Thank you for taking the time to download our Middle School Vocabulary Digital Kit. Enclosed in this kit are the following materials: -­‐ The Value of Direct and Systematic Vocabulary Instruction -­‐ Professional Development: Intentional Vocabulary Instruction in the Middle Grades -­‐ Vocabulary Word List (Grades 6-­‐8) -­‐ Vocabulary Graphic Organizers for Students § Concept Circle § Word Square § Word Web We hope you save time with these vocabulary resources! -­‐-­‐Sadlier PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SERIES
Volume 7
The Value of
Direct and Systematic
Vocabulary Instruction
by
Jerome Shostak
A
lthough independent reading plays a critical role in the acquisition
of new vocabulary, the vocabulary growth needed for successful reading
comprehension should be the result of systematic, direct instruction, and not left
to incidental learning alone. Teachers can encourage and facilitate vocabulary
acquisition by helping students learn strategies for determining the meaning of
words independently, by teaching specific words directly, and by playing an
active, directed role in the process.
According to its assessment of the
research literature on reading
instruction, the National Reading
Panel has affirmed that the most
effective teaching does not depend on
a single vocabulary instruction method
(Report of the National Reading Panel,
April, 2000). Instead, the teaching of
vocabulary should be systematic,
repetitive, and eclectic. In introducing
new words, teachers should be guided
by three principles that Stahl (1986)
recommends and that other research
supports: (1) use both a definitional
and a contextual approach, (2) strive
for "deep processing," and (3) provide
multiple exposures (Baumann and
Kameenui, 1991).
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new meaning (Nagy, 1988) and making the
word both "more explicit and employable" and
fully conceptualized (Baker, Simmons, and
Kameenui, 1995a). It means, according to
Baumann and Kameenui (1991), being able to
identify a synonym for a word, to generate an
oral definition, to place a word within a
semantic category, to discriminate between a
word’s denotative and connotative meanings,
to express the obvious and subtle differences in
meanings among a set of synonyms, and to use
a word sensibly in an oral or written context.
How Do Students Learn New Words?
We know that students in grades 3 through
12 are likely to learn about 3000 new words
each year (Nagy and Anderson, 1984; Nagy
and Herman, 1987). And, as Nagy, Herman,
and Anderson (1985) point out, this "massive
vocabulary growth seems to occur without
much help from teachers." In other words,
students acquire new vocabulary incidentally
and from several sources. They learn new
words from talking to friends and family
members, from listening to CDs and to the
radio, from watching movies and television
programs, and, most importantly, from their
reading. In fact, research shows that reading
is the single most significant factor in the
acquisition of new vocabulary (Anderson and
Nagy, 1991; Baumann and Kameenui, 1991).
But independent reading alone is not enough
to provide the kind of vocabulary growth and
development students need not only to be
able to communicate successfully, but also to
succeed academically and to perform well on
standardized tests. According to Chaffin
(1997) and Zechmeister, Chronis, Cull,
D’Anna, and Healy (1995), research has
shown that although reading is essential for
vocabulary growth and development, it is not
sufficient for most students because the
meanings they take away from their readings
will not be deep and enduring; nor does it
help them gain strategies for becoming
independent word learners.
Researchers agree that although reading
is indeed important, to achieve deeper, richer
levels of lasting vocabulary understanding,
direct instruction is more effective and more
efficient than incidental learning (McKeown
and Beck, 1988). Planned vocabulary
instruction in specific words is what is
needed, including specialized vocabulary
instruction in the content areas (Baker,
Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995b).
Research tells us that for students who are well
past the beginning stages of reading, learning
new words fully and deeply means much more
than simply recognizing those that are already
part of their oral vocabulary. For these
students, learning a word means acquiring a
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(Nagy, 1988). Nagy goes on to explain that
although definitions can play a key role in
vocabulary instruction, by themselves they
tell little about how a word is actually used.
He points out that given only a definition of a
word, students may have difficulty using it
meaningfully in a sentence. The definitional
approach is effective only when a limited
knowledge of new vocabulary is desired
(Beck, McKeown and Omanson, 1987).
What Kind of Direct Vocabulary
Instruction Works Best?
Traditional vocabulary teaching can be
categorized as following two general
approaches: definitional and contextual. Using
the definitional method, teachers have
students look up words in a dictionary, write
down and/or memorize definitions, use the
words in sentences, find synonyms, and then
complete worksheets or take quizzes. There are
some undeniable advantages to this approach.
For one thing, from dictionary definitions
students can gain a specific meaning of a word
they come across in their reading. For another,
they can gain key and interesting information
about the history of the word. Thirdly, they
can gain a better understanding of interrelated
words in word families. And, in addition, by
combing through dictionaries and all the
information they provide, students can gain a
better appreciation of language.
Examine the entry to the right for the word
allocate. It is not of the dictionary type, but
has unmistakable advantages. The definition
is brief and simple and designed for
maximum usefulness. Its intent is to give
students a good idea of what the word
means without extensive detail or secondary
connotations. Notice that the entry also
includes the word’s part of speech, its
pronunciation, an illustrative sentence
providing a context that clarifies and
exemplifies its meaning, and a list of
synonyms and antonyms.
Vocabulary Workshop ©2002, Level E (10)
In the contextual approach, teachers ask
students to infer the meaning of a word by
scrutinizing semantic, syntactic cues in a
sentence or group of words containing that
word, or by examining typographic clues
from charts, graphs, pictures and the like.
This approach also can be useful, but it
Although the definitional approach can
be both useful and necessary, learning
definitions alone can "lead to a relatively
superficial level of word knowledge [and] does
not reliably improve reading comprehension"
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should be noted that context clues alone may
provide only a partial meaning of a word and
occasionally may even be misleading (Nagy,
1988; Beck, McKeown and McCaslin, 1983).
One way, according to Stahl (1985, 1986)
and others, to make the contextual approach
more effective in helping the reader to
understand the meaning of a new word is to
imbed it within a rich context of supportive
and indicative information.
Both the definitional and contextual
approaches fit in an effective vocabulary
program (Stahl and Fairbanks, 1986).
However, the approach to vocabulary
instruction that researchers have identified
as being the most successful in providing
students with fuller, richer word knowledge
and increasing their reading comprehension,
is an eclectic, systematic one that not only
involves both of these approaches, but also
contains three distinct elements: integration,
repetition, and meaningful use (Nagy, 1988).
