Culross Palace
Research Report
for
The National Trust for Scotland
November 2013
Daphné Kessissoglou
Architect, MSc Arch Cons
Culross Palace Research Report
Daphné Kessissoglou
Contents
Introduction
3
Historical background
5
Culross Palace
6
The roof finishes
10
Photographic archives, archaeological evidence and in situ observations
18
Conclusions
25
Index
27
Bibliography
29
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Introduction
In May 2013 Daphné Kessissoglou was commissioned by the National Trust
for Scotland to undertake a twelve-week research project on the roof finishes of
Culross Palace, Fife, as part of her Project Scotland placement1 as an Architectural
Researcher.
Earlier
research,
context and
justification
of the report
The research was preceded by a series of recent repair works for the North
Range of the Palace, including some removal of the existing external cement harling
and the application of a more appropriate, breathable lime harling. However, despite
the aforementioned repair works, there was still some concern over the moisture
introduced and retained within the fabric, due to the current eaves detailing on the
pantiled roof, which allows the water to run freely on the façade in the absence of any
rainwater goods. The issue could prove harmful to the internal timber structure and
painted paneling. It has been proposed that the introduction of a slate eaves detail, a
typical feature mainly in the architecture of coastal Fife today, or the replacement of
the entire pantile roof with slate would be an effective solution to this problem. At
that stage, further research into the original roof covering was considered to be
necessary2, before any alterations could be proposed.
Aims and
objectives
The current research aims to contribute to the aforementioned requirement by
providing a better understanding of Culross Palace, its history and development
through time. The findings are expected to shed some further light on what would be a
historically and technically appropriate roof for the Palace, taking into consideration,
among other factors, that the Palace, which is an A-listed, scheduled ancient
monument, is now restored by the National Trust for Scotland as a late sixteenth –
early seventeenth merchant’s house. Therefore the following areas will be
investigated: a. the history and development of Culross Palace and the wider area in
general, b. the history and use of pantiles in Scotland, and the nature of the links
between Scotland and the Low Countries at the time that Culross Palace was erected
and c. the roof finishes of similar high status houses, contemporary to the Palace, at
that time.
Research
methodology
Research will be based mainly on the study of existing archives, primary and
secondary literature and on evidence and careful observation through in-situ visits to
the Palace. In addition, a number of professionals involved in fields relevant to the
subject have been contacted and interviewed, thereby enhancing the research.
Limitations
The limited amount of time provided for the conduction of the present
research report allowed only for the investigation of easily accessible archival
material. Therefore apart from the National Trust for Scotland archives, available
materials have been studied at the National Library of Scotland, the National Archives
1
Voluntary position.
Historic Scotland’s Heritage Management Team on 27th June 2012, given the fact that Culross Palace
is a scheduled monument, any such alteration would require Schedule Monument Consent, and
therefore appropriate justification of any proposal would be necessary.
2
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Culross Palace Research Report
of Scotland, the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of
Scotland and various online databases. However, a brief investigation of the archives
held elsewhere, mainly the private collection of the Earl of Elgin could yield
considerable further evidence which would certainly benefit any further research.

Acknowledgements
The ongoing support and guidance offered by the manager of this project Dr
William Napier, Lead Surveyor at the National Trust for Scotland, throughout this
research has been invaluable and is highly appreciated. Ian Riches, Archivist at the
Trust, has helped me gain access to the Trust’s archive and rare material and his
cooperation is kindly acknowledged, as is Tim Thurston, Surveyor at the Trust, who
facilitated my second visit to the Palace and gave me permission to include one of his
photographs (figure n. 10) in this report. In addition, Stephen Copp, Project Manager
for the Trust’s Little Houses Improvement Scheme has provided me with a digital
copy of the NTS Culross site plan, which has been essential for the creation of the
map included in the index.
Furthermore, I would like to thank Geoffrey Stell, for his time, advice and
detailed analysis of the building’s roof when together we visited Culross Palace and
Dr Stuart Eydmann for sharing his knowledge, experience and invaluable literature
sources regarding pantiles and their history. Aonghus MacKechnie, Michael Pearce
and Dr John Lowrey have provided further information on various aspects of this
report. Lastly, the suggestions of James Simpson and Tom Addyman are kindly
acknowledged.

