penis, anus or vagina; burning on urination; pain in
the abdominal or groin area with a fever; pain during sex; rashes, blisters or sores on
the genitals, are all possible symptoms of a STI.
If a person experiences any of the above symptoms, they should stop having sexual
intercourse and go to a clinic or hospital for a check-up.
Teenage Pregnancies
In India the matter of sex education for children is still a matter of discussion.
Teenagers will turn to sources of information on sexual matters, unreliable or
incomplete. It is important that they have access to factual information to avoid the
risk of unsafe activities that lead to teenage pregnancies, STD's etc.
Factors contributing to unwed pregnancies can range from a family breakdown, to
being neglected at home, wanting to explore sex, rape or incest.
Unwed mothers
Unwed mothers may turn negative about themselves, with feelings of guilt and
rejection. The accompanying fear and a feeling of having let the family down may
have the teenager wanting to run away from home, or entertain thoughts of suicide.
The unwed mother & child
The social stigma attached to unwed teenage pregnancy may lead to the child being
put up for adoption. A feeling of hatred towards the father may be transferred to the
child - the child being called unwanted for desertion or rejection by the father. Or
contrarily the teenager may want to keep the child but may be totally clueless on
supporting the child. Religion is also instrumental in deciding whether the girl goes
in for abortion as some religions prohibit abortion.
Reaction of the family
The family attitude is usually negative towards the girl as having let them down,
lowered their social standing in society. The reaction from parents may range from
disgust to anger and at times physical abuse. They may place the girl in an
institution or hospital. The girl who wants to deliver the baby may not get support
from the parents.
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HIV/AIDS
AIDS is caused by a virus, called the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), which
attacks and, over time, destroys the body's immune system. A person has AIDS when
the virus has done enough damage to the immune system to allow infections and
cancers to develop. These infections, cancers etc. make the person ill and lead to his
or her death. At present there is no vaccine or cure for AIDS.
Some Facts about HIV
Like all other viruses, it is too small to be seen with an ordinary microscope. Viruses
cause all sorts of diseases from flu (influenza) to herpes to some kinds of cancer.
The HIV can be found in body fluids like blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk
of an infected person. Any practice, which allows the penetration of the virus from
these fluids through the skin or mucous membranes and into the bloodstream of
another person, can cause HIV infection.
The skin normally is a barrier to this type of penetration, but this barrier can be
broken by minor cuts, abrasions, sores and ulcers. To reproduce, HIV must enter a
body cell, in this case an immune cell.
By interfering with the cells that protect us against infection, HIV leaves the body
poorly protected against particular types of diseases, which these cells normally deal
with.
Infections that develop because HIV has weakened the immune system are called
“opportunistic infections”. These include: respiratory infections e.g. tuberculosis;
pneumonia; gastrointestinal infections e.g. candidiasis in the mouth or diarrhoea;
and brain infections e.g. toxoplasmosis or cryptococcal meningitis.
Some people may also develop cancers, e.g. Kaposi sarcoma, a cancer which often
causes red skin lesions.
HIV is transmitted from person to person in 3 major ways:
When semen or vaginal fluid from an infected person comes in contact with the
mucous lining (membranes) of the vagina, penis or rectum and the virus moves into
the bloodstream.
When a needle, or other skin-piercing instruments penetrates the skin (e.g. razor or
tattooing instrument), and that instrument has blood on it from an HIV-infected
person. Sharing of syringe and needle among injecting drug users is particularly
risky. Any un-sterilised syringe or needles can transmit the infection.
HIV may also be transmitted from an infected mother to her baby, either through the
placenta before birth, during birth, or, in some cases, through breast milk after
birth.
Note If a person has to receive a blood transfusion and the blood donor is HIVinfected, there is a high chance that the virus would be transmitted through the
blood. Most countries test donated blood for HIV and the chanced of being infected
by this route are small.
Deep wet kissing has a low risk of transmitting HIV, there is however a slight risk if
there are cuts or abrasions in the mouth. HIV is not transmitted by touch, coughing
and sneezing, cutlery, glasses, cups and food, swimming pools, towels, toilet seats,
pets, mosquitoes and other insects, baths or showers. Nurses, and other health
service staff, who come in close contact with patients' body fluids, are trained to take
precautions as part of the hospital routine.
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The symptoms of AIDS
AIDS is the final and most severe phase of HIV infection leading to death. People
develop signs and symptoms of their HIV infection before they develop what has been
defined as AIDS. It is often difficult to determine if the symptoms actually mean onset
of AIDS or if they are simply symptoms of other conditions. The obvious signs and
symptoms are indications of an opportunistic disease such as tuberculosis or
pneumonia. Associated findings might include: recent, unexplained weight loss;
fever for more than one month; diarrhoea for more than one month; genital or anal
ulcers for more than one month; cough for more than one month; nerve complaints;
enlarged lymph nodes; skin infections that are severe or recur.
Testing for HIV
The body's immune system develops antibodies to fight off and destroy viruses and
germs that invade the body. The presence of particular antibodies in a person's blood
indicates that the person has been exposed to that infection. For example, when a
blood test reveals that the antibodies to HIV are present in the blood, it means that
the person is infected with HIV.
The body takes time to produce measurable amounts of antibodies after infection, for
HIV, this period is usually 2-12 weeks; in rare instances it may be longer. If an HIV
antibody test is taken during this “window” period it will be negative since the blood
test is looking for antibodies that have not yet developed. But that person is already
HIV-infected and can transmit HIV to others.
People taking the test and obtaining a negative result are advised to return for a retest in 3 months by which time the antibodies are almost certain to have developed (if
the person had been infected), they should avoid risk behaviours during the 3
months.
The most common test for HIV antibodies is called the ELISA test. The asymptomatic
period. The asymptomatic period is the period of time between infection and the
beginning of signs and symptoms related to AIDS. It varies from person to person for
HIV/AIDS from as short as 6 months to as long as 10 years or more.
The asymptomatic period of several years may have people exhibit swollen lymph
nodes and nothing more. They may then start to develop symptoms like oral thrush
or night sweats. It may still take years for one to develop full-blown AIDS. The period
between the development of full-blown AIDS and death may be as short as 6 months
or as long as 2 years or more.
During the asymptomatic period there may be no evidence that the person is sick;
however, HIV-related illnesses can occur regularly over many months or years before
full-blown AIDS develops. During the asymptomatic period (and the symptomatic
period), the person is infectious i.e., can pass HIV on to others.
Avoiding HIV infection
A person who does not engage in sexual intercourse and does not inject drugs (uses
clean, sterile needles/syringes for such injections) has almost no chance of
contracting HIV or other STIs. People who are mutually faithful (i.e. they only have
sex with each other) are not at risk of HIV/STIs by sexual means provided that both
are HIV-negative at the start of their relationship and that neither gets infected.
People who use a condom correctly every time they have sex protect themselves from
HIV/STI infection. Washing after sexual intercourse does not help to prevent HIV
infection.
19
Transmission of HIV
Some behaviours/activities carry a higher risk of getting HIV than others - having
many different sexual partners, practising unsafe sexual activities, e.g. having sexual
intercourse without a condom, having sex when one has other sexually transmitted
diseases, sharing needles and syringes for injecting drug use.
Some situations, beyond an individual's control, can put one at risk: Receiving
injections with needles that are not cleaned or sterilized properly, having a blood
transfusion with blood that has not been tested.
Women are, physiologically, slightly more vulnerable to HIV infection than men.
The area exposed for the woman during intercourse is much larger than in the man.
The mucous membrane surface of the vagina (unlike the penis) is more easily
penetrated by the virus.
Very young women are more vulnerable than women in the 18-45 year age group; an
immature cervix with relatively low vaginal mucus production presents less of a
barrier to HIV. Women are becoming infected at younger ages than men partly
because many young women marry or have sex with men older than themselves, who
have already had a number of partners, and partly for their biological vulnerability.
Safe sex and Protected Sex
Because of the risk of HIV/AIDS, it is necessary to be very clear about sexual
practices known to carry a risk of HIV transmission and those, which do not. Safe sex
activities (no risk sex) - the following activities prevent a partner's blood, semen or
vaginal secretions from getting into contact with blood and thereby the transmission
of HIV: masturbation, massage, rubbing, hugging, touching genitals.
Protected Sex (low-risk sex)
Using a condom correctly and consistently during sexual intercourse will reduce the
risk of infection with HIV and other STIs. Latex condoms are an effective protection
against HIV, STIs, as well as pregnancy. Incorrect use of condoms reduces their
effectiveness, e.g. they may break. While a small number of people have contracted
HIV through these means, the following activities are considered to carry some risk:
fellatio (mouth on penis without taking semen into the mouth);cunnilingus (mouth
on vagina); anilingus (mouth on anus); and Deep wet kissing.
Unsafe sexual activities
The following activities are a definite risk:
· anal sex (penis in rectum) without a condom
vaginal sex (penis in vagina) without a condom
·
any sex act that makes one bleed
·
Semen (or blood) taken into the mouth during oral-genital sex
·
In many cultures, penetration is regarded as the only way of having sex. Women and
men alike often enjoy alternatives to penetrative sex; showing affection and ensuring
sexual pleasure by touching, massage, and mutual masturbation.
A single penetrative contact by a person infected with HIV may or may not transmit
the infection but the risk of infection with HIV increases with the number of sexual
partners and the number of sexual acts. The presence of an STI (e.g. genital ulcers) in
a sexual partner increases the risk of transmission of HIV.