Look at the following contextual analysis
activity for the previously introduced word
sophomoric. In this completing-the-sentence
activity, the student is asked to write the
word that logically and meaningfully fits in
a given sentence. Notice the clues given for
choosing the right word and that the focus is
on the literal meaning of the word.
By integration, researchers mean that in
order for learning to occur, new information
must be integrated with and be built upon
what the student already knows (Christen and
Murphy, 1991). In other words, instruction
should guide students to use words and ideas
they already know to help them associate
meaning with words they do not know. One
teaching technique that supports this strategy
of drawing on students’ prior knowledge is to
have them complete a semantic map, a visual
tool that helps to make relationships among
words more clear. The one shown to the right
is for the word adversary.
Vocabulary Workshop ©2002, Level E (10)
4
Copyright © by William H. Sadlier, Inc. Permission to duplicate for classroom use granted by the publisher.
SADLIER-OXFORD SEMANTIC MAP BLACKLINE MASTER
Copyright © by William H. Sadlier, Inc. Permission to duplicate for classroom use granted by the publisher.
SADLIER-OXFORD SEMANTIC MAP BLACKLINE MASTER
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choose, from among two or more taught
meanings of a word, the only one that the
specific context will reasonably allow. (Note
that activities like this one give students
practice in the kind of skill assessed in the
critical reading section of the SAT I.)
Repetition is a second key quality of
instruction. Research shows that repeated
encounters with new words are essential if
vocabulary instruction is to have a
measurable impact on reading
comprehension (Stahl and Fairbanks, 1986;
McKeown, Beck, Omanson and Pople,
1985). But how do you create an
instructional program that provides
multiple exposures, that is not dull, and
that enriches students’ understanding of
new vocabulary? For that, we turn to the
third quality of a successful program.
Instructional activities that focus on
meaningful use stem from the idea that
students will learn more when they are
actively involved in the assignment and when
the task is similar to one they would
ordinarily encounter in the course of speaking,
writing, and reading. Additionally—and what
is perhaps more important—the research
indicates that when students are called upon
to process information more deeply, and to
make inferences based on that information,
they will be more likely to retain the
information (Nagy, 1988).
Teachers can use a number of instructional
tasks that require students to process new
words more thoroughly and to think
critically about them. For example, choose-theright-word and sentence-completion activities
need not include only those that involve
literal or direct meanings of the words; they
can also focus on sentences or passages in
which the words covered are used in a more
figurative, extended, or abstract way. Other
activities, such as the one shown to the right,
may challenge students to use their usagediscrimination and critical-thinking skills to
Vocabulary Workshop ©2002, Level E (10)
Similarly, synonym/antonym exercises need
not only reinforce meanings; they can also
provide students with further examples of
usage and context. Word-association
activities can both reinforce and extend
meanings through examples, situations,
and allusions. Finally, analogy activities
provide a useful way of investigating and
discussing relationships among meanings
of words. They serve as a means of pinning
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down the precise meanings of words and of
correcting misconceptions or uncertainties
about how these words are used. Analogies
deserve special attention in that they
provide an excellent means for testing and
refining the critical-thinking skills needed
for success on standardized tests and in
college. Furthermore, words that receive
the attention necessary to complete an
analogy successfully are more likely to
become part of the student’s active
everyday vocabulary.
derivatives of words they already know.
Accordingly, effective vocabulary teaching
should include direct instruction in prefixes,
suffixes, and roots.
The following activity is an example of one
that practices the strategy of focusing on
morphemic elements. Using the previously
introduced word demise, it introduces students
to English words derived from common Latin
stems mis, miss, mit—to send.
In short, successful vocabulary teaching
calls for a multi-faceted approach featuring
both definitional and contextual
instruction. That instruction should be
supported by and include a variety of
activities that provide multiple exposures
of and practice with the new words in a
meaningful way and in a way that draws
upon students’ prior knowledge and upon
what they may already know about the
word. But there is still more that a teacher
can do to provide a comprehensive
approach to vocabulary acquisition.
What Other Components Enrich
Vocabulary Instruction?
Another important way to learn new vocabulary
is to use morphological knowledge. This is
a key strategy that focuses on the structure
of a word, its parts. These parts, called
morphemes, include prefixes, suffixes, and
roots. According to Aronoff (1994), new
vocabulary acquisition can be facilitated for
middle school and high school students with
a good understanding of word structure,
because many of the new words they are
likely to come across in their reading will be
Vocabulary Workshop ©2002, Level E (10)
A good understanding of morphology,
together with an ability to use definitional
and contextual clues, provides a powerful
combination that will help students uncover
the precise meaning of words they
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encounter in direct instruction or in their
reading. A firm command of morphology
helps students become not only better
readers but better writers, too. It also helps
them to use words sensibly when speaking.
independent vocabulary acquisition. Focus
instruction both on "specific words and
transferable and generalizable strategies"
(Baumann and Kameenui, 1991).
• Foster an environment that promotes
word play and a genuine interest in and
enthusiasm for words; encourage students
to share new words learned inside and
outside of school.
What Is the Role of the Teacher in
Vocabulary Instruction?
It’s critical. In her book The Academic
Achievement Challenge: What Really Works in
the Classroom, Jeanne Chall (2000) argues for
the importance of the role that a teacher can
play in promoting vocabulary development.
She argues for a teacher-centered,
curriculum-centered approach.
• Guide students to use context clues and
morphological clues like familiar prefixes,
suffixes, and roots; and also encourage them
to use the dictionary as a way to understand
the precise meaning of words. Invite them
to share findings about where words have
come from and how they have evolved.
There is much that teachers can do to enrich
vocabulary instruction. Here are some useful
classroom techniques:
• Establish what students already know
about a word through discussion; it is a
powerful tool to "engage students in
exploration and development of new word
meanings" (Stahl and Vancil, 1986).
• Establish vocabulary learning objectives for
your students, including those that strive for
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• Provide students with multiple
opportunities and many different ways to
demonstrate their knowledge of new
words. For instance, do not hesitate to
engage them in word games, board
games, and puzzles.
acquisition as assessed in first grade is a far
better predictor than reading mechanics is of
reading comprehension in grade 11.