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Historical background
Culross: its history
Located in Fife, on the north shore of the Firth of Forth, Culross is a village
with a significant history lying behind its picturesque streetscape. Once a religious
centre3, it became an important trading point during the late sixteenth century, when
Sir George Bruce4,5, an innovative merchant from Carnock, started developing his
coal mining and salt panning industry in the area. Importantly, coal and salt were both
found in abundance in Culross6. It was during the same period that a local monopoly
in the manufacture of iron baking girdles7 was developed 8.
The prosperity of Culross at that time is also reflected in its designation as a
royal burgh in 15929. The town increased in size and became the second most
important in the county after the city of Perth10, developing strong trading connections
with other northern European countries. In fact, coal and salt production not only
served local needs, but was also exported to Scandinavia and mainly to the Low
Countries11. The trading relationship was especially strong between Culross and the
Dutch port of Veere12, which served as ‘the official Staple Port for Scottish trade in
the Netherlands’13 during the period 1541-1799.
However, the period of wealth did not last long. In March 1625 a severe storm
destroyed Bruce’s coal works, which were never restored thereafter. The lack of coal
affected the salt panning industry as well and the monopoly of girdle making ceased
in the mid-eighteenth century, due to the development of Carron Works in Falkirk,
where cheaper girdles could be produced. The decline in industrial activity in Culross
3
Culross is said to have been linked to the history of St Serf and St Mungo, the patron saint of
Glasgow, during the sixth century (Beveridge 1885, p. 45). Later on, in the early thirteenth century,
Culross Abbey was founded and a subsequent religious community was established by monks who
came from Kinross in Morayshire (ibid, p. 84).
4
He was knighted in 1610.
5
He is also referred to as Sir George Bruce of Carnock.
6
Coal was mined from local coal strata under the sea, and the smaller coals which couldn’t be sold
were used in the extraction of salt.
7
Meaning iron plates for baking oatmeal cakes on.
8
The monopoly (in fact the privileges) of girdle making was recognised by James VI in 1599
(Cunningham 1910, p.69).
9
Two different designation dates are given; both the National Trust for Scotland archives and J.
Gifford (in The buildings of Scotland: Fife, p. 43) mention the year 1592, whereas the Historic
Scotland listing for Culross Palace states that: ‘[...] getting James VI to grant Culross the royal burgh
status in 1588 [...]’. David Beveridge also places the date of the royal burgh status having been granted
in 1588 (p.117), and indicates that the Culross burgh records start from that date (p. 107). The date
1588 is further confirmed in the Old Statistical Accounts of Scotland 1791-99 (p. 136). The two dates
probably refer to the Old (Julian) and New Style (Gregorian) calendar.
10
Beveridge 1885, p. 135.
11
Trading relationships between Scotland and the Low Countries (and Flanders in particular) had been
already established since at least the end of the thirteenth century (Davidson and Gray 1909, p.113) and
Scottish merchants were further encouraged by the existence of various privileges (ibid., p. 117).
12
In the sixteenth century three towns were competing for the monopoly of the Scottish trade, Veere
(or Campvere), Middelburgh and Antwerp, with Veere becoming the Scottish Staple in 1541 (ibid., p.
146).
13
Stichting Veere-Schotland, ‘History of the Organization’, http://www.veere-schotland.nl/gb/Content/
History_Organization.shtml.
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and the subsequent relocation to neighbouring towns with better employment
prospects contributed significantly to a notable decline in Culross’s population during
the period 1755-179114.
The role of the
National Trust for
Scotland
In 1932 the National Trust for Scotland purchased Culross Palace. This was
the first property acquired by the Trust which during the twentieth century purchased
several other buildings in Culross15 as well. Along with the contribution of the wellknown conservation architect Ian Lindsay, the Trust managed to restore the village
and preserve it as a great example of a sixteenth and seventeenth century Scottish
burgh; indeed, a great part of Culross was designated a Conservation Area in 1971.
The regeneration of Culross was of great significance for the history of the Trust and
had a considerable impact on the place. Culross has been treated not as several
individual buildings but as a whole; and care has been taken so that a number of the
restored houses can serve the residential needs of the local community16.