20
There is strong evidence that other sexually transmitted diseases put a person at a
greater risk of getting and transmitting HIV. This may be from sores and breaks in
the skin or mucous membranes that often occur with STIs.
If one suspects one may have acquired or been exposed to an STI, one should seek
medical advice. A person who has an STI should be aware that if they are having
unprotected sexual intercourse, they are at an even higher risk of getting HIV.
Commercial Sex Workers
Commercial sex workers and their clients, like any other person with many sexual
partners, run the risk of getting infected by their partners. They may then pass on
the infection to many others. If a sex worker insists on using a condom every time she
or he has sex, the risk of infection for her and the partner will be sharply reduced.
Many sex workers have replaced penetrative sex with safer practices, further
reducing the risk of infection. Unfortunately clients often refuse to wear condoms
and the women are not in a position to insist.
Menstruating women with HIV
The menstrual blood from HIV-infected women contain the virus getting infected
would depend on whether the menstrual blood got in contact with the sexual
partner's bloodstream. A woman who is menstruating is likely to be at a higher risk
for HIV through sexual intercourse.
HIV infection by blood transfusion or blood products
The recommended standard practice for all transfusion services is to test and
exclude from use all “seropositive” blood and blood products i.e. containing
antibodies to HIV.
In most countries, efforts have been made to test all blood donations for HIV since
1985. There is a small chance that an occasional transfusion may contain the virus
since an HIV-infected donor might have been in the “window” period when giving
blood.
Babies and HIV infected mothers
A baby born to an HIV infected mother may be born infected with the virus. An
infected mother can also pass the infection to her baby during breast-feeding after
childbirth. About 20-40 percent of babies born to infected mothers will acquire the
HIV virus. Some of those will develop AIDS during the first year of life.
The majority of HIV-infected babies will not survive to their second birthday.
However, some may survive up to 7 years or even longer. It serves little purpose to
test babies born to HIV-infected mothers for HIV antibodies at birth. There are likely
to be many false positive results because antibodies from the mother are still
circulating in the baby's bloodstream. Only at 18 months or older, can an antibody
test result be regarded as reliable.
Breast milk of an HIV-infected mother contains HIV that can be transmitted to the
baby. However, because of the benefits of breast-feeding, the WHO recommends that
in situations where infectious disease and malnutrition are the main cause of infant
deaths, and the infant mortality rate is high, mothers should breast-feed their
babies, even if they are known to be infected with HIV, as the risk to the baby is less
than the risks involved in artificial feeding.
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HIV transmission with sharp objects
Any instrument that cuts or punctures the skin can collect small amounts of blood
that can be passed on if used again by another person without being sterilized. Avoid
tattooing, ear piercing, acupuncture, and blood letting ceremonies or sharing razors
unless one is absolutely sure the instruments being used are sterilized or boiled in
water.
Small amounts of blood remain in needle and syringe after use. On reuse without
cleaning any left over blood in the syringe or needle will be injected into the
bloodstream. If the first user was infected with HIV, then the second person may also
be infected. Only a very small amount of blood is needed for transmission to occur.
Sharing needles and syringes used for anything medicines, drugs or even water can
spread HIV. It is not what is put into the syringe that transmits HIV, but the blood
that remains in the needle and syringe.
If people are not in a position to use a new needle and syringe, the equipment can be
boiled or, if boiling is not possible, cleaned by:
! Rinsing the syringe with clean, cold water at least twice (not hot water)
! Squirt the used water down the drain
! Rinsing the syringe out at least twice with fresh, household bleach, squirting the
used bleach down the drain
! Rinsing it out again, at least twice with clean, cold water to get rid of the bleach
One needs to be extremely careful if one comes across a needle or syringe in a park or
street. Dispose of it safely without touching it with unprotected fingers
HIV and Sports
The possibility of transmission from an HIV-infected athlete with a bleeding wound
coming in contact with a cut in the skin or mucous membrane of another is unlikely.
But, given the possibility, it would be wise in contact sports where bleeding might
occur (such as boxing) cleanse any cut with antiseptic and cover it well, if bleeding
occurs, stop activity and wait until the bleeding has stopped and then cleanse and
treat it with an antiseptic and cover it securely. Latex gloves should always be worn
when treating injured people.
Mosquitoes or other insects and HIV
Evidence clearly shows that mosquitoes and other insects do not spread HIV.
Bedbugs, lice and fleas in the households of people infected with HIV do not spread
the virus to the other people in the house because HIV lives in some cells of the
human body but it does not live in the cells of insects.
Identifying a person with HIV
It is not possible to know by physical appearance that a person has HIV, because the
virus may remain in the body for many years without causing any symptoms or
signs. Only a blood test taken after the “window” period can tell if a person has HIV.
Living near someone who has AIDS or who is infected with HIV will not give one HIV.
A person can live quite safely in the same room with someone who has AIDS,
provided that he or she is not the sexual partner and that one takes precautions in
handling body fluids (blood in particular).
22
HIV Tests
The HIV antibody test shows whether a person has been infected with HIV, the virus
which causes AIDS.
The P24 antigen test Is primarily used to screen the blood supply but in some places
it is used for testing for HIV in individuals. P24 antigen is a protein that is part of the
HIV. It is produced in excess, early in the infection and can be detected in the blood
serum by a commercial test. The P24 test can detect HIV infection before the HIV
antibody test can. Therefore, P24 antigen testing is used in diagnosing HIV early in
the course of infection.
The third type of test is used when a person knows that she or he is already infected
with HIV. These tests show the level of virus in the blood (viral load test). Getting
tested earlier than 3 months may result in an unclear test result, an infected person
may not yet have developed antibodies to HIV.
It is best to wait for at least three months after the last time one was at risk before
taking the test. Some test centres may recommend testing again at 6 months, just to
be extra sure.
It is also important that one is not at further risk of getting infected with HIV during
this time period. The test is only accurate if there are no other exposures between the
time of possible exposure to HIV and testing.
The only way to know for sure whether one is infected with HIV is to have an HIV
antibody test. It is not possible to tell from any symptoms.
In most countries, there are many places that one can get tested for HIV. It is
recommended that one gets the HIV test done at a health clinic, at the doctor's
surgery, or at a specialist HIV/AIDS voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) site.
When one intends to get tested, one needs to see a doctor, trained counsellor, a nurse
or some other health professional in private. He or she will explain what the test
involves and what the result means. Normally a small sample of blood will be taken
from a persons arm, sent to a laboratory and tested. Depending on the test used, it
can take anything from a few days to a week or longer to get the result back.
A rapid HIV test is also an antibody test. The advantage of a rapid test is that one does
not have return to get ones test result. The test results from a rapid test are usually
available in approximately 30 minutes and do not require laboratory facilities or
highly trained staff.
Standard HIV Tests
The main tests used for detecting HIV infection are blood tests:
Enzyme immunoassay (EIA) - is widely used by just about all HIV testing programs.
It is highly accurate but no test is 100 percent accurate. Accuracy depends on
following proper procedures as well as the person's stage of infection. That is why all
HIV testing programs use more than one test to confirm the presence of HIV.
Elisa Enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay Western Blot test - which is used to
confirm the EIA/ELISA screening tests.
In addition to the standard blood tests for HIV there is the Urine based test
23
Drugs and vaccines to treat AIDS
Drugs are effective against the infections associated with AIDS, they are not a cure
for AIDS but they can postpone symptoms or death. A few drugs have been able to
inhibit the multiplication of HIV in infected persons. These drugs do not eliminate
the virus from the body but may help prolong the lives of patients infected with HIV.
To date, there is some optimism over the development of a vaccine to protect against
the disease. Part of the difficulty is that there are many strains of HIV. Even within
the same person the virus can change over time. Safe or effective vaccines may take
many years to develop.
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ENHANCING SELF-ESTEEM IN THE CLASSROOM
Self esteem is the foundation of a person's feelings, thoughts and actions. It is
determined by one's understanding of oneself as being lovable and capable. During
the process of education in schools and colleges, young persons develop their sense
of self worth.
Academic success, the encouragement of teachers and school management and the
relationships with friends are crucial to self-esteem being built up or destroyed.
When we hear a student described as having "low self-esteem", we often picture a
student who is withdrawn and reluctant to participate. However, most students who
bully others, put others down, and over react to criticism also have low self-esteem.
All of these behaviours occur because students are insecure and uncomfortable with
themselves; as a result, they are constantly trying to prove their worth to themselves
and to others. There is a lot that teachers can do to mould their students' self
awareness and self respect.
A person who thinks that s/he is lovable and capable is more likely to think of others
in this manner and help rather than harm those having difficulties. Therefore young
persons with high self-esteem are diligent and respectful students, helpful and kind
friends and calm and cheerful people, able to accept challenges and take failure in
their stride.
All students can benefit from activities that help build self-esteem. Teachers can
incorporate classroom activities that focus on building self-esteem that have long
term benefits in reducing behaviour problems and conflicts in the class.
The principles of enhancing self-esteem can be applied in every classroom.
Building Self Esteem
Build a sense of acceptance
Acceptance of another is an important factor in fostering a relationship where a
person can grow and actualize his/her full potential. A language of acceptance can
make students feel more comfortable and at ease. When they know that they would
be accepted no matter what they say or do, we are more likely to see growth. When we
communicate in an accepting way, we are using a tool that can facilitate positive
effects in students.