Having a strong vocabulary is of particular
importance to students in that it contributes
significantly to achievement both in the
subjects of their school curriculum and also
on standardized tests. When students
combine their growing knowledge of word
meanings with their increasing
understanding of language structure and
their developing knowledge of the world,
they can flesh out strategies that help them
make meaning of what they read in a variety
of texts. Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui
(1995b) have called a strong vocabulary
"crucial to academic development."
Increasing their word knowledge is a basic
part of students’ learning process.
• When students write, encourage them to
use new words as frequently and as
appropriately as possible. Discuss ways in
which word choice affects their writing.
• Have students keep notebooks in which
they record interesting new words they
have come across in their reading and
through other avenues.
• Frequently evaluate your vocabularylearning goals and the techniques and
procedures you use; adjust your
objectives as needed.
• Lastly, be sure to provide extensive
opportunities for reading; encourage
independent reading as a regular part of
every day, not only every school day.
How important is vocabulary growth? Put
simply, a strong vocabulary improves one’s
ability to learn; a weak one hinders that ability.
How Important Is Vocabulary Instruction?
About the Author
Word knowledge is essential to reading
comprehension; several studies have shown
this strong correlation, among them Baker et
al. (1995) and Nagy (1998). In fact, research
has shown conclusively that a reader’s
vocabulary knowledge is the best indicator of
how well that reader will understand what he
or she reads (Anderson and Freebody, 1981).
In his 1977 study, Becker showed the direct
link between vocabulary deficiencies and
academic achievement in his study of
disadvantaged children in grades 3 through
12. Furthermore, Cunningham and Stanovich
(1997) have reported that vocabulary
Jerome Shostak was an English teacher for 37 years
in the New York City public school system, where he
also served as a grade adviser, college adviser, and
certified guidance counselor. He was twice chosen
Teacher of the Year. Mr. Shostak has been a lecturer
in adult education programs for more than 25 years,
as well as an instructor at Brooklyn College (NY) and
at Palm Beach Community College (FL).
In addition to the Vocabulary Workshop program,
Mr. Shostak has also written a number of other books
for Sadlier-Oxford and for other K-12 school publishers.
10
Allen, J. (1999). Words, Words, Words. York, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
Cunningham, A. E. & Stanovich, K. E. (1997). "Early Reading
Acquisition and Its Relation to Reading Experience and Ability
10 Years Later." Developmental Psychology, 33, 934–945.
Anderson, R. C. & Freebody, P. (1981). "Vocabulary Knowledge."
In J. T. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and Teaching. Newark, DE:
International Reading Association, 77–117.
Drum, P. A. & Konopak, B. C. (1987). "Learning Word Meanings
from Written Context." In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis
(Eds.), The Nature of Vocabulary Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum, 73–87.
Anderson, R. C. & Nagy, W. E. (1991). "Word Meanings." In R.
Barr, M. Kamil, P. Monsenthal, and D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook
of Reading Research, Vol. 2. New York: Longman, 690–724.
Duin, A. H. & Graves, M. F. (1987). "Intensive Vocabulary
Instruction as a Prewriting Technique." Reading and Research
Quarterly, 22, 311–330.
Aronoff, M. (1994). "Morphology." In A. C. Purves, L. Papa, & S.
Jordan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of English Studies and Language Arts,
Vol. 2. New York: Scholastic, 820–821.
Jenkins, J. R., Stein, M. L., & Wysocki, K. (1984). "Learning
Vocabulary Through Reading." American Educational Research
Journal, 21, 767–787.
Baker, S. K., Simmons, D. C., & Kameenui, E. J. (1995a).
Vocabulary Acquisition: Curricular and Instructional Implications for
Diverse Learners. Technical Report No. 13. University of Oregon:
National Center to Improve the Tools for Educators. (1995b).
Vocabulary Acquisition: Synthesis of the Research. Technical Report No.
13. University of Oregon: National Center to Improve the Tools
for Educators.
Manzo, A. & Sherk, J. (1972). "Some Generalizations and
Strategies to Guide Vocabulary Acquisition." Journal of Reading
Behavior, 4, 78–89.
References
McKeown, M. G. (1985). "The Acquisition of Word Meaning from
Context by Children of High and Low Ability." Reading and
Research Quarterly, 20, 482–496.
McKeown, M. G. & Beck, I. L. (1988). "Learning Vocabulary:
Different Ways for Different Goals." Remedial and Special
Education, 9, 42–46.
Baumann, J. & Kameenui, E. J. (1991). "Research on Vocabulary
Instruction: Ode to Voltaire." In J. Flood, J. Jensen, D. Lapp, &
J. R. Squire (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teaching the English
Language Arts. New York: Macmillan, 604–632.
McKeown, M. G., Beck, I. L., Omanson, R., & Pople, M. T.
(1985). "Some Effects of the Nature and Frequency of Vocabulary
Instruction on the Knowledge and Use of Words." Reading and
Research Quarterly, 20, 522–535.
Beck, I. L., McCaslin, E. S., & McKeown, M. G. (1980). The
Rationale and Design of a Program to Teach Vocabulary to Fourth
Grade Students. (LRDC Publication 1980/25). Pittsburgh:
University of Pittsburgh, Learning Research and
Development Center.
Nagy, W. E. (1988). Teaching Vocabulary to Improve Reading
Comprehension. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & McCaslin, E. S. (1983).
"Vocabulary Development: All Contexts are Not Created Equal."
Elementary School Journal, 83, 177–181.
Nagy, W. E. & Anderson, R. C. (1984). "How Many Words Are
There in Printed School English?" Reading Research Quarterly,
19, 303–330.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Omanson, R. C. (1984, April).
The Fertility of Some Types of Vocabulary Instruction. Paper presented
at the meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, New Orleans.
Nagy, W. E., Anderson, R. C., & Herman, P. A. (1987). "Learning
Word Meanings from Context During Normal Reading."
American Educational Research Journal, 24, 237–270.
Nagy, W. E. & Herman, P. A. (1987). "Breadth and Depth of
Vocabulary Knowledge: Implications for Acquisition and
Instruction." In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The Nature
of Vocabulary Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 19–35.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Omanson, R. C. (1987). "The
Effects and Uses of Diverse Vocabulary Instruction Techniques."
In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The Nature of
Vocabulary Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 147–163.
National Council of Teachers of English and the International
Reading Association. (1996). Standards for the English Language
Arts. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Becker, W. C. (1977). "Teaching Reading and Language to the
Disadvantaged—What We Have Learned from Field Research."