Culross Palace
Concise building
description
Culross Palace (figures n. 1 and 2) is a late sixteenth/early seventeenth century
A-listed scheduled monument built for Sir George Bruce and is located in the
Sandhaven area, in the western part of Culross. It consists of two three-storey blocks
(or wings) which form an L shape17 around a courtyard situated at the southeast part
of the site, and a terraced garden on the north. The complex features external bright
ochre harling, pantile roofs, pedimented dormer windows and is well known for its
tempera-painted interior decorations18.
Building history
The west block bears the inscription ‘1597’ and is the older of the two
buildings. However, it seems that Bruce erected it upon the remains of an earlier
structure19, which he incorporated into the new building. Later on, in 161120, Bruce
had become wealthier, and he added the north block, which has also been built upon
an earlier structure21. Addyman suggests that the complex ‘probably consisted of a
smaller merchant’s house to the southwest (the later West Range) with associated
stables to the north (the later North Range) [...]’22.
14
Statistical Accounts of Scotland 1791-99 p. 138-9.
Such as the Study and the Town House.
16
These houses are being taken care of by the Trust’s Little Houses Improvement Scheme.
17
The West block is actually a U-plan building; however, the complex as a whole forms a rough L
shape.
18
A description of the decorations is given in A. Jervise’s ‘Poetical maxims from a painted room in the
old house as Culross, called ‘The Palace’, with notices of the building and its probable founder’.
19
Gifford 1988, p. 155.
20
The date is carved on one of the pedimented dormers.
21
MacGibbon and Ross 1887, p. 435 and Addyman 2013, p. 23.
22
Addyman 2103, p. 24.
15
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Fig. 1: Culross Palace, North Range. Copyright: Daphné Kessissoglou.
Fig. 2: Ground floor plan of Culross Palace by J. Hardie, 1904. Copyright: RCAHMS. The North Range has
been highlighted in red for the purposes of this report.
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After Sir George Bruce’s death the complex passed to his descendants, and in
the early eighteenth century it was purchased by Colonel John Erskine, who made
some alterations to the property. The last owner of the Palace was the 13th Earl of
Dundonald, who sold it to the National Trust for Scotland in 1932; the Palace had
already started to deteriorate, and by that time it was in a rather poor condition. It
seems23 that, although several families owned the Palace through the centuries, the
complex was not always regarded as a primary residence and that during the second
half of the nineteenth century no one lived in it24, while at some point it even served
as low cost/slum housing25. This must have had a negative impact on the state of the
buildings, which in 1926 were found to be in need of urgent and extensive repair
work26.
The repair works of the last eighty years are further explained in the diagram
of the next page (figure n. 3), along with a list of all the relevant reports and proposals
regarding the Palace site since its acquisition by the National Trust for Scotland in
1932, based on the information held at the NTS Archives. Apart from these, the
Palace, and more specifically the North Range, on the roof of which this research will
focus, has undergone several alterations since the sixteenth century. Addyman has
investigated, described and analysed these in detail in his Historical Building
Recording and Analytical Assessment report (2013).
Photographic archives also hold evidence regarding alterations on the Palace
façades. A series of photographs show remains of harling which was removed and
later reinstated, firstly in cement and more recently in lime, on a phased approach.
Similarly, sash and case windows were replaced with lead shuttered windows.

23
National Trust for Scotland archives, ‘Culross Palace Ownership’, letter of 17.2.1993 by S. Blackden.
MacGibbon and Ross 1887, p.435, Jervise 1859, p. 339 and letter by S. Blackden, dated Feb. 17 th,
1993.
25
According to Dr William Napier.
26
A letter dated May 25th. 1932 and sent from the Office of Works states that: ‘A report upon the Old
Palace, Culross, was prepared in 1926, on behalf of the owner, the Lord of Dundonald. It was then
estimated that the urgent and necessary work would involve an expenditure of £3000 [...]’. National
Trust for Scotland archives.
24
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Fig. 3: Diagram showing repair works, proposals and reports regarding Culross Palace since its acquisition by the
National Trust for Scotland in 1932. Copyright: Daphné Kessissoglou.
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The term ‘Palace’
Unlike his brother Edward Bruce27 who was well known at the Jacobean court
and a member of the English Privy Council28, Sir George Bruce’s fame must have
been mostly local. However, there is no doubt that Sir George Bruce was an
influential personality and a predominant figure in Culross. Besides, the designation
of Culross as a royal burgh was mainly attributable to Bruce’s close relation to the
King. The Palace therefore must have been a higher status residence where Bruce had
several times accommodated King James VI29. However, its name ‘Palace’ can be
somewhat misleading, as it was never a royal residence. The complex may have been
named ‘Palace’ due to the King’s visits there30 or due to a ‘misinterpretation of
wording in the title deeds’31 sometime during the nineteenth century. The complex is
also mentioned as ‘the Great Lodging’32, the ‘collier’s house’ and ‘the Colonel’s
Close’, named probably after the Colonel John Erskine of Carnock who later resided
in the building.
It should be clarified that, although never a royal residence, Culross Palace
must have been one of the most significant buildings of its time in Culross, second
only to Culross Abbey House, which was built for his brother Edward. Indeed,
Edward Bruce, was an important figure, reputable far beyond the burgh of Culross,
and his residence, which is also an A-listed monument, is noticeably different from
the rest of the buildings in Culross. It is not an example of vernacular architecture, as
is the Palace; the Abbey House is probably one of the earliest classical buildings in
Scotland, the austerity and symmetry of the design at the time revealing influence
from his owner’s connection to the high class society of the time. Besides, when John
Slezer published Theatrum Scotiae, where he included engravings depicting Scottish
city views and important individual buildings, he dedicated a separate engraving to
Culross Abbey House [photo].