Build a sense of identity
An identity refers to knowing one's strengths and weaknesses and feeling unique.
Young persons are very often preoccupied about who they are. Various self
awareness exercises can be powerful tools in helping them learn about their
uniqueness and explore their strengths and weaknesses.
Some examples of such activities could include talking or writing about their dreams
and fears, what they are good at, their favourite things, what makes them angry,
what they dislike at home, etc.
Build a sense of security
This is created by clear rules and consequences, so that students know what is
expected of them and what happens when the rules are broken. Abusive
punishments (hitting, insults and sarcasm, etc.) and arbitrary discipline methods
make students feel unsafe and anxious.
25
Build a sense of belonging
Every one of us needs to know that we are an important part of the group. It is very
important that students feel they belong to a larger group and are accepted therein.
Group activities are vital to promoting this concept. Delegate responsibility and
promote co-operation by organizing team activities such as a cleaning drive,
decorating the classroom, visiting an orphanage together, etc. Group work where
students help each other present joint assignments helps build a sense of belonging
to the group.
Build a sense of competence
Encouraging young persons when they are making an effort is a strong catalyst to
increasing self worth. To help students recognize their personal strengths, you could
praise more effectively and efficiently by using descriptive praise, - talking about
what the student has done.
Effective Praise
· Is delivered immediately after the student's performance of desirable
behaviours or genuine accomplishment specifying the praiseworthy aspects of
his/her behaviour. Random, general praise without specific attention to
genuine accomplishment does not help the student recognize his real strengths
· Is given for genuine efforts, progress, or accomplishments which are judged
according to standards appropriate to individuals. It helps them appreciate
their thinking, problem solving abilities and performance.
· When praise is given based on comparisons with others and without regard to
the effort expended or significance of the accomplishment of an individual it
results in unhealthy competition and comparing themselves with others.
· Effective praise attributes the student's success to effort and ability, implying
that similar successes can be expected in the future.
Ineffective Praise
Makes students attribute their success to external factors such as luck or easy task.
Besides helping them recognize their strengths the way in which their weaknesses
are pointed out to them also plays a major role in building a sense of competence.
Correction of Behaviour
It is important that corrections are done in a loving and respectful manner. Be
constructive in your corrections, constructive criticism points out what needs to be
done, just by describing the situation this helps the person to find the solution.
Suggest what can be done rather than what has not been done “I” messages where
the teacher describes how the problem affects him or her are effective in changing
undesirable behaviour, without insulting the person.
For e.g., if the teenager is making noise in the class it is better to say “When there is
noise, I find it hard to think”, rather than “Stop that awful din”. The young person is
more likely to respond to the first message.
Do not comment on character it does more harm than help! A loving, firm yet kind
teacher can change the life of a young person struggling through the difficult time of
growing up! If you give the young person a better picture of himself or herself and
keep telling them that you are happy they exist, chances are that your
encouragement will make their journey much easier and result in a cheerful, lively
and secure adult!
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COUNSELLING
At times the young person may not be able to cope with an ongoing problem and may
seek help from the teacher. S/he may require counselling to deal with or overcome it.
This chapter looks at some basic skills and approaches to counselling with could
help you help the distressed youth.
Interviewing the Young Person
One factor, which affects the interview experience, is whether the young person has
come of his own accord or been brought in by an adult. If the young person is keen on
your help interviewing is easier but if he is not the one seeking your help,
communication techniques have to be well tuned to engage his/ her co-operation.
Techniques of interviewing: I
Attending Behaviour:
Is a most basic skill that cannot be more stressed upon when interviewing a young
person It is to communicate to him your interest in what is said Make him stick to the
point and avoid needless talk, reduce interviewer talk.
There are four critical dimensions to the attending behaviour:
Eye contact: A lot comes out of an interview if eye contact is maintained.
Attentive Body Language: Encouraging gestures, Facial expressions, the way you sit
all these facilitate the counselee understand your interest in him.
Vocal qualities: The vocal tone and speech rate indicate much of how you feel about
another person.
Verbal Tracking: Keeping to the topic initiated by the client. Listening to some things
and ignoring others as per your own interests rather than what is important to the
counselee will lead the conversation in a different direction
Questioning Skills: II
Types of questions:
Open Questions:
They are questions that cannot be answered in a few words or sentences. They
encourage the person to talk and give maximum information. They generally begin
with How, why or could e.g., 'could you tell me more about that? / How did you feel
when that happened?' The first word of an open question often lead to particular
results: e.g.,- 'What' questions lead to facts 'How' questions lead to feelings and
'Why' to reasons.
Closed Questions:
Can be answered in a few words: They focus an interview and bring out specifics,
they generally begin with is, are or do. e.g., “Where do you live?”
A general framework for collecting the required information in the first part of
counselling would be the following:
·
·
·
·
·
·
Who is the client?
What are the key personal background factors?
Who else is involved?
What is the problem?
What are the specific details of the situation?
When does the problem occur?
27
·
·
·
·
·
·
What immediately preceded and followed the situation?
Where does the problem occur, in what environment and situation?
How does the person react?
How does she or he feel about it?
Why does the problem occur?
When does questioning pose a problem?
Bombardment /grilling - too many questions can put many counselee on the
defensive.
Multiple Questions - Can confuse the person
Questions as statements e.g. 'don't you think it would be helpful if you studied
more?' Puts your own view point ahead and can put the person off.
Why Questions - Why questions can cause discomfort.
Observation Skills - III
The third most important skill is that of observation. Counselee observation needs
focus on three areas:
! Counselee non verbal behaviour:
Consisting of; Counselee eye contact patterns - they may break eye contact or shift
eyes during periods of confusion
Body language :
Leaning forward, indicates excitement about an idea, crossing arms to close it off.
Facial clues (brow furrowing, lip tightening or loosening, flushing, pulse rate visible
at temples) Large- scale body movements - which may indicate shifts in counselee
reactions, thoughts or the topic.
Vocal qualities :
Tone, loudness etc., counselee's verbal behaviour: Noting patterns of verbal tracking
is particularly important. At what point do counselee change topic and to what topics
do they shift?
Keywords:
Counselees tends to use certain keywords to describe their behaviour and
situations; noting these descriptive words and repetitive themes are helpful. Some
counselee use primarily auditory (“hear” “sounds like”) or kinesthetic (“feel” “touch”)
words to describe their way of interacting with the world; it is helpful to match these
words. Using all three sensory modalities through overlapping will strengthen the
impact of many interviews.
Some sample wordings:
Visual:
See, perceive, view, visualize, imagine, draw a picture, flat, dull, flaming, sunny
Auditory:
Hear, sounds, in tune, harmony, that rings a bell, dissonant, sharp, flat, noisy, quiet
Kinesthetic:
Feel, touch, wrap around, let's dance, swinging, blow away, sharp, that grabs me,
cool, warm
! “I Statements”:
Counselee gives clues by repeating statements that are important to them. These
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statements may take the form of 'I' statements e.g. 'I feel lost' 'I don't know what to
say' 'I can't get along with Ben'
! Counselee discrepancies:
It is important for the counsellor to be able to identify basic discrepancies,
incongruities, and mixed messages, to be able to name them appropriately and at
times feed them back to the client.
These discrepancies maybe,
l between: non-verbal behaviour (may smile while talking but have fists tightly
closed)between two statements - (e.g. ' my son is perfect, but he doesn't respect
me')
l between what counselees state and what they do ( a parent may talk about love
for the child but be guilty of child abuse)
l between statements and non-verbal behaviour. ('I really love my brother' but said
in a quite tone and averted eyes).
l They may also represent a conflict between people or between a counselee and a
situation.
A simple careful observation of the counselee is basic.
Encouraging, Paraphrasing and Summarising: IV
These are skills that help one when one does counselling and can be an
understanding of the formalised skill can be useful in interacting with troubled
adolescents seeking assistance.
At all points a counselee need to know that the interviewer has heard what they have
said, seen their point of view and felt the world as they experience it.
All of the above encouragers paraphrases, and summarisation is used to help
counselees feel understood.
Encouragers:
are a variety of verbal and non-verbal means to encourage others to keep talking.
They include head nods, an open palm, “Uh-huh” and simple repetitions of keywords
the counselee has uttered.
Paraphrases:
are a feedback to the counselee the essence of what has just been is repeated by
shortening and clarifying counselee comments. Paraphrasing is not parroting, it is
using some of your own words alongside important words of the client.
Summarisations:
Are practices similar to paraphrasing except that, they at the end of a topic in
conversation or at the end of the counselling session and more information is
involved. Summarisations may be used to begin or end an interview, for transition to
a new topic or to provide clarity in lengthy and complex counselee issues or
statements.
In the use of encouragers, the so called, “simple” repetition of keywords is more
important than appears at first glance. Keywords repeated back to the counselee
usually lead to the counselee elaborating in greater detail on the meaning of that
word to him or her. Interviewers and counsellors find it interesting and sometimes
challenging to note their own selective attention patterns as they use this simple
skill.
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The use of encouragers, paraphrases and summarisations
The use of the above three approaches helps
Clarify for the counselee what he or she has just said.
·
Clarifying for the interviewer what the counselee has said.
·
By feeding back what you have heard, you can check on the accuracy of your
·
listening.