Harvard Educational Review, 47, 518–543.
National Reading Panel Report (April, 2000). Teaching Children to
Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on
Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction.
Biemiller, A. (2000). "Teaching Vocabulary." American Educator,
Spring 2001, 24–28.
Chall, J. S. (2000). The Academic Achievement Challenge: What Really
Works in the Classroom? New York: Harcourt Brace.
Petty, W., Herold, C., & Stohl, E. (1967). The State of the Knowledge of
the Teaching of Vocabulary. (Cooperative Research Project No. 3128).
Champagne, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED 012 395.
Christen, W. L. & Murphy, T. J. (1991). "Increasing
Comprehension by Activating Prior Knowledge." ERIC Digest,
Bloomington, IN: ERIC (Clearinghouse on Reading, English,
and Communication. ED 328 885).
Smith, E. E. (1995). "Concepts and Categorization." In E. E. Smith
& D. N. Osherson (Eds.), Thinking: An Invitation to Cognitive
Science, 2nd Ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 3–33.
11
Sadlier-Oxford
Professional Development Series
Volume 1:
The Role of Grammar in Improving Students’ Writing
by Beverly Ann Chin
(Code #9542-3)
Volume 2:
Beginning Literacy:
Research-Based Principles and Practices
by Lesley M. Morrow
(Code #9577-6)
Volume 3:
Nursery Rhymes and Phonemic Awareness
by Research and Development Staff
(Code #9597-0)
Volume 4:
Word Study Strategies at the Middle Grades
by Richard T. Vacca
(Code #9634-9)
Volume 5:
The Effective Mathematics Classroom:
Research-Based Principles and Practices
by Marie Cooper
(Code #9645-4)
Volume 6:
Developing Effective Readers PreK–6
by Lesley M. Morrow and Richard T. Vacca
(Code #9134-7)
The Value of Direct and Systematic
Vocabulary Instruction
Copyright ©2002 by William H. Sadlier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Volume 7:
by Jerome Shostak
(Code #9147-9)
Volume 8:
Using Nonfiction Text to Enhance
Reading at the Primary Levels
by Alvin Granowsky, Carmelita K. Williams, and Jerry L. Johns
(Code #9292-F)
To request copies of other volumes in the
Sadlier-Oxford Professional Development Series,
please call 1-800-221-5175
Code # 9147-9
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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SERIES
Volume 16
The Value of Intentional
Vocabulary Instruction
in the Middle Grades
by
Douglas Fisher
Professor of Language and Literacy Education, San Diego State University
and
Nancy Frey
Professor of Literacy Education, San Diego State University
T
A
s educators, we understand the power of words to inform, influence, and inspire.
We recognize the beauty of a well-chosen word in a speech, marvel at the cleverness
of a lyric in a song. Even our daily interactions are peppered with the vocabulary
of our discipline and interests. When we open our mouths, we reveal our vocations.
When we write a message, we reveal our avocations.
There is power in language. And there is power in the instruction of every new
word. But sound vocabulary instruction requires attending to the selection, context,
and grouping of words. In addition, teachers must model their thinking about the
words, and students must be engaged in activities that get them using the words
in the company of their peers. And finally, learners must have multiple experiences
with new words so those words can become part of their personal vocabularies.
Vocabulary instruction, therefore, must be intentional—that is, explicit—in order
for it to be effective.
T
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Using a Gradual Release
of Responsibility in
Vocabulary Instruction
a similar progression in deepening word
knowledge so that it becomes a permanent
part of students’ working vocabulary.
Teacher Modeling. The power of teacher
modeling as an instructional tool is that it
allows students to witness the way concepts
are used by an expert. In addition, students
are privy to the skilled decision making
used by the expert to make choices about
how words are understood, chosen, and
used in context. Teacher modeling applies
many of the same techniques used when
demonstrating a physical task. For example,
when perfecting the swing of a baseball bat,
the coach (expert) slows down the process,
repeats it, and discusses what she is seeing
and doing as she grips the bat, swings, and
makes contact with the ball. To be sure,
vocabulary learning is a thinking process,
not a motor one, and so the demonstration
comes from explaining one’s thinking as the
vocabulary is used.
Telling is not teaching; learners need
to engage in a variety of instructional
experiences that deepen and broaden
their knowledge of the concepts being
taught. Learning theorists have described
the importance of supports being made
available and then gradually withdrawn
as the learner becomes more confident and
assured—a process referred to as scaffolding
(Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). Pearson and
Gallagher (1983) applied this concept to
reading instruction and called it the gradual
release of responsibility. We have further
expanded this concept to an instructionaldesign process, adding peer interaction as
a key scaffold. Thus, this model includes
teacher modeling, guided instruction,
productive group work, and independent
learning (Fisher & Frey, 2008a).
A corollary progression occurs in vocabulary
learning. Stahl and Fairbanks (1986)
described an initial phase of knowledge,
which they termed the associational level. In
this phase, students know words superficially,
mostly through matching definitions to
terms. As their understanding deepens, they
move into the comprehension level, where
they can sort and categorize. And at the
highest level of word learning, called the
generative level, they apply what they know
about words to new and original situations,
especially in using it in their writing (Stahl
& Fairbanks, 1986). The gradual release of
responsibility model of instruction follows
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This is essential when modeling how
unfamiliar words are “solved.” Many
adolescents have a monolithic view of
vocabulary—either you know it, or you
don’t—and thus an unknown word in a
text stops them in their tracks. Sometimes
students shrug their metaphorical shoulders
and skip the word; but if this occurs too
many times, they may give up altogether.
Students do not know that when a skilled
reader encounters an unknown word, he or
she uses structural and contextual analyses,
as well as resources such as dictionaries and
thesauri, to problem-solve. Stated differently,
without explicit instruction, students remain
unaware that skilled readers look inside the
word for structural clues, outside the word
for context, and even further outside at
resources such as a glossary (Fisher & Frey,
2008b). They remain unaware that when
the word has multiple meanings, all known
meanings are activated simultaneously, and
the reader must rapidly sort through them
to arrive at the best choice (Swinney, 1979).
Therefore, these problem-solving techniques
need to be brought to the fore in order for
students to begin applying them in their
own learning.
• Label and definition: “I know that
buoyancy has something to do
with floating.”