Fig. 4: Culross
Abbey House.
Copyright:
www.geograph.org.
uk.
27
Or Lord Bruce of Kinloss.
Dunbar 1966, p. 53.
29
MacGibbon and Ross mention that ‘The favour with which James VI. regarded Lord Kinloss and his
brother, Sir George Bruce, as well as the convenient proximity to Dunfermline, must have frequently
led the monarch to Culross [...]’ (p. 140).
30
MacGibbon and Ross 1887, p.432.
31
Sked 2003, p. 5.
32
In the original title deeds (ibid., p. 5).
28
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The roof finishes
The roof of the North Range is currently covered in pantiles and, with the
exception of the north elevation, where a temporary gutter was introduced some years
ago, it is characterised by the absence of any rainwater goods, a traditional detail in
pantiled roofs33, 34. The rain water therefore drips from the lower eaves to the ground,
and at certain positions35 of the south elevation it runs on the harled façade leaving
linear dark stains, exacerbated by the dormers (figure n. 5). To what extent these
could contribute to moisture being trapped in the inner structure and have an impact
on the painted interiors is not known; indeed thermographic survey suggests that they
form a contributing factor. Further specialised tests on moisture levels would prove
helpful, before reliable conclusions can be drawn.
Fig. 5: The rain water leaves dark stains on the Palace façade. Copyright: Daphné Kessissoglou.
Given the importance of the Palace interiors, the introduction of a slates eave
(a common detail in pantile roofs) or even the replacement of the entire pantile roof
with slates has been an issue for consideration, as it would cast the water further away
from the wall face. However, before any alteration could be suggested, research
would be required in order to help define what would be a technically appropriate and
historically accurate roof finish for the scheduled monument. The following sections
33
Eydmann 2010, p. 145.
However, this detail may be observed in the case of other roof finishes as well.
35
This happens where the eaves are interrupted by the presence of the dormers.
34
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will examine archival, archaeological and comparative evidence, in an attempt to shed
some light on the matter.

Tiles and pantiles
in Scotland
The use of clay tiles for roofing purposes has a long history; in Europe,
terracotta tiles were used by ancient Greeks, and later by Romans, who introduced
them to England. Later on, during the thirteenth century, tiles were suggested by the
London Building Regulations of 121236 as appropriate roofing materials to be used
instead of thatch, for fire safety purposes37. A similar reference can be found in the
1621 and 1681 acts of the Scottish Parliament. Interestingly, in Rentale Dunkeldense
1505-151738 there is a reference to roof tile making by a potter in Dunkeld at that
time. The local availability of clay and wood or coal (for firing in lime kilns) therefore
could have made clay tile a relatively cheap roofing material at a time when
transportation of goods was still expensive and difficult.
Nevertheless, it seems that the use of tiles in the early seventeenth century was
not that popular in the case of royal buildings. In the index of the Account of the
Master of Works 1616-1649 only a few lines are dedicated to tile (tyld), which in most
cases is used for internal purposes. Conversely, an entire column of entries can be
found under the term slate (and more specifically roofing slate or skailie). There are
various references to roofing slates being carried to Stirling Palace, Holyrood Palace
and Falkland Castle, indicating that slate was a common roofing material for royal
residencies; their owners could certainly afford to pay for the slate, even in cases
where it had to be transported from elsewhere. If there was a tradition of roof tiling in
Scotland at this time, it appears that it was not adopted on the Royal Palaces.
Similarly, the Earl of Winton chose Caithness slates when several alterations
to his house (Winton House) in East Lothian took place in 162739. The Earl also had a
harbour at Port Seton and traded with the Low Countries, and, if pantiles were
imported in the early seventeenth century from there, as it has been assumed
regarding Culross Palace, then the Earl could have easily brought them for his house.
The choice of slate, however, must have been much more expensive, considering the
transportation difficulties of the time. It is worth mentioning that the alterations to
Winton House were made by William Wallace, the King’s Master Mason; this might
have had an impact on the choice of roof finishes chosen.