Helping counselee to talk in more detail about issues of concern to them.
·
Helping an overly talkative counselee stop repeating the same facts or story,
·
thus speeding up and clarifying the interview process.
Counselees need to know they have been heard.
·
Attending, questioning, and other skills help the counselee open up, but accurate
listening through skills of encouraging, paraphrasing and summarising is needed to
communicate that you have indeed heard the person fully.
These three skills of accurate listening communicate your involved attention to the
client
Paraphrasing involves four dimensions:
A sentence stem using as much as possible, some of the counselee's mode of
receiving information auditory, visual or kinesthetic. “You appear to be saying ...” the
key descriptors and concepts the counselee used to describe the situation or person.
Use the counselee's own words for the most important things.
·
The essence of what the counselee has said in summarised form.
·
A checkout for accuracy - Implicitly or explicitly the interviewer checks out to
·
see if hearing has been accurate “Am I hearing you correctly”
These skills are useful with virtually any counselee however; some find repetition
tiresome and may ask “didn't I just say that?” Consequently, when you use the skill
you should employ your counselee observation skills.
All of these skills involve active listening, encouraging others to talk freely. They
communicate your interest and help clarify the world of the counselee for both you
and the client.
Noting and Reflecting Feelings:
Identifying and sorting out counselee's feelings helps lay the foundation for further
action. Emotions and feelings can be can be labelled by using affective words such as
angry, sad, scared, or confused.
To do this one needs to observe:
· Emotional words used by the client
· Non verbally expressed emotional words
· Mixed non-verbal and verbal emotional cues.
Emotions can be observed directly, drawn out through questions 'how do you feel
about that?' Do you feel angry?, and then reflected through the following steps:
Begin with a sentence stem such as
“You feel” or
“Sounds like you feel”
or “could it be you feel”
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Use the counselee name
Feeling words may be added (sad, happy, glad)
The context may be added through a paraphrase or a repetition of key content “Looks
like you feel happy about your results
A present tense reflection is more powerful than a past or future tense. 'You feel
happy right now' rather than 'you felt’
After identifying a feeling you can check out so that the counselee can correct you if
you are incorrect 'am I hearing you correctly’
You can sometimes add the concept of the concrete with reflection e.g.: 'you seem be
angry with your Father. Could you give me one example of a specific situation when
you feel this anger.
Positive Asset Search : VI
In the process of using the above skills and gathering information one useful
technique is picking out positive assets or strengths of the counselee and reflecting
them back to the client.
Ways in which the counsellor can use this skill:
The counsellor can begin the session by asking what has happened recently that the
counselee feels good about.
In the problem-definition phase use it for example to a counselee who has just failed
in one subject and feels depressed and worried. you can say, “You say you are
worried and feel lost, at the same time I know you have passed in all the other
subjects specially maths a subject you have been finding difficult. Could you tell me
how you managed it?
If your counselee constantly repeats negative statements, these can be paraphrased
and than followed by positive feedback e.g. “Yes failing in physics is traumatic and
really hurts. At the same time, I see a number of positive pointsa good sense of
humour, some valuable skills, and a history of perseverance in the face of difficulty”.
The above skills will not only facilitate the young persons to talk about his problem to
the intervener but it will also set the stage for the next stage in the process - that is
problem solving.
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THE PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH
Problem solving
Problem solving involves arriving at a successful conclusion to your counselling
sessions. It begins with 'Determining Outcomes' by focusing on the goals of the
client. Where does the counselee want to go?
Quite often counsellors ask questions like “What do you think the ideal solution
would be?” “Could you tell me what do you imagine you would like to happen?”
The basic listening sequence can be used to develop more details on the counselee's
thoughts and feelings of the ideal situation.
The key is to define a goal, to make it explicit and search for the assets that would
facilitate attainment of the goal. The reason the counselee is in front of you is that
there is a discrepancy between where the counselee wants to be and the position he
is in at present. It is when the discrepancy between the existing situation and the
desired situation is made clear that it becomes possible to address the issues
involved clearly and precisely.
Identifying discrepancies
Pointing out the discrepancy between the problem definition and the desired
outcome can be done by employing statements like “Your real self as you describe it
is… yet your ideal self as you see it is…and you have several positive qualities, such
as…” “Your present relationship is described as…but you would like to see it change
it so that… Both of you seem to be strong in that… that should help you resolve the
conflict.”
These model sentences point out the discrepancy between the problem definition
and the desired outcome. The positive asset summary helps the counselee realise
that he or she is capable of resolving the problem. Some counselees may at this point
be able to resolve the discrepancy on their own without further help from you.
Otherwise, get on to the next stage.
Exploring alternatives, confronting counselee incongruity
That is the point of deciding “what are we going to do about it?” The counselee may be
stuck for want of productive alternatives. The counsellor could summarise the
conflict for the counselee and use the basic listening skills to facilitate the counselee
in his problem resolution.
Some questions that could be used are “Can you do some brainstorming for ideas
that come up to resolve the problem? “What part of the problem can you solve now, if
you can't solve everything right away”? “What other alternatives can you think of”?
“Which of your ideas seem more workable to you”? “What would be the consequences
of taking that alternative”?
All of these are intended to make the counselee think up new solutions The aim is to
resolve the differences, between what is seen as a problem and what is desired as an
outcome.
The counsellor can use his listening skills to clarify the counselee's frame of
reference, feed back the problem and the goal. In systematic problem solving the
counsellor and the counselee might together generate or brainstorm for alternatives
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and set up priorities for the most effective possibilities. One often finds the counselee
generating his / her own answer to the problem. If not, it is usually an experienced
counsellor that provides him/her answers from a personal frame of reference.
Up to this stage, one has been concentrating on bringing the counselee up to a point
where he starts to make the decision of changing a bothersome situation into a
desirable one.
Generalisation and Transfer of Learning
Is the next stage and involves actually implementing these decisions in real life.
Transferring what has been learnt during counselling sessions into real life
situations may be difficult.
Some tools employed to assist the counselee in the process are:
Role playing
Involves asking the counselee to practice his new behaviour in role-play with the
counsellor - During the role-play sessions the counselee comes to understand the
need for new behaviour patterns in dealing with the situation.
Imagery - Asking the counselee to picture in his mind a future event and imagine
what he would in reality need to manage the situation.
Behavioural charting and progress notes
Asking the counselee to keep a detailed record of the number of times certain
behaviours occur Counselees need to know they have been heard. and then report
back to the counsellor helps.
Family or group counselling
Certain deep-rooted problems require more than just the individual alone to be
addressed in the process. Since the problems may be related to an unhelpful
environment that the counselee invariably gets back to.
Follow up and support
It is often helpful to have the counselee to return periodically, for follow up. It is here
that the counsellor can provide support during difficult periods.To get the counselee
to act upon what has been learnt in the counselling process use questions like
“You have come up with several ideas and selected one to try, how are we going to
know if you actually do it?” “What is it that you can practice next week that we can
look into the next time?” these can get the counselee to actualize what he/she has
learnt during the sessions to his real life.
The Stages of Counselling A Summary
Rapport building and structuring:
One uses attending behaviour and listening skills to build rapport, positive asset
search also helps.
Structuring involves telling the counselee what to expect from the interview, its
purpose, about the general rules like confidentiality, how much time you are willing
to spend with the counselee etc.
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Gathering information, defining the problem, and identifying assets.
All the above skills can be used to define the problem as the counselee sees it,
gathering information about the counselee and his perceptions
Determining outcomes:
Determining from the counselee where s/he wants to go.
Questions that help:
What would you imagine the ideal solution to be? Where do you want to go with this?
Could you take a moment to draw back and develop a fantasy of what you would like
to have happen?
This stage helps focus the specificity of the interaction. Very often if this is not done
the counselee and the counsellor assumes that they are working towards the same
outcome but are actually moving in two different directions.
Problem solving
Exploring alternatives and confronting counselee incongruity.
The main stages of problem solving are:
l Defining the problem, keeping in mind the goal or desired outcome
l Generating alternatives
l Deciding on action
Question's that assist in problem solving:
“What alternatives can you think of?”
“Can you brainstorm ideasjust anything that occurs to you?”
“What has worked for you before?”
“What part of the problem is workable if you can't solve it right now?”
“Which of the ideas that you have generated appeals to you most?”
“What would be the consequence of your taking that alternative?”
Generalisation, transfer of learning:
After generating solutions it is important for the counsellor to see that the counselee
carries it out in his daily life.
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Case Examples
CASE. 1:
Rita, a 16-year-old student, has always been very lively, fun loving. An average
student generally securing 50% marks, but very conscientious about completing
assignments/ homework. You notice a sudden change in her in the classroom she
has turned quiet, does not talk much to others, and keeps to herself. Her grades have
fallen, for the first time she has failed in 3 subjects. When you give her the report card
you ask her to meet you during the Physics period. Rita comes to you, both of you sit
in the empty class. Rita with her head down is looking very anxious.
RAPPORT BUILDING/ STRUCTURING
Counselor: Rita, you are looking very anxious.
You must be wondering why I've called you here.
Rita nods her head
Counselor: Rita you have always been very lively.
I liked watching you joke with your friends and
making them laugh. Even with your work you
have always been regular. But recently I have
seen a change in you. You have become very
quite, you have been coming with your homework
incomplete and I have been getting worried about
you.