• Context: “I’m going to reread that
sentence. ‘Any object with enough
buoyancy floated away, while the heavier
items quickly sank to the bottom of
the raging river.’ Yes, I can see the
definition right in the sentence.”
• Best example: “I’ve heard of buoyancy
before. When I took scuba diving
lessons, I had to wear a weight belt to
make me less buoyant so I could
go deeper.”
• Attribute elaboration: “I noticed that the
word buoy is in there. That makes me
think of the buoys that are on the bay.
Those buoys float on top of the water
and guide boats safely out to the ocean.”
• Strategy information: “When I first
read that sentence, buoyancy jumped
out at me because I don’t see it very
often. But I reread the sentence,
looked for some context clues, and
used some structural analysis to find
a more familiar word within it. I also
paused to remind myself of a previous
experience I had with the term.”
Modeling one’s thinking takes some practice,
as most of us have not witnessed our own
teachers using this technique. However,
we find the concept-development research
of Tennyson and Cocchiarella (1986) to be
helpful in modeling vocabulary (Fisher,
Frey, & Lapp, 2009). Consider how teacher
modeling of the vocabulary term buoyancy is
used in a reading about a flood:
Speaking in the first person (“I-statements”)
is a hallmark of teacher modeling and differs
from the second-person directives (“youstatements”) students usually experience.
By sharing their own thinking, teachers
give a learner insight into the ways he or
she considers, and in some cases discards,
possibilities. This practice also opens
the door for students to discuss and use
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expected to use it in more formal written
language. As Bromley (2007) reminds us,
“Language proficiency grows from oral
competence to written competence.” All
students benefit from purposeful use of new
vocabulary within the context of meaningful
and engaging activities. This is even more
critical for adolescent English language
learners who are simultaneously learning
English while learning in English (Fisher,
Frey, & Rothenberg, 2008).
vocabulary with their peers in a variety of
learning activities.
Peer Interaction. Modeling alone is
insufficient for learning; if this was all
we needed, we all could play professional
football or occupy the first chair in a
symphony orchestra. Modeling establishes
the initial thinking processes that one uses
when reading, writing, and speaking about
vocabulary, but students need opportunities
to try the words for themselves. In particular,
students need to use target vocabulary in
their spoken language before they can be
Peer interaction is not a separate activity;
it exists as part of a cohesive instructional
design that follows a gradual release of
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students for the more complex learning
that occurs during the independent phase
of instruction.
responsibility (Fisher & Frey, 2008a). In the
same way that the teacher models his or her
thinking processes during the modeling
phase, students now begin to assume some of
the cognitive responsibility as they explain,
discuss, clarify their understanding, and
reflect on their learning. While the students
interact with the content and each other, the
teacher moves from group to group, offering
guided instruction in the form of questions,
cues, and prompts. When a group is stuck
and these scaffolds do not result in increased
understanding, the teacher uses modeling
and direct explanation (Frey, Fisher, &
Everlove, 2009).
Moving to Independent Word
Learning. We are often reminded of the
adage, “Practice doesn’t make perfect;
practice makes permanent.” If students
are rushed to the independent phase
of learning, they practice imperfectly
and end up reinforcing inaccurate or
incomplete knowledge. A gradual releaseof-responsibility model of instruction
that provides teacher modeling, guided
instruction, and productive group work
decreases the likelihood that independent
practice will reinforce incorrect
understanding (Fisher & Frey, 2008a).
However, vocabulary instruction should also
deepen conceptual understanding through
a process Stahl and Fairbanks (1986) call
the generative level of word knowledge.
In this phase, students are using targeted
vocabulary in more formal original writing.
These need not be long essays—sentenceand paragraph-length writing is equally
effective. There is also an increased focus
on using academic language in conjunction
with the academic vocabulary they are using.
Independent activities include the use of
generative sentences that lead students to
consider the grammatical and semantic
features of the word (Fisher & Frey, 2008a).
A generative sentence activity names the
The design of the task students engage
in with their peers must be meaningful
in order to promote the kind of cognitive
processes necessary for learning. To increase
learning, many vocabulary researchers
have recommended games and other
activities that capitalize on a sense of play
(e.g., Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002;
Blachowicz & Fisher, 2002; Graves, 2006).
Game-like activities raise word consciousness
and naturally encourage the repeated
and authentic use of the words, thereby
reinforcing new learning (Graves, 2006).
The most effective peer interaction tasks
emphasize comprehension and generative
learning, not just a continuation of
superficial associative learning that is more
temporary in nature (Stahl & Fairbanks,
1986). These peer-interaction tasks prepare
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activities provide students with the
opportunity to consolidate their word
learning by requiring them to utilize their
associational and comprehension levels of
knowledge. In turn, the vocabulary more
fully becomes a part of their vocabulary as
they become more confident using it in their
spoken and written language.
Selecting Words. The practice of
constructing lists of words for student study
has been a dominant feature in vocabulary
instruction for more than a century. Among
the lists that have influenced the field are
the Dolch Word List of sight vocabulary
for young readers (1936), the Academic
Word List (AWL) (Coxhead, 2000), and the
Background Knowledge Word List (Marzano,
2004). While these lists vary at the word
level, they have one important element in
common: All are derived from what students
are expected to understand. These lists are
not intended to be used in isolation, but
rather as contextually bound to a discipline
or academic behavior. For example, the AWL
is comprised of 570 headwords totaling
3,000 individual words from textbooks in
11 different discipline areas. The researcher
recorded the frequency of words, discarded
the first 2,000 most common English words
among them (the General Service List:
words such as the, make, and together), and
constructed a list composed of high-utility
academic words that occur across disciplines
(such as reinterpret, analyze, and correspond).
Sadlier Vocabulary for Success ©2011, Grade 7, Student Edition
word, the position of its occurrence within
the sentence, and the condition of the
sentence itself. For example:
• Write a sentence of exactly nine words
in length using the word extend.
• Write a sentence with the word
coordinate in the fourth position.
This last generative sentence might
result in something like this:
I can help coordinate all the details for the
school dance, but I can’t do it alone.