Pantiles seem to have appeared later in Scottish architecture, and, despite slate
being one of the most common Scottish roofing materials, they also hold a significant
36
Salzman 1952, p.229.
Eydmann 2010, p. 146.
38
Hannay 1915 p. 218.
39
Great Britain Historical Manuscripts Commission 1871, p. 199.
37
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role. They originally came from the Low Countries40, where they were manufactured
ever since the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries41, and they were introduced to
Scotland through the trading relationships between the two countries described in an
earlier section. Their importation, at least initially, from the Low Countries, explains
why they are a common feature mainly of East coast architecture.

It is not known exactly when the first pantiles were imported to Scotland 42. In
a letter dated January 1676, a Thomas Robertson in Edinburgh orders from a
merchant in Rotterdam some pantiles to be sent, among other commodities43;
therefore in the mid seventeenth century pantiles had already been introduced to
Scotland. It has been argued44 that initially pantiles were brought to Scotland as
ballast, so that the ships carrying coal to the Low Countries would return with cargo
and therefore would be more stable during their return journey. However, there is no
evidence supporting this view, and in the very few cases where pantiles were carried
as ballast, this would be clearly mentioned in the customs records45.
Pantiles were initially handmade, meaning that there were slight
variations in size, shape and colour, often depending on the aggregates of the raw
material (clay) and on the duration and temperature of the firing process. This
variation gave an interesting texture to the appearance of the roof, compared to the
uniformity of the later machine-made pantile roofs. However, handmade production
could also result in pantiles that would not interlock perfectly, which could make the
roofing more vulnerable to severe weather conditions.
A pantile roof is lighter than a slate one, their light weight allowing pantiles to
cover very steep roofs (and making them susceptible to prevailing winds as well).
Contrary to slates, they are not nailed on sarking, but simply laid on timber battens46
(sometimes above mortar parging), with sarking only applied in cases where further
protection from rain water was required. Stuart Eydmann gives a detailed description
of how a pantile roof is laid in his ‘Pantiles’ chapter, underlining that pantiles are laid
in vertical courses, whereas a slate roof is raised in horizontal courses47. This
verticality is a distinct aesthetic feature on a finished pantile roof.
40
The Low Countries were under Spanish control during the mid-sixteenth century, and the so called
Spanish tile used in Spain had an impact later on the development of the Dutch pantile (Dobson 1971,
pp. 10-12).
41
Eydmann 2010, p. 143.
42
Dutch pantiles had been imported to England since the sixteenth century and possibly even earlier
(Dobson 1971, p. 18).
43
National Records of Scotland, RH15/106/223.
44
Hannavy 2010, p.19.
45
Ibid.
46
A projecting nib at the top back helps pantiles being hanged on the battens.
47
Eydmann 2010, p.143.
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Fig. 6: The varied appearance of handmade pantiles in Culross. Copyright: Daphné
Kessissoglou.
Fig. 7: Machine-made pantile roof in Culross. Note the uniformity in appearance
compared to the roof shown in fig. 6. Copyright: Daphné Kessissoglou.
The slates eaves
detail
As previously mentioned, a typical pantile roof was characterised by the
absence of any rainwater goods. Appropriately shaped pantiles were set on the ridges,
above mortar and a mortar fillet would bridge the gap between the pantiles and the
masonry gable skew. Sometimes bellcast pantiles eaves were formed at the lower part.
In other cases a slates eave (three to five courses, in some cases even more) helped
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shedding the rain water. Eydmann suggests that ‘this may be an earlier thatching
practice’48 and gives evidence of structures whose original thatch roof had been partly
replaced by pantiles during the mid-nineteenth century, with thatch only remaining at
the ridge. A combination of thatch and pantile has been observed in some Dutch
buildings as well49.
Further research would be necessary before the period when the slates eaves
were established as a distinct architectural detail on the south coasts of Fife could be
estimated. Archive photographs dated from the late nineteenth century demonstrate
the widespread existence of slates eaves on pantiled roofs throughout Fife (in
Anstruther, Crail, Dysart, Pittenweem, Inverkeithing, Kirkcaldy, see figures n. 8, 9).
Today it is considered to be a traditional detail often adopted in new buildings in Fife,
in an attempt to somehow remind and underline a local character. It is also worth
mentioning that the House at West Green in Culross features slates eaves below its
pantile roof on the rear pitch50 (figure n. 10), although this is probably a contemporary
intervention.
Fig. 8: Houses in Crail featuring slates eaves in the 1950s. Copyright: The National Trust for Scotland.
48
Ibid., p.143.
Information based on personal interview with Stuart Eydmann.
50
This detail, accompanied by photographic evidence, was kindly brought to D. K.’s attention by Tim
Thurston.
49
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Fig. 9: Slates eaves at Pittenweem Town Hall. Copyright: The National Trust for Scotland.
Fig. 10: House at West Green in Culross featuring slates at the eaves below its pantile roof, on the rear
pitch. Copyright: Tim Thurston, NTS.
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
The first pantile roofs in Scotland appear to have been made for secondary
structures, such as coach houses and stables51. Pantiles have also been used on
industrial buildings, such as salt works, where a relatively cheap, heat- and humidityresistant roofing material was required. To what extent pantiles were used on highstatus houses, it is not known; however, it is possible that the Dutch influence,
particularly regarding architectural features and materials, might have tempted some
merchants to use pantiles on their own houses on the east coast. Besides, Dutch
architectural elements were often incorporated in Scottish buildings52. Interestingly,
the half-glazed windows with shutters at the lower part seen at Culross Palace
constitute a detail observed at both Dutch and Scottish town houses 53, and the
decorative theme of the tempera interiors has been inspired by Dutch decoration
books of the time.