I see that something is worrying you. I have called
you here today to see if I can help you in any way.
If you are willing we could meet regularly
whenever both of us are free. Before I proceed I
want to assure you that whatever you tell me here
will not go beyond these four walls. Do you
believe me? Would you like to talk about it?
Reflection of feelings.
Problem summarisation
from Counsellors point of
view. positive assets
Reflection of own feelings
Structuring
Ensuring confidentiality
Closed question
Open question
A lot depends on Rita and the confidence that she has in the counsellor at that point.
If she refuses to talk it means that more time would have to be spent on rapport
building but assuming she opens up
GATHERING INFORMATION - DEFINING THE PROBLEM - IDENTIFYING
ASSETS
Rita: It's my mother. She has changed
Counselor: changed?
Rita: Since brother has come back from the
boarding abroad she doesn't spend time with me.
She doesn't love me any more.
Counselor: You feel she loves your older brother
and not you?
Rita: Yes, and starts crying (Counselor at that
point pats her hand or hold her
Counselor: Could you tell me more about what
makes you feel like this
Rita: She's changed
Counselor: Changed?
Encourager
Rita: Yes. She is just not interested in me any
more
Rita is further explaining
the meaning Of the problem
Paraphrase
Non-verbal positive regard
Open question, to get more
information
Rita is still brief.
Encourager
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Counselor: Could you give me a more specific
incident or example indicating that she doesn't
care for you.
Rita: When I go back from college she is busy
with her work and whenever she is free she is
with my brother all the time. When I try to talk
to her she just sends me off saying I have been
with her all the time and he has just returned
home from boarding. All the time she is
fussing over him.
Open questioning eliciting
specifics.
Rita gives more specific
aspects of her problem
Counselor: Sounds like she is very busy since
your brother has returned and you feel lonely.
Paraphrasing
Rita: Yes, I get very angry with my brother. I
hate him and feel like hitting him.
Rita speaks of her feelings
Counselor: You get so angry that you feel like
hitting him but you stop yourself, which needs
a lot of restraint. I see a strong girl here.
Rita: Smiles
Reflection of feelings and
reflecting assets (Rita feels
better and is more open)
Summarizing and
structuring along with
positive asset search
Counselor: Rita, you've been talking about
incidents when your mother doesn't spend
time with you at all. Sounds like that she is
too involved with your brother. But could you
think of one instance in the last week when
she spent time with you instead of your
brother.
Rita: When he goes out in the evening she does
ask me about my studies. But my father
spends some time with me when he comes
back from work.
Counselor: But you still feel disappointed
about mummy not having enough time for
you.
Rita: Yes, why does it have to be like this? Why
should he get more attention than me?
(Counselor explains to Rita that since her
brother was away for a long time their mother
must have missed him a lot and she may be
trying to make up for the time that she has
lost.)
Counselor: Rita now that we have talked about
your problem and I have explained to you
some things, how would you like things to be?
Reflecting feelings and
paraphrasing
Rita feels more confident and
asks the counselor for
answers
(
Direct information giving but
note that the counselor did
not push the information on
but gave it only when Rita
asked for it
Generating outcomes
Summarizing the problem
and generated outcome.
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Rita: I would like Mummy to spend at least
some time with me in the evening.
Counselor: So from what we have here
Mummy has been very busy. She is always
with him, has no time for you except some
time in the evening when he goes out. And
you would want her to spend a little more
time with you.
Rita: Yes
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EXPLORING ALTERNATIVES/ PROBLEM SOLVING
Counselor: What do you think could be done
to change the situation?
Generating Alternatives
Rita: I don't know.
Counselor: Can't you think of some way by
which you could change the situation.
Rita: may be I could help my mother with
cooking, she might like that; I have never done
that so far.
Counselor: That is a good idea. Can you think
of any other ideas?
Rita: Umm! Maybe I talk to her about how I
feel.
Counselor: That sounds good too. So Rita you
have come up with two alternatives. Could you
spend some time thinking about more ideas
and how we could get them accomplished and
we could talk about it tomorrow after class?
NEXT SESSION GENERALIZATION & TRANSFER OF LEARNING:
Counselor again summarizes the problem as
discussed in the last session.
Counselor: Rita yesterday you told me that
you feel bad about the fact that your mummy
spends most of her time with your brother
and she doesn't love you any more. So you
sometimes get so angry that you feel like
hitting him but you don't but you want your
mummy to spend at least some time with you
in the evenings. You came up with two
solutions. One is that you help your mother in
cooking so that you could be with her and the
other is that you would talk to her about how
you feel. Did you think of any other solutions?
Rita: No, but now I don't feel so angry with my
brother but I still want mummy with me in
the evenings.
Counselor: Could you think of how we could
get your plans into action.
Rita: I don't know.
Counselor: Well, despite feeling so bad and
angry you came up with very good solutions to
Summarizing
Generating Alternatives
The first session has helped
Rita to look at the situation
from a different light. She is
also more open about her
feelings.
Generalization
38
the problems now the next step would be
putting them into action. Could you think of
some ways in which you could let Mummy
know your wish.
Rita: If I tell Mummy she will get angry.
Counselor: You are scared to tell her because
you feel she will get angry with you
Rita: Yes,
Counselor: Um.
Rita: And how can I even tell her when she is
too busy either cooking for him or talking to
him
Counselor: So you feel that you can't even talk
to her
Rita: Yah, but I could tell my father.
Counselor: You think you could talk to him.
Rita: Yes( At this stage after discussing which
is the best alternative the counselor could ask
her to role play and play the role of Daddy and
ask her how she would go about talking to her
Father
Reflection of Positive assets
Reflection of feelings
Rejection of alternative
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing
In this way the counselor facilitates the girl come up with alternatives and helps her
generalize it to the real situation.
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CASE 2:
Rehana came from a traditional Muslim family. Her Father is very strict but Mother
quite lenient.
She is studying for First Year B. Sc and has been missing classes for some time. She
has been complaining of stomach ache and medical investigations revealed that
there isn't any organic cause.
The first session was spent only in rapport building (young persons generally take a
lot of time to trust an adult and they are happy to just chat with you while they make
an estimate of the counselor's attitude.
It is important at this point to portray your non-judgmental stand on various issues
and only when the young person starts trusting you will he/she start confiding in
you.
SECOND SESSION: RAPPORT BUILDING/ STRUCTURING
Counselor (after preliminary pleasantries were
over with) The last time you came here we
talked about a lot of things. About your health,
your friends, teachers, family etc. However, you
seemed a little anxious the last time and even
today. Is there something worrying that has
brought you here today?
Rehana: No, I came because my stomach is
paining. Counselor:
Rehana, Can you think of any reason for this?
Rehana: I told you that the doctors say that
there is nothing wrong with me.
Counselor: We will have to accept your doctor's
reports since they seem to have done all the
tests possible. Could there be anything else,
something bothering you that could be a
reason.
Rehana: none at all.
Counselor: Nothing at all, no physical illness,
no worries, no teenage problems?
Rehana: I get tense sometimes
Counselor: tense…?
Rehana: Yes, tense.
Counselor: Is there any reason you can think
of for that?
Rehana: Studies…
Counselor: Studies?
Rehana: Yes
Counselor: Can you tell me more?
Rehana: I cannot concentrate
Counselor: So what I gather is that you have
not been able to study, have not been able to
concentrate and have been getting tense.
Summarizing
Reflecting feelings
Open question
Open question
Open question
Open question
Encourager
Open question
Paraphrasing
40
Rehana: Yes, I have been worried.
Counselor: Worried?
Rehana: It is this Jeevan…..(Starts crying,
counselor pats her hand)
Encourager
GATHERING INFORMATION, DEFINING THE PROBLEM, IDENTIFYING ASSETS
(Rehana speaks at length about her boyfriend who has broken up with her and says
he does not love her anymore, how in the beginning she just liked him as a friend,
but how he kept flattering her till she too started liking him.
Through open questions the counselor gathered more information on the
relationship viz. how many times she had gone out with him, whether there was any
sexual encounter, risk behaviour…
Rehana had gone on dates a couple of times but beyond kissing she has not ventured
further. It was her emotional feelings that needed to be dealt with)
The counselor lets her ventilate at length
Counselor: Rehana I can see that you are
terribly hurt by your friend's behaviour. You
have really started caring for him and it is
difficult for you to believe that he could do
this to you. You must be feeling shattered.
Rehana: Yes
Counselor: But despite such a big blow I see
a very strong girl here who could actually
smile and even laugh when she has been
hurting so much inside.(Rehana smiles)
(The conversation goes on at length, Rehana
giving more details of the relationship but
she seems less anxious)
Counselor: Rehana where do you want to go
from here?
Rehana: I want to forget him and start my
life anew. I want to study and pass.
Counselor: Would you like me to help you in
your efforts?
Rehana: Yes
Counselor: We will just stop for now. You
can come back next week and we will than
work out strategies on how to handle your
problem.
Reflecting feelings
Paraphrasing
Reflecting feelings
Positive asset search
Determining outcomes
Closed question
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NEXT SESSION EXPLORING ALTERNATIVES
Counselor: Last time you told me about your
problem. You spoke of how hurt you were
feeling, and how because of this you cannot
concentrate on your studies, You keep
thinking of Jeevan..
Rehana: Yah, but after talking to you I have
been feeling a little better.