Students can further expand their generative
sentences by selecting one that can be
expanded to paragraph length. Generative
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A key consideration for selecting words is the
way in which they can be clustered to ensure
that terms mutually inform one another, and
that they can serve as “doorway” words for
learning new vocabulary. Given the large
number of words that students need to know
and the relatively small number of words that
can receive direct instruction, it is essential
to choose terms that foster independent word
learning. Although English has earned an
unfair reputation for being unpredictable, the
truth is that approximately 80 percent to 85
percent of printed English is comprised of
common words from the General Service List.
Many of the remaining vexing 15 percent
to 20 percent of words are formed around
a common base, root, or affix. These word
families are constructed using the building
blocks of the language: dis-, -trans-, -norm-,
and -ance. By clustering and teaching these
building blocks, students are better able to
transfer their knowledge of the language
when they encounter unfamiliar words
during independent reading (Baumann, Font,
Edwards, & Boland, 2005).
While the AWL draws from textbooks as its
primary source, the Background Knowledge
Word List resulted from an analysis of 28
national standards documents. The nearly
8,000 words on this list tend to be more
discipline-specific (for example, monarchy,
tributary, and radiation). One strength of this
approach is that the selected words represent
content-specific knowledge and its inherent
conceptual understanding.
While word lists provide an excellent
starting point for identifying possible words
for direct instruction, their usefulness must
be weighed against other factors, including
their utility, their opportunity for analysis,
and their overall cognitive load. Drawing
from the collective work of Graves (2006),
Nagy and Herman (1987), and Marzano
(2004), we have constructed a decisionmaking model for further refining the list of
possibilities (Fisher & Frey, 2008b):
• Is the word representative of an
essential idea or concept?
• Will the word be used repeatedly
within and across units of instruction?
• Is the word transportable across other
disciplines?
• Does the use of the word invite
contextual analysis?
• Does the word offer an opportunity for
structural analysis?
• Do the selected words honor the
learner’s cognitive load?
In sum, the selection of words for direct
instruction involves analysis of researchbased word lists that represent both contentspecific and cross-disciplinary terms. In
addition, the final selection of instructional
vocabulary should feature a decision-making
framework that further considers both the
practical utility of the new words and the
potential for building the skills of learners in
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importance of vocabulary because it serves
as a proxy for conceptual knowledge in
middle school (Espin, Shin, & Busch, 2005).
Stated differently, the more familiar one is
with the vocabulary of a content area, the
more likely it is that one knows something
about that content. This idea is borne out
in the findings of Baker, Simmons, and
Kame’enui (1998), who found that vocabulary
knowledge was a strong predictor of reading
comprehension. By some estimates,
solving both the targeted vocabulary as well
as the terms they encounter outside of the
vocabulary classroom. Once these words are
identified, they are taught using a gradual
release of responsibility.
The Influence of Vocabulary
on Learning. The importance of vocabulary
knowledge has been reported in many
places, but the topic deserves repeating here
as well. A cluster of research studies in the
1980s confirmed what most educators had
long suspected—that vocabulary demand
skyrockets in middle school as students
become immersed in formal disciplinespecific study. Arguably the most widely
reported figures stem from the seminal
research of William Nagy and Richard
Anderson, who reported that by the time
students enter ninth grade, they will have
encountered 88,500 word families in printed
school materials (1984). This staggering
number would give even the most energetic
teacher pause. There is simply no way to
provide direct instruction for all of those
words. But while 500,000 individual words
are too much to contemplate, the good news
is that the operative word—families—gives
us a glimpse of what effective instruction
might look like.
A second cluster of vocabulary research has
focused on vocabulary’s influence on learning.
Most secondary educators are aware of the
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Taken together, these three clusters of
vocabulary research provide a road map
for effective vocabulary instruction. First,
adolescents experience a breathtaking rise
in school vocabulary demand. Second, the
increased influence of vocabulary directly
impacts students’ ability to read and converse
in the language of the discipline. And third,
the complex nature of word knowledge
requires an instructional approach that
cultivates an increasingly sophisticated
understanding of the relationship between
words and concepts. An effective vocabulary
program offers carefully selected words
that are presented in context and modeled
by the teacher; associative experiences
that emphasize both the definitional and
contrastive meanings of words, accompanied
by student interaction with words and one
another; and generative experiences that
allow students to make it their vocabulary.
vocabulary knowledge accounts for between
70 percent and 80 percent of reading
comprehension (Nagy & Scott, 2000). This
is a significant factor at the middle school
level, where science and history textbooks
and other expository reading materials are
used with increasing frequency and also
contain increasingly dense, abstract, and
technical language (Fang, 2008).
Devoting Time to Word Learning
Is Time Well Spent. The third cluster of
vocabulary research concerns what it means
to “know” a word. There is wide agreement
that word knowledge is layered and extends
well beyond definitional knowledge. It
includes knowledge of examples and
nonexamples, adept use in oral and written
communication, and fluent availability
and recall of words (Blachowicz & Fisher,
2000; Cronbach, 1942; Dale, O’Rourke,
& Bamman, 1971; Graves, 1986). Because
knowledge is multidimensional, teaching
of those words must be as well. Effective
vocabulary instruction requires that words
are taught within context, that definitional
and contrastive meanings are provided,
and that students have multiple, authentic
experiences with using words in their spoken
and written language (Beck, McKeown, &
Kucan, 2002; Blachowicz & Fisher, 2000;
Graves, 2006).
We can lift words from the page and ensure
that vocabulary learning is an interesting
part of students’ instructional day. We can
move beyond the “assign, define, and test”
approach to vocabulary instruction and
develop systems and resources that really do
result in students understanding of word
meanings. As this happens, students will
use their newfound vocabulary regularly and
authentically. When we are intentional in our
vocabulary instruction, students learn words
that they use inside and outside of school.
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About the Authors
Douglas Fisher, Ph.D., is Professor of Language and Literacy Education
in the School of Teacher Education at San Diego State University and a
classroom teacher at Health Sciences High & Middle College.
He is the recipient of an International Reading Association Celebrate
Literacy Award, the Farmer award for excellence in writing from the
National Council of Teachers of English, and a Christa McAuliffe award
for excellence in teacher education.
He is the author or co-author of numerous professional books on reading
and literacy, differentiated instruction, and curriculum design.
He and Nancy Frey co-authored the Vocabulary for Success middle
school program to be published (©2011) by William H. Sadlier, Inc.
Nancy Frey, Ph.D., is a Professor of Literacy in the School of Teacher
Education at San Diego State University and a classroom teacher at
Health Sciences High & Middle College.