Slezer’s engravings
When John Slezer54 published his series of engravings in Theatrum Scotiae (in
1693), he had visually recorded a large number of important Scottish buildings and
cities. One of his engravings depicts Culross viewed from the south shore of the Firth
of Forth (figure n. 11). It has been argued55 that, due to Slezer’s use of vertical
drawing lines on the buildings’ roofs, this is an indication that Culross buildings had
been pantiled at that time. Indeed, as it has already been explained in an earlier
section, pantiles on roofs form vertical lines, if observed from some distance.
However, Slezer’s engravings involve an artistic and abstract element, and therefore,
without further supporting evidence, no safe conclusions can be drawn on the matter.
Fig. 11: Detail of Culross as depicted in one of Slezer’s engravings, in Theatrum Scotiae. Copyright:
National Library of Scotland.
51
Eydmann 2010, p. 149.
Howard, 1992, pp. 36-38.
53
Apart from the Dutch impact, in this case other factors, such as glass being expensive at that time and
the Window Tax (imposed in Scotland by the end of the eighteenth century) should be taken into
account.
54
A military engineer who relocated to Scotland in the late seventeenth century.
55
By John Hannavy and others.
52
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
Photographic archives, archaeological evidence and in situ observations
Earlier photographs
The examination of old Culross Palace photographs indicates a gradual
replacement of slates with pantiles since the late nineteenth century. In some of the
earliest photographs (c. 1888) depicting the North Range, a significant part of the
south pitch is slated (figure n. 12), with slates covering the entire height around the
dormers, however not in an entirely regular pattern. In another photograph of the
same time (figure n. 13), a mix of slates and pantiles is shown on the north pitch,
while one of the dormers has been removed and a pantile patching has taken its place.
This view clearly indicates an effort to patch in general a slate roof with pantiles of
different sizes. The roof and indeed the whole of the building seem in a notably poor
condition, a fact further confirmed by A. Jervise56 as well as MacGibbon and Ross,
who mention that it ‘[...] is rapidly going to decay. The roofs are fast falling in [...]’ 57.
The patching therefore must have been an easy, cheap and quick solution to cover the
areas where old slate had to be urgently replaced. It was at a time when the Palace
was no longer inhabited, as has been stated in a previous section.
Fig. 12: Photograph of Culross Palace by Erskine Beveridge, c. 1882-1896. Note the slates eaves on the
south façade of the North Range. Copyright: RCAHMS.
56
57
Jervise 1859, p. 339.
MacGibbon and Ross 1887, p. 435.
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Fig. 13: Photograph of Culross Palace by Erskine Beveridge, c. 1883. Mix of pantiles and slates on the roof,
while one of the dormers has been removed. Copyright: RCAHMS.
Fig. 14: Detail drawings by J. Hardie, made in 1914. Note the slates courses at the eaves in the upper
drawings. Copyright: RCAHMS.
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A series of record drawings dated 191458 (figure n. 14) indicates slates courses
used at the lower part of the West Range roof around the dormers. However, the
drawings of the North Range dormers feature pantiles at the lower courses, indicating
a replacement of the earlier slates course. Based on these drawings, Addyman
suggests that a repair scheme might have taken place at that time. Presumably, by the
time the Palace came to be re-roofed, pantile, now being the prominent material, was
chosen in preference to slate.