Counselor: Last time you spoke about
wanting to forget him. Rehana you said you
keep thinking of him but in the last week
were there times when you never thought of
him?
Rehana: When I am with my sister or
mother, when I am with my friends I am OK
but when I am studying alone I start
thinking and cursing myself for ever talking
to him. I have tried a lot to forget him but I
just cannot.
Counselor: Rehana on one hand you gave
me instances when you did not think of him
and at the same time you say that you just
cannot forget him. In the last week have you
thought of him as many times as you
thought of him this week.
Rehana: (Surprised) No, in fact last week it
was very difficult but this week in wasn't as
difficult and I could even study a little.
Counselor: So you see you have on your own
progressed and with a little effort you could
forget Jeevan and go on with your life. (in
this way by just reflection, positive asset
search and other listening skills that
counselor empowers Rehana to tackle her
problem)
Summarizing
Exploring the problem
Confronting with
incongruities
Positive asset search
The counselor than asks Rehana to come
out with alternatives by which she could
forget Jeevan completely. Rehana with her
new found confidence is much more open
about thinking of alternatives. They later
work on her improving her concentration on
studies. The counselor guides her to put a
timetable together and eventually Rehana
answer's her exam and gets over her hurt.
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ALTERNATIVES TO LECTURING - CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS
Teaching a mob
Teaching a large class effectively is hard work, but not impossible if you make the
necessary arrangements in advance. Provide plenty of active learning experiences in
the classroom instead of relying on straight lecturing.
Large classes can come close to being as educationally rewarding as small classes.
The instructor's satisfaction may be even greater in the large classes: after all, many
professors can teach 15 students effectively, but when you do it with 100 or more you
know you've really accomplished something.
When we find ourselves teaching a mob, it's easy to throw up our hands, conclude
that there's no chance of getting any response from 80 or 100 students in a
classroom, and spend hours lecturing to the listless 60% who bother to show up from
day to day. Fortunately, there are ways to make large classes almost as effective as
their smaller counterparts.
Without turning yourself inside out, you can get students actively involved, help
them develop a sense of community, and give frequent homework assignments
without killing yourself with impossible grading loads. Use Co-operative Learning
where groups of students work in teams to accomplish a common goal.
Co-operative Learning
The appropriate use of collaborative skills encourages and helps students develop
and practice trust building, leadership, decision-making, effective communication
and conflict management skills. It enhances group processing; the team members
set group goals, periodically assess what they are doing well as a team, and identify
changes they will make to function more effectively in future.
Cooperative learning may occur in or out of class.
In class exercises it may take anywhere from 30 seconds to an entire class period. It
may involve answering or generating questions, explaining observations, working
through derivations, solving problems, summarizing lecture material, troubleshooting, and brainstorming.
Out-of-class activities include carrying out experiments or research studies,
completing problem sets or design projects, writing reports, and preparing class
presentations.
Advantages of Co-operative Learning
A large and rapidly growing body of research confirms the effectiveness of
cooperative learning in higher education (Astin, 1993; Cooper et al., 1990; Goodsell
et al., 1992; Johnson et al., 1991; McKeachie, 1986). Relative to students taught
traditionally - i.e., with instructor-centred lectures, individual assignments, and
competitive grading - cooperatively taught students tend to exhibit higher academic
achievement, greater persistence through graduation, better high-level reasoning
and critical thinking skills, deeper understanding of learned material, more on-task
and less disruptive behaviour in class, lower levels of anxiety and stress, greater
ability to view situations from others' perspectives, more positive and supportive
relationships with peers, more positive attitudes toward subject areas, and higher
self-esteem.
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Another non-trivial benefit for instructors is that when assignments are done
cooperatively, the number of papers to grade decreases by a factor of three or four.
There are several reasons why cooperative learning works as well as it does. The idea
that students learn more by doing something active than by simply watching and
listening has long been known to both cognitive psychologists and effective teachers
(Bonwell and Eison, 1991), and cooperative learning is by its nature an active
method. Beyond that, cooperation enhances learning in several ways. Weak
students working individually are likely to give up when they get stuck; working
cooperatively, they keep going.
Strong students faced with the task of explaining and clarifying material to weaker
students often find gaps in their own understanding and fill them in. Students
working alone may tend to delay completing assignments or skip them altogether,
but when they know that others are counting on them, they are often driven to do the
work in a timely manner.
Students working competitively have incentives not to help one another; working
cooperatively, they are rewarded for helping. The proven benefits of cooperative
learning notwithstanding, instructors who attempt it frequently encounter
resistance and sometimes open hostility from the students.
Bright students complain about being held back by their slower team mates, weaker
or less assertive students complain about being discounted or ignored in group
sessions, and resentments build when some team members fail to pull their weight.
Instructors with sufficient patience generally find ways to deal with these problems,
but others become discouraged and revert to the traditional teacher-centred
instructional paradigm, which is a loss both for them and for their students.
Variations of Co-operative Learning Groups
In-Class Exercises
Early in the class period organize the students (or have them organize themselves)
into teams of two to four students, and randomly assign one student in each group to
be the team recorder for that class period. Several times during the period - ideally,
after no more than 15 minutes of lecturing - give the teams exercises to do,
instructing the recorders to write down the team responses.
In longer exercises, circulate among the teams, verifying that they are on task,
everyone is participating, and that the recorders are doing their job. Stop the teams
after a suitable time has elapsed (which may be as short as 30 seconds or as long as
10 minutes, depending on the exercise) and randomly call on students to present
their teams' solutions.
The exercises can range from short questions to extensive problem-solving activities
in a variety of categories.
Recalling prior material
Example: Last period we discussed conductive heat transfer. List as many of the
principal features of this process as you can remember. You have two minutes - go!
List the three most important points in today's assigned reading.
Stage-setting
Example: Here are some questions we'll be considering today. Work in pairs to guess
what the answers might be or plan how you could determine the answers
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Asking students to think in advance about the questions can effectively motivate
them to watch for the answers in the rest of the class period.
Sample questions:
What procedure (formula, technique, could I use here?
Is what I just wrote correct?
Why or why not?
What action might I take in the situation just described?
What would you guess is the next step (the outcome, the conclusion)?
This approach to classroom questioning offers several advantages over more
conventional methods.
Asking questions of the class as a whole usually produces either an embarrassing
silence (especially in large classes) or answers volunteered by two or three students the same students every time.
Calling on students individually often creates an atmosphere of tension in the
classroom, with many students worrying more about whether you will single them
out than about what you are teaching. On the other hand, when students are asked
to generate answers in small groups, most of them will get to work without feeling
threatened and you'll get all the responses you want.
Problem-solving
Examples
Turn to page 138 in your textbook. Take a minute to read problem 27, then work in
your groups to outline a solution strategy.
Without doing any detailed analysis (calculations), guess what the solution of the
problem might be, and justify your guess.
Get started on the solution of the problem and see how far you can get with it in five
minutes.
Let's all agree that this is the correct approach.
Proceed from here....and so this is the solution we get. Find at least two ways to check
it. Suppose we observe a real system of the kind we just analysed and our
observations don't match our results. List possible reasons.
The groups should generally be given enough time to think about the problem and to
begin to formulate an answer but not necessarily enough to work through to a
complete solution since you would be explaining the solutions during the course of
your lecture.
Explaining written material.
Exercises of this type are effectively done in pairs.
Example:
Go through the paragraph I just handed out. One member of each pair should
explain each idea to the other. The explainer's partner should ask for clarification if
anything is unclear and the explainer may give general hints if needed but should not
take over the job of explaining. Raise your hands if you get stuck.
Partner 1, describe to your partner one of the terms from the reading listed on the
board. Partner 2, try to identify the term being described.
45
Have the students work for several minutes in this way, stop them, call on one or
more pairs to summarize their work, and then have the students continue with the
roles reversed.
If you assign students to read complex material on their own, many or most will not
do it, and if you write it on the board, they will copy it into their notes without
necessarily understanding or even thinking about it.
If you require them to explain it to one another however, they will either work
through it and achieve understanding or get stuck and be primed to hear the
explanation when it is presented.
Analytical, evaluative, and creative thinking
Example:
List all the (assumptions, problems, errors, ethical dilemmas) you can find in this
case study (scenario, problem solution)
Explain the concept of (surface tension, relative humidity, discounted cash flow rate
of return on investment).
Construct a concept map (flow chart, graphic organizer) containing the principal
topics in Chapter 5 of your text.
Predict what would happen if you carried out the following experiment. Explain your
reasoning.
What is the flaw in the following argument?
Explain, in terms of concepts you learned in this course, why you feel comfortable at
65 deg. F air and freezing in 65 deg. F water.
List three practical applications for what we just learned.
Think of as many reasons as you can why this design (theory, model, strategy) might
(fail, be unsafe, or environmentally unsound).
Which of the following alternative (sentences, explanations, devices) is the best one?
Justify your answer.
Generating questions and summarizing
Example:
Think of three good questions about what we just covered. Then see how far you can
go in answering them.”List the major point in the material we covered today. Then
list the most difficult point. The collective response to the latter exercise provides the
instructor with a clear indication of how well the class worked that day and what
points should be addressed at the beginning of the next period.
Guided reciprocal questioning
Alison King (1993) describes an exercise she calls guided reciprocal peer
questioning, which consists of giving students high-level question stems and having
them use these stems to construct specific questions on the course material, which
they then ask their classmates.