She is the recipient of an Early Career Achievement Award from the
National Reading Conference and a co-recipient of the Christa McAuliffe
award for excellence in teacher education from the American Association of
State Colleges and Universities.
She is the co-author of many professional books and articles. A credentialed
special educator and reading specialist, she teaches courses on elementary
and secondary reading instruction, literacy in content areas, and supporting
students with diverse learning needs.
She and Douglas Fisher co-authored the Vocabulary for Success middle
school program to be published (©2011) by William H. Sadlier, Inc.
N
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References
Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Lapp, D. (2009). In a reading state of mind:
Brain research, teacher modeling, and comprehension instruction.
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Baker, S. K., Simmons, D. C., & Kame’enui, E. J. (1998).
Vocabulary acquisition: Research bases. In D. C. Simmons
& E. J. Kame’enui (Eds.), What research tells us about children
with diverse learning needs (pp. 183–218). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Rothenberg, C. (2008). Content area
conversations: How to plan discussion-based lessons for diverse
language learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
Baumann, J. F., Font, G., Edwards, E. C., & Boland, E. (2005).
Strategies for teaching middle-grade students to use wordpart and context clues to expand reading vocabulary. In
E. H. Hiebert & M. L. Kamil (Eds.), Teaching and learning
vocabulary: Bringing research to practice (pp. 179–205).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Frey, N., Fisher, D., & Everlove, S. (2009). Productive group
work: How to engage students, build teamwork, and promote
understanding. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing
words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York:
Guilford.
Graves, M. F. (1986). Vocabulary learning and instruction.
Review of Educational Research, 13, 49–89.
Graves, M. F. (2006). The Vocabulary Book: Learning and
Instruction. New York: Teachers College.
Blachowicz, C. L. Z., & Fisher, P. (2000). Vocabulary
instruction. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson,
& R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. III, pp.
503–523). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Marzano, R. J. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic
achievement: Research on what works in schools. Alexandria, VA:
Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Blachowicz, C. L. Z., & Fisher, P. (2002). Teaching vocabulary
in all classrooms (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill
Prentice Hall.
Nagy, N. E., & Anderson, R. C. (1984). How many words are
there in printed school English? Reading Research Quarterly,
19, 303–330.
Bromley, K. (2007). Nine things every teacher should know
about words and vocabulary instruction. Journal of Adolescent
and Adult Literacy, 50(7), 528–537.
Nagy, W. E., & Herman, P. A. (1987). Breadth and depth of
vocabulary knowledge: Implications for acquisition and
instruction. In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The
nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 19–36). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL
Quarterly, 34(2), 213–238.
Cronbach, L. J. (1942). An analysis of techniques for systematic
vocabulary testing. Journal of Educational Research, 36,
206–17.
Nagy, N. E., & Scott, J. (2000). Vocabulary processes. In
M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr
(Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. III, pp. 269–284).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dale, E., O’Rourke, J., & Bamman, H. A. (1971). Techniques
for teaching vocabulary. Palo Alto, CA: Field Educational
Publications.
Pearson, P. D., & Gallagher, G. (1983). The gradual release of
responsibility model of instruction. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 8, 112–123.
Dolch, E. W. (1936). A basic sight word vocabulary. Elementary
School Journal, 36, 456–460.
Stahl, S., & Fairbanks, M. (1986). The effects of vocabulary
instruction: A model-based meta-analysis. Review of
Educational Research, 56(1), 72–110.
Espin, C. A., Shin, J., & Busch, T. W. (2005). Curriculum-based
measurement in the content areas: Vocabulary matching as
an indicator of progress in social studies learning. Learning
Disabilities Quarterly, 38(4), 353–363.
Swinney, D. A. (1979). Lexical access during sentence
comprehension: (Re)considerations of context effects. Journal
of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 645–659.
Fang, Z. (2008). Going beyond the fab five: Helping students
cope with the unique linguistic challenges of expository
reading in the intermediate grades. Journal of Adolescent and
Adult Literacy, 51(6), 476–487.
Tennyson, R. D., & Cocchiarella, M. J. (1986). An empirically
based instructional design theory for teaching concepts.
Review of Educational Research, 56, 40–71.
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008a). Better learning through structured
teaching: A framework for the gradual release of responsibility.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring
and problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry, 17, 89–100.
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008b). Word wise and content rich: Five
essential steps to teaching academic vocabulary. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
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Professional Development Series
Volume 1:
The Role of Grammar
in Improving Students’ Writing
Volume 9:
by Jerry L. Johns
by Beverly Ann Chin
(Code #9924-F)
(Code #91337F)
Volume 2:
Beginning Literacy: Research-Based
Principles and Practices
Volume 10:
(Code #90727F)
(Code #91347F)
Nursery Rhymes and
Phonemic Awareness
Volume 11:
by Research and Development Staff
Word Study Strategies
at the Middle Grades
(Code #908081)
Volume 12:
by Richard T. Vacca
(Code #91367F)
Volume 5:
The Effective Mathematics
Classroom: Research-Based
Principles and Practices
(Code #908381)
Volume 13:
Developing Effective Readers
PreK–6
(Code #900891)
Volume 14:
The Value of Direct and
Systematic Vocabulary Instruction
(Code #904691)
Volume 15:
by Jerome Shostak
(Code #90686F)
Volume 8:
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Teaching Meaningful Revision:
Developing and Deepening
Students’ Writing
by Beverly Ann Chin
Using Nonfiction
in the Primary Grades
by Alvin Granowsky,
Carmelita K. Williams, and
Jerry L. Johns
Problem Solving: Building
Strategic Competence
by Alfred S. Posamentier
(Code #91377F)
Volume 7:
Best Practices for Phonics
Instruction in Today’s Classroom
by Diane Tracey and
Lesley Mandel Morrow
(Code #9645-4)
by Lesley M. Morrow and
Richard T. Vacca
Motivating Middle School Students:
The Critical Part of Lesson
Planning in Mathematics
by Alfred S. Posamentier
by Marie Cooper
Volume 6:
Effective Strategies for Engaging
Middle School Students in Writing
and Grammar Instruction
by Beverly Ann Chin
(Code #91357F)
Volume 4:
Best Practices for Teaching Grammar
at the Elementary Grades
by Beverly Ann Chin
by Lesley M. Morrow
Volume 3:
Vocabulary Instruction
in Elementary Grades
(Code #906991)
Volume 16:
The Value of Intentional Vocabulary
Instruction in the Middle Grades
by Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey
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Copyright © by William H. Sadlier, Inc. Permission to duplicate classroom quantities granted to users of Sadlier Vocabulary for Success.