Archaeological
evidence from
earlier reports
Whereas the above photographs show a gradual replacement of slate with
pantiles, they cannot provide a clear idea of what the roofing finish before that time
might have been. Addyman’s recent report states that, despite their careful
examination of small openings of the roof, no evidence indicating earlier roof finishes
could be traced, and that only recent repair works (of the late twentieth century) were
visible.
It has been argued that an excavation within the Palace courtyard could
identify the original roof finish of the building. Such has been the case of the
Queensberry House, where traces of slate chipping activity in the courtyard
underground (supported by strong written evidence in existing literary sources) have
revealed that the roof of the building was originally covered in slate.
In the 1990s59 a series of excavations at the Palace and its courtyard was
undertaken by Scotia Archaeology Ltd on behalf of the National Trust for Scotland.
The purpose of the excavation works was the examination and assessment of any
structures of archaeological interest that may have existed both in the main and the
inner courtyards. The findings of the excavation report include, among others,
evidence (structures) dated even before Bruce erected the West Range. However,
there is no reference to traces of slate on site.

In situ
observations
In situ inspection of the Palace took place long after the early 2013 repair
works; the openings on the roof had been sealed again and the scaffolding had been
removed. Therefore any observations mentioned in this report were made based on
what was clearly visible at that stage, both from the exterior and the interior.
Variations in the pantiles’ shape suggest that they have probably been
salvaged and re-used, but it could not be established at that time where they had been
obtained from. Besides, there are references in the National Trust for Scotland
archives regarding the storage of salvaged pantiles at Bessie’s Bar for future use60
during the nineteenth century repair works. The level of the roof finish at the gable
58
RCHAMS archives.
The main excavation works took place within the period 1994-1995.
60
Not necessarily at the Palace roof.
59
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Daphné Kessissoglou
skews in relation to the crow steps cannot exclude the possibility of earlier thatching;
however it seems unlikely that this building was thatched in the past.
As can be seen at the West Range, where the roof structure (rafters etc.) is
visible from the inside, the pantiles are laid on battens (figure n. 15), a typical feature
of a pantiled roof. The North Range roof structure is hidden behind the painted timber
panels of the upper floor; however, part of it is exposed at the sides of a dormer
window viewing at the back of the property (to the raised gardens). This building’s
roof features sarking instead of battens (figure n. 16), and it could be argued that this
is a detail more commonly found in slate roofs; although sarking could be used below
pantiles as well for waterproofing purposes61 (in this case in order to protect the
painted interiors). It should be underlined here that most of the roof structure (rafters,
sarking, battens etc.) was replaced during the extensive nineteenth century repair
works, and therefore what is visible today is of a recent past. It is not suggested that
the repair works introduced sarking instead of battens or vice versa; no indication for
such a significant alteration has been found; nevertheless it is essential to realize that
during the repairs a considerable part of evidence regarding previous roof finishes was
removed.
Fig. 15: Roof detail at the West Range. The pantiles are laid on battens. Copyright: Daphné Kessissoglou.
61
Eydmann 2010, p. 145.
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Fig. 16: Roof detail at the North Range Range, featuring sarking. Copyright: Daphné Kessissoglou.

Comparative
evidence
Apart from Culross Palace, it would be helpful to examine contemporary
(sixteenth/seventeenth century) buildings on the East coast, erected for other
merchants who traded with the Low Countries or the Hanseatic ports in general. For
example Lamb’s House (figure n. 17), a former National Trust for Scotland property
at Leith62 built for a merchant during approximately the same period, has a similarly
steep pitch featuring pantiles63 simply laid on battens (without being nailed) and is
harled.
In the case of Sailors’ Walk in Kirkcaldy, another National Trust for Scotland
property, the previously slated roofs were pantiled during later alteration works.
Today the A-listed scheduled monument is pantiled and harled. Another interesting
burgess house of that period is Law’s Close in Kirkcaldy, which bears similarities to
Sailors’ Walk. Its interior is decorated with painted ceilings and panelling and is
comparable to Culross Palace interior; externally it is harled and roofed in slate.
While some of these merchants’ residences had been previously slated, as
revealed in earlier photographic archives and literature sources, pantiles seem to have
been considered an appropriate replacement during later repair works. The choice of
material may indicate a necessity of the time for an economical and easily available
62
The property underwent a restoration scheme when it was purchased by Groves Raines Architects in
2010.
63
These were also present in early twentieth-century photographs at RCAHMS.
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Daphné Kessissoglou
roof patching solution. In fact, pantiles have also been used in the past for roofing or
patching purposes in buildings on the Royal Mile in Edinburgh.
Fig. 17: Lamb’s House, Leith. Copyright: RCAHMS.
Fig. 18: General view of Lawnmarket, Edinburgh, looking towards the Castle. Note the pantiled
roofs on the top left side. Copyright: RCAHMS.
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There seems to be a perception of pantiles roofing primarily secondary
structures and less significant buildings; it is noteworthy that during the 1960
redevelopment scheme in Linlithgow, it was the pantiled buildings that were
considered to be less important and therefore most were demolished64. Nonetheless,
pantiled roofs and their aesthetic qualities have been closely linked to the architecture
of the East coast, and have been favoured by several architects, who have either used
them in contemporary or pre-existing buildings which were re-roofed during repair
works. In the later case, this has happened primarily in lower status buildings;
nevertheless, there is at least one higher status building, Queensberry House, which
has been pantiled as well during a relatively recent restoration scheme.
The case of
Queensberry House
Queensberry House was restored as part of the Scottish Parliament complex
which was built by Enric Miralles in Edinburgh during the period 1999-2004. It is an
A-listed, seventeenth century building purchased in 1686 by the 1st Duke of
Queensberry, in order to serve as his Edinburgh residence. The recent restoration
scheme was preceded by ten years of research65 conducted by Dr John Lowrey and
others, during which all the existing archival material and archaeological evidence
was examined. The research included the investigation of roofing materials, and it
was confirmed, both by literature and by archaeological findings (evidence of slate)
that the building was originally roofed in slate. However, it was decided that pantiles
should cover the restored roof instead of slate.