Some of these generic stems are
What is the main idea of...?
What if...?
How does...affect...?
What is the meaning of...?
Why is...important?
What is a new example of...?
Explain why....Explain how....How does...relate to what I've learned before?
What conclusions can I draw about...?
46
What is the difference between ... and ...?
How are ... and ... similar?
How would I use ... to ...?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of...?
King finds that repeated use of these exercises leads to a noticeable improvement in
the higher level thinking abilities of students.
Think-pair-share
An effective variation of the in-class group exercise is think-pair-share. Students
first work on a given problem individually, then compare their answers with a
partner and synthesize a joint solution. The pairs may in turn share their solutions
with other pairs or with the whole class.
TAPPS
Another variation that has already been described is TAPPS--thinking-aloud pair
problem-solving (Lochhead and Whimbey, 1987). Students work on problems in
pairs, with one pair member functioning as problem-solver and the other as listener.
The problem solver verbalises everything he/she is thinking he/she seeks a solution;
the listener encourages his/her partner to keep talking and offer general suggestions
or hints if the problem solver get stuck. The roles are reversed for the next problem.
Jig saw
Still another in-class strategy, Jigsaw (Aronson, 1978), is excellent for tasks that
have several distinct aspects or components. Home teams are formed, with each
team member taking responsibility for one aspect of the problem in question.
Expert teams are then formed of all the students responsible for the same aspect.
The teams go over the material they are responsible for and plan how to best teach it
to their home groups.
After an adequate interval, the students return to the home teams and bring their
expertise to bear on the assigned task. Positive interdependence is fostered because
each student has different information needed to complete the task.
Another look at Co-operative Learning
Besides their academic benefits, in-class cooperative exercises make classes much
more enjoyable for both students and instructors. Even the most gifted lecturers
have trouble sustaining attention and interest throughout a 45 minute class: after
about ten minutes, the attention of the student starts to drift, and by the end of the
class boredom is generally rampant.
Even if the instructor asks questions in an effort to spark some interest, nothing
much usually happens except silence and avoidance of eye contact.
A well-known study of information retention supports this picture of what happens:
immediately after a lecture, students were found to recall about 70% of the content
presented during the first ten minutes and 20% of the content of the last ten minutes
(Hartley and Davies, 1978).
When group exercises are interspersed throughout a lecture, the picture changes.
Once a class accustomed to group work gets going on a problem, the classroom
atmosphere changes: the leaden silence changes to a hum, then chatter, punctuated
by arguments and laughter.
47
Most students - even those not doing much talking - are engaged in thinking about
the question at hand instead of just mechanically transcribing notes from the
chalkboard. Even if some students refuse to participate, as they might, an active
involvement of 90-95% is clearly superior to the 5-10% or less that characterizes
most lectures.
Out-of-Class Exercises
Research and design projects, laboratory experiments, and homework problem sets
can all be effectively completed by teams of students. The teams may function as
formal cooperative learning groups, remaining together until the completion of an
assignment and then disbanding, or as cooperative base groups, remaining together
for an entire course or even longer (Johnson et al., 1991).
The periodic re-forming of formal cooperative learning groups exposes the students
to a larger variety of learning styles and problem-solving approaches than they
would see in base groups; the base groups tend to provide more assistance and
encouragement to their members. (A third category, informal cooperative learning
groups, refers to teams that come together and disperse within a single class period,
as in the exercises listed previously.)
Following are several suggestions for setting up Cooperative Learning groups and
structuring assignments: Give assignments to teams of three or four students. When
students work in pairs, one of them tends to dominate and there is usually no good
mechanism for resolving disputes, and in teams of five or more it becomes difficult to
keep everyone involved in the process.
Try to form groups that are heterogeneous in ability level. The drawbacks of a group
with only weak students are obvious, but having only strong students in a group is
equally undesirable.
First, the strong groups have an unfair advantage over other groups in the class.
Second, the team members tend to divide up the homework and communicate only
superficially with one another, omitting the dynamic interactions that lead to most of
the proven benefits of cooperative learning. In mixed ability groups, on the other
hand, the weaker students gain from seeing how better students study and approach
problems, and the stronger students gain a deeper understanding of the subject by
teaching it to others (a phenomenon familiar to every teacher).Assign team roles that
rotate with each assignment.
Johnson et al. (1991) suggest
(1) the coordinator (organizes assignment into subtasks, allocates responsibilities,
keeps group on task)
(2) the checker (monitors both the solutions and every team member's
comprehension of them)
(3) the recorder (checks for consensus, writes the final group solution). Heller et al.
(1992) propose
[4) the sceptic (plays devil's advocate, suggests alternative possibilities, keeps
group from leaping to premature conclusions). Only the names of the students
who actually participated should appear on the final product, with their team
roles for that assignment identified.
Promote positive interdependence.
All team members should feel that they have unique roles to play within the group
and that the task can only be completed successfully if all members do their parts.
Strategies to achieve this objective include the following:
Require a single group product
48
Assign rotating group roles
Give each member different critical resources, as in Jigsaw.
Select one member of each group to explain (in an oral report or a written test) both
the team's results and the methods used to achieve them, and give every team
member the grade earned by that individual. Avoid selecting the strongest students
in the groups.
Give bonuses on tests to groups for which the lowest team grade or the average team
grade exceeds a specified minimum. The last two strategies provide powerful
incentives for the stronger team members to make sure that the weaker ones
understand the assignment solution and the material to be covered on the test.
Promote individual accountability.
The most common way to achieve this goal is to give primarily individual tests;
another is the technique mentioned above of selecting an individual team member to
present or explain the team's results. Some authors suggest having each team
member rate everyone's effort as a percentage of the total team effort on an
assignment and using the results to identify non-contributors and possibly to adjust
individual assignment grades; others recommend against this procedure on the
grounds that it moves the team away from cooperation and back toward competition.
Have groups regularly assess their performance. Especially in early assignments, get
them to discuss what worked well, what difficulties arose, and what each member
could do to make things work better next time.
The conclusions should be handed in with the final group report or solution set, a
requirement that motivates the students to take the exercise more seriously than
they otherwise might.
Other ideas for effective group functioning.
Working effectively in teams is not something people are born knowing how to do, nor
is it a skill routinely taught in school. Quite the contrary, in fact: as Bellamy et al.
(1994) observe, working together in college courses is more likely to be regarded as
cheating and students are being punished rather than viewed positively and
encouraged.
The same authors note that "The traditional approach to team building in academics
is to put three to five students together and to let them 'work it out' on their way to
solving a problem. A better approach is to prepare the students with some
instructional elements that will generate an appreciation of what teaming (as
opposed to just working in groups) involves, and to foster the development of
interpersonal skills that aid in team building and performance."
Some elements of effective group functioning are relatively self-explanatory and
might be given to teams as a check list. These elements include showing up for
meetings on time, avoiding personal criticisms, making sure everyone gets a chance
to offer ideas, and giving those ideas serious consideration.
Other recommendations that can be made to homework teams working on
quantitative problems are:
Set up all assigned problems individually (no detailed mathematical or numerical
calculations), then meet as a group to put the complete solution set together. We tell
49
the students that if they simply parcel out the work, each of them will understand
their own part but not the others, and their lack of understanding will hurt them on
the individual tests.
On the other hand, if they only work as a complete group, certain quick-thinking
students will tend to begin every problem solution, which will put their team mates at
a disadvantage on the tests.
Don't allow a situation to develop in which one or two students work out all the
solutions and then quickly explain them to team mates who didn't really participate
in obtaining them.
If this happens no one is getting the full benefits of cooperative learning and the
explainers will probably crash and burn on the tests. (This message may not get
through to some students until after the first test.)
Don't put someone's name on the solution set if they did not participate in generating
the set, especially if it happens more than once. Provide assistance to teams having
difficulty working together.
Teams with problems should be invited or required to meet with the instructor to
discuss possible solutions. The instructor should facilitate the discussion and may
suggest alternatives but should not impose solutions on the team.
Don't reconstitute groups too often. A major goal of cooperative learning is to help
students expand their repertoire of problem-solving approaches, and a second goal
is to help them develop collaborative skills - leadership, decision-making,
communication, etc. These goals can only be achieved if students have enough time
to develop on the group dynamics, encountering and overcoming difficulties in
working together.
Cooperative groups should remain together for at least a month for the dynamic to
have a chance of developing.
Some Concerns regarding the feasibility of Co-operative Learning
If I spend all this time in class on group exercises, I'll never get through the syllabus
You don't have to spend that much time on in-class group work to be effective with it.
Simply take some of the questions you would normally ask the whole class in your
lecture and pose them to groups instead, giving them as little as 30 seconds to come
up with answers. One or two such exercises that take a total of five minutes can keep
a class relatively attentive for an entire 45-minute period.
On a broader note, covering the syllabus does not mean that teaching has been
successful: what matters is how much of the material covered was actually learned.
Students learn by doing, not by watching and listening.
Instead of presenting all the course material explicitly in lectures, try putting
explanatory paragraphs, diagrams, and detailed derivations in handouts, leaving
gaps to be filled in during class or by the students on their own time. (If you
announce that some of the gaps will be the subject of test questions and then keep
your promise, the students will read the handouts.)
50
You can then devote the hours of board-writing time you save to active learning
exercises, your classes will be livelier and will lead to more learning - and you will still
cover the syllabus.