Level A Word List
abnormal
cease
decompose
foster
mass
recycling
abundant
challenge
deed
foundation
maximum
redistribute
accurate
chronology
degenerate
fraught
migrate
reference
achievable
circumstance
deluge
fulfill
minimal
region
adequate
civilization
deplete
fungus
minimum
regulation
advance
claim
despite
global
mobile
reinterpret
aerial
classic
detect
haphazard
mosaic
report
airborne
climate
devoted
hardship
motive
research
ally
collide
dignity
hemisphere
nevertheless
reside
alter
columns
disperse
host
normal
restrict
anticipated
commenced
distribute
hypothesis
norms
retire
appalled
compatible
doctrine
identical
nuisance
risk
apparatus
compile
document
impact
obtainable
ritual
appeal
concept
dominance
implicate
ordeal
robust
appear
confer
downfall
impose
orient
scribe
approach
consequence
dramatic
inaccessible
origin
seek
appropriate
constellation
duplicate
incapable
parasite
signal
architecture
construct
durable
incredible
pare
source
area
consume
ecosystem
infection
photosynthesis
species
argument
contact
embark
inferences
plague
stern
assault
control
enable
ingenuity
plenty
superlative
assess
copious
encounter
initial
population
theory
assist
cornerstone
energy
intern
portion
trade
atlas
correspond
enormous
interpret
premier
transition
atmosphere
counsel
enrich
invade
premise
translate
authority
credible
entrust
invaluable
prey
transmit
barren
critique
erosion
invariable
prone
transport
barrier
crust
estimate
issue
prospect
trek
benefit
cultivate
evident
jolt
prow
undertake
bias
culture
expand
landscape
random
uniform
bizarre
cycle
explanation
latent
range
variable
brink
debate
factor
legacy
ransack
vessel
bulk
debris
feat
leisure
reassess
vicinity
buoy
decline
feature
likewise
reconstruct
widespread
category
decode
formal
mantle
recreation
witness
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Level B Word List
accompany
contribute
exposure
intervene
notice
register
acknowledgment
controversial
expression
interview
notify
remove
adaptation
converse
extend
intricate
notion
reserve
adolescence
coordinate
external
isolate
novice
revenue
allegiance
court
famine
justify
obstacle
sacrifice
alternate
credit
final
kindle
obstinate
sample
amendment
critical
financial
label
obvious
scenario
apprentice
cunning
flaunt
labor
offspring
selection
approximate
currency
flourish
latitude
opposing
sequence
arrogant
data
focus
lend
organs
shield
assumption
defy
foliage
limitation
outcome
slander
attribute
demand
frequent
link
outlandish
somewhat
balance
denoting
function
logic
peasant
squire
cell
denounce
fundamental
maintenance
pitfall
stabilize
chance
derogatory
gain
makeshift
plane
structure
chivalry
determine
gender
maneuver
positions
substitute
collapse
dictate
gene
manipulate
possess
succulent
commission
dimension
generalization
manual
potential
summary
commitment
diminished
generation
manuscript
precision
summons
commodity
dire
genuine
marvel
predicament
tax
commune
dismal
guarantee
mature
predominantly
technique
compensation
distinction
heredity
mechanism
preserve
tenant
complement
distort
hierarchy
medieval
pressure
thrust
component
division
hovel
medium
presumably
tissue
confirm
dynamic
ignorance
membrane
prevail
traditional
conflict
earnest
illustrate
merge
prevention
trait
congestion
economy
immune
method
previous
transfer
considerable
elect
import
millennia
protest
triggered
consist
eligible
income
minor
purchase
utilize
constitution
emerge
indefinite
modify
pursuit
valid
constrict
consumers
estate
inherit
molecule
radiation
valor
evaluate
initiative
monarchy
rationalize
viewpoint
contempt
experiment
instance
multicellular
react
violate
contract
expert
intermediate
negotiate
rebel
vocal
contrary
export
interrogate
noteworthy
reflection
windfall
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Level C Word List
abandon
comprehensive
engage
institute
pinnacle
retreat
abstract
compress
enhance
intelligence
plea
route
accelerate
comprise
episode
intensify
pledge
satellite
accentuate
conclude
equity
interval
portray
savage
adaptable
condemn
establish
intrinsically
positive
scope
adjust
conform
evolve
investment
precede
secure
administration
conservation
exclusionary
isolation
preclude
signify
advocate
constrained
expedition
log
prime
sinister
agency
contemporary
exploit
logically
prior
sovereign
ammunition
contradiction
fatigue
luminous
prioritize
speed
apparel
convert
feeble
margins
privilege
status
appreciate
crisis
flimsy
mediate
professional
stereotype
array
deceive
fluctuate
meteor
progress
stifle
assemble
demonstrate
fluent
mishap
prohibit
subsequently
asteroid
descend
force
momentum
prominent
succession
attainable
deviate
founder
monitor
properties
survey
behalf
differentiate
fragility
moral
protocols
suspend
bond
discrimination
frigid
mutual
psychology
sustain
bondage
disenchanted
galaxy
negative
qualitatively
swell
brace
dismay
goals
nuclear
radical
tangible
calamity
displaced
gravity
occupied
radioactive
tension
campaign
disproportionately harmony
onslaught
ramble
terminate
capital
distinguished
hover
orbit
rate
tolerate
captivity
diversify
illusion
otherwise
ration
trace
captured
domain
immense
overall
reaction
tranquil
celestial
drastic
incapacitated
overtake
recant
treacherous
chamber
duration
incentive
parallel
recover
unaffected
chasm
elaborate
incline
participatory
rejected
unifying
civil
element
include
particle
reluctance
uniquely
civilian
elevate
incongruous
percentage
remedy
vegetate
clarify
eliminate
indication
periodical
repeal
verdict
coincide
emphasize
induce
persist
representation
via
combustion
endeavor
inherent
perspective
resolve
visible
commotion
endure
innovation
petition
resources
vision
compound
enforce
insightful
phenomenon
restrained
welfare
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