Fig. 19: Queensberry House, after its restoration. Copyright: RCAHMS.
64
Stuart Eydmann kindly pointed this out during an interview, based on his invaluable first-hand
experience during his work at the West Lothian Council.
65
A detailed research report was also produced.
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Conclusions
The Palace is a significant monument, not only because it is a late sixteenthearly seventeenth century merchant’s house, but also because: a. it was once the
residence of George Bruce, the driving force behind Culross’s prosperity, and b. it is
part of a relatively rare case of a former Scottish burgh which has remained almost
intact through the years until the present day. While Culross Abbey House must have
been the most imposing residence in Culross when it was built66, the Palace must have
been a high-status building as well, albeit never a royal residence.
Recommendations
for future research
The repair works during the late twentieth century have probably erased most
evidence of earlier roof finishes at the Palace; however, further investigation at and
below the present roof structure would be necessary before excluding the chance of
discovering any remaining data. Furthermore, as was stated in the introduction, the
restricted time of this research did not permit the consultation of private archives.
These archives, held by the Earl of Elgin, might also reveal further useful information
and therefore their in-depth study is recommended. Lastly, further research on other
similar and contemporary to the Palace properties would also be useful.

Based on the evidence available thus far, no definite answer may be given
regarding the original roof finish of Culross Palace. On the one hand, pantiles have
certainly survived on the Palace roof for a considerable period (approximately 130
years), and Stuart Eydmann has proved that pantiles from the Low Countries were
imported as a considerable commodity and not as cheap ballast, contrary to a
commonly believed myth. Besides, George Bruce retained strong trading links with
the Low Countries, and could easily import large quantities of pantiles by sea, while
his residence certainly incorporates features of Dutch influence.
On the other hand, during the time when Culross Palace was built, slate had
reportedly been the roof finish covering high status houses. In addition, as seen from
the RCAHMS photographic archives, during the late nineteenth century parts of the
roof were slated, and this would suggest that those had later been gradually replaced
by pantiles. As has already been explained in a previous section, pantiles offered a
quick, readily available method of roof patching, and these patches probably reflect
the poor condition of the Palace in general at that time. If, however, slate covered the
roof from the beginning, as has happened to other merchants’ houses of the time, or a
different roofing material pre-existed, it is difficult to determine based on the up-todate evidence.
Slates could possibly have been the original roofing finish at the Palace. If this
is the case, then the current pantile roof raises a consistency issue. The Palace has
66
It was built a few years later than the Palace’s West Range, in 1608.
25
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Culross Palace Research Report
been restored and is today presented as a seventeenth-century residence; this has been
the philosophy behind the restoration of its painted interiors and the reconstruction of
its flower garden. Therefore the (later) pantiles would seem inconsistent with the
overall restored appearance of the monument, and the matter should be taken into
consideration in future restoration/repair proposals.
However, the existing pantiles have already survived on the Palace roof for
130 years, and are now part of the building’s history. At the same time, the perception
of Culross Palace has been linked with the aesthetics and architecture of the pantiled,
lime harled streetscape of coastal Fife. Future replacement of pantiles with slate, as
part of a restoration scheme, would certainly erase a part of the building’s history,
although slates might offer better protection to the façade and structure from the rain
water. In any case, they would constitute a notable contradiction to the wellestablished perception both of the building and the streetscape.

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Daphné Kessissoglou
Index: Map showing the current roof finishes in Culross
27
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Daphné Kessissoglou
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