If I don't lecture I'll lose control of the class.
That's one way to look at it. Another is that several times during a class period your
students may become heavily involved in discussing, problem solving, and
struggling to understand what you're trying to get them to learn, and you may have
to work for a few seconds to bring their attention back to you.
There are worse problems. This is always a danger, although students determined to
get a free ride will usually find a way, whether the assignments are done individually
or in groups. In fact, cooperative learning that includes provisions to assure
individual accountability cuts down on hitchhiking.
Students who don't actually participate in problem-solving will generally fail the
individual tests, especially if the assignments are challenging (as they always should
be if they are assigned to groups) and the tests truly reflect the skills involved in the
assignments. If the group work only counts for a fraction of the overall course grade
(say, 10-20%), hitchhikers can get high marks on the homework and still fail the
course.
A technique to assure active involvement by all team members is to call randomly on
individual students to present solutions to group problems, with everyone in the
group getting a grade based on the selected student's response. The technique is
particularly effective if the instructor tends to avoid calling on the best students, who
then make it their business to make sure that all their team mates understand the
solutions.
Another approach is to have all team members anonymously evaluate every
member's level of participation on an assignment (e.g. as a percentage of the total
team effort). These evaluations usually reveal hitchhikers. Students want to be nice
to one another and so they may agree to put names on assignments of team mates
who barely participated, but they are less likely to credit them with high levels of
participation.
This part of the article has been adapted from “Beating the
Numbers Game: Effective Teaching in Large Class” by Richard M.
Felder, Department of Chemical Engineering, North Carolina State
University, U.S.A.
51
Other Ideas
Put your policies and procedures for grading, attendance, late homework, missed
tests, etc., in writing, and hand them out on the first day. Making up the rules as you
go along is never a good idea, but it can be disastrous in a large class.
Learn as many of the students' names as you can. If you have 120 of them to deal
with, it may not be worth the effort to try learning them all.
Prepare handouts far enough ahead of time to make sure that they will be ready for
the class in which they will be used. Telling the office staff to make copies in bulk at
the last minute is not a good way to win friends and influence people.
After you have taught the course enough times to be comfortable with your lecture
notes, consider giving a condensed version of the matter to the class. Leave gaps in
the notes to be filled in during class or by the students in or out of class, sprinkle the
notes with questions about the contents, promise the students that some of the gaps
and questions will show up on the tests, and keep your promise. The students will
then actually read the notes. (Some of them will, anyway-at least after the first test.)
If you hand out notes, don't spend the lecture hours simply going over all the
explanations, for the students to follow along. You're guaranteed to put them to sleep
like that. Instead, use the time to go over the conceptually difficult points, provide
additional examples, fill in some of the gaps and answer some of the questions in the
notes, and carry out some of the active learning exercises described earlier.
Inform the students about the timings when you are free and hold to them, making it
clear to the students that you are not available as a round-the-clock consultant to
help them with homework problems (as opposed to real emergencies).
Setting your boundaries is always a good practice, but it may be critical to your
sanity if you have really large classes and a reputation for accessibility.
To minimize the number of times you have to answer the same questions, encourage
students to come to your table in groups and invite students waiting in the hall to
come in. Also encourage students to send questions via e-mail if you or your institute
uses one, and if you find yourself answering the same questions repeatedly, create a
frequently asked questions file with your responses and insert it in subsequent
replies.
52
TEACHER BURNOUT
Job burnout is a problem in many professions, but it is significantly more prevalent
in the helping professions. One important factor that contributes to teachers
abandoning the profession is teacher burnout. Burnout is a more serious problem to
the profession than job change or early retirement because it renders a teacher
unable to cope, although he or she remains in the classroom.
Job burnout has been defined as depletion of physical and emotional energies
accompanied by feelings of being overwhelmed and overloaded.
Job burnout is an occupational hazard and is generally characterized by:
some degree of physical and emotional exhaustion
·
socially dysfunctional behaviour, particularly a distancing and insulation
·
from individuals with whom one is working
psychological impairment - especially strong, negative feelings toward self and
·
others
Organizational inefficiency through decreased output and poor morale.
·
What Causes Burnout
Job burnout is a consequence of the perceived disparity between the demands of the
job and the resources (both material and emotional) that an employee has available
to him or her. When demands in the workplace are unusually high, it becomes
increasingly impossible to cope with the stress associated with these work demands.
Rather than having a single cause, burnout results from a combination of factors. It
is best understood by considering the individual, interpersonal, and organizational
factors that contribute to the condition. Recognizing the causes of burnout can itself
be a step in dealing with it.
A few of them are;
! Doing the same type of work with little variation, especially if this work seems
meaningless.
Lacking a sense of accomplishment and meaning in work
!
! Giving a great deal personally and not getting back much in the way of
appreciation, acknowledgement or other positive responses
! Being under constant and strong pressure to produce, perform, and meet
deadlines, many of which may be unrealistic
! Working with a difficult population, such as those who are highly resistant, or
who show very little progress
! Conflict and tension among staff; absence of support from colleagues and an
abundance of criticism
! Lack of trust between supervisor and workers, leading to conditions in which
they are working against each other instead of towards commonly valued goals
! Not having opportunities for personal expression or for taking initiative in trying
new approaches, a situation in which experimentation, change, and innovation are
not only unrewarded but also actively discouraged
! Facing unrealistic demands on your time and energy
! Having a job that is both personally and professionally taxing without much
opportunity for supervision, continuing education, or other forms of in-service
training
! Unresolved personal conflicts beyond the job situation, such as marital
tensions, chronic health problems, financial problems, and so on.
53
How does burnout manifest itself?
Physical signs:
! Feeling tired and exhausted during workday
! Sleep disorders
! Frequent colds and other infections
! Frequent headaches
! Frequent gastro-intestinal disturbances
! Frequent vague aches and pains
Behavioural signs:
! Frequent clockwatching
! Labelling students
! Working harder and getting less done
! Avoiding discussion of work with colleagues
! Use of harsh measures such as punishment to control students
! Excessive use of drugs and alcohol
! Marital and family conflict
! High absenteeism
! Irritability with students and colleagues
! Avoiding work responsibility (e.g., paperwork, meetings)
Psychological signs:
! Self preoccupation
! Feelings of failure, guilt and self blame
! Feeling powerless, discouraged and hopeless.
! Feelings of anger and resentment
! Feeling discouraged and indifferent
! Rigidity in thinking and resistance to change
! Suspiciousness and paranoia
! Feeling sad and anxious.
What can you do about burnout?
Overhaul your job. Make a list of routine or tedious tasks you do as part of your
!
job and come up with new and creative ways of tackling them Rather than relying
on safe and predictable methods you've always used, try something different. If
you're tired of giving lectures, consider using audio-visual aids of teaching If
you've been teaching First Year students for a while, consider trying your hand at
the Third Years. Sometimes teaching an older or younger group of students will
better fit your training, skills, and interests.
!
Challenge yourself to keep learning. Even if you're a veteran, there's always more
to learn about teaching. Identify an area, such as learning the practice of
mentoring etc that you'd like to learn more about, and seek out professional
development opportunities. Take a class, attend a conference, or organize a
workshop.
!
Collaborate with colleagues. If you resent or disregard suggestions from
colleagues on how to enhance your teaching, you may be cutting yourself off from
a valuable idea-sharing and support network. The more isolated you are, the
greater the risk that you'll become unsure about what you're doing, suspicious of
54
your co-workers, or short on new ideas. Colleagues can provide helpful feedback
and reassurance. Give yourself permission to be less than perfect.
!
Too many teachers believe that none of their successes count if they have one
failure. Accept that teaching is difficult and challenging. Pain and failure will
always be part of the profession, just as joy and success will be.
!
Keep in mind that you can only thrive if you give yourself room to make mistakes
and learn from them. Also, if you overdo, overachieve or push yourself or your
students too hard, your self-imposed pressures and demands will only stunt
your growth because you'll push yourself to exhaustion
!
Indulge in looking after yourself. As caretaker professionals, teachers often over
care for others and under care for themselves. Nurturing your students is
important, but you must first nurture yourself.
!
Self-preservation is an essential, healthy habit, so pay more attention to your
own needs and well-being. Conserve and replenish your emotional and
physiological resources - they're limited! Remember that you are not just a
teacher - you are a person who has chosen to be in the teaching profession.
Cultivate outside interests and hobbies.
!
Practice techniques for stress reduction. If you're feeling the strains of teaching,
practice strategies for relieving tension. Remember to carve out time to relax,
pursue your hobbies, and spend time with family and friends. If you feel like you
can't cope, consider seeing a trained counselor.
!
Realize that you can help students but you can't save them from society's ills. As
difficult as it may be to accept, you can't solve all of your student's problems - you
can't keep them from feeling the pain of divorce, economic hardship, and so on.
Teachers can, and should, give students room to feel, think, and bear
consequences, but they can't rescue students or fight their battles for them.
!
Examine other areas of education as natural extensions of teaching. Perhaps
taking more college courses would enable you to become a school psychologist,
diagnostician, staff development trainer, consultant, guidance counselor or
other staff support person. Teaching experience is often the best avenue to these
specialities. Think through your career goals. Is teaching still right for you?
Most teachers can probably think of a colleague who should have changed
careers a long time ago. Don't wait until you're completely disenchanted to
assess where you are going and whether it's time for a change in professions.
55
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