Tropical forest resources and
extraction
– in Tsaratanana forest, Midongy, Madagascar
Ellen Winberg
Degree project for Master of Science (Two Years) in
Biology
2009
Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences
Göteborg University
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Abstract
Tropical forests are lost at an alarming rate globally. In Madagascar the forests only
cover fragments of what they once used to. Conservation in the form of participatory
forest management (PFM) is one of the tools that have been put in place to manage
and preserve the remaining forests. In Tsaratanana forest in the south eastern part of
the country PFM has been introduced by WWF. The community is taking over the
management of the forest. This study aimed at looking at the extraction levels and what
determines them, the utility fields of the trees and to get an estimate of the forest area
that is affected by this extraction. The result shows selection for some tree species in
large sizes and a high outtake of small trees. Factors that determine the outtake levels
of trees are vegetation structure at the edge and distance to villages from the location in
the forest.The largest utility fields are firewood and construction wood but an important
compartment of the outtake is also for medicinal purposes. The study further estimates
between 31 and 50% of the forest as being disturbed by this extraction. The outtake is
not sustainable at the rate it is carried out today and thus needs to be lessened to
guarantee the continuance of the forest. The study concludes that the exotic species
Lantana camara can be beneficial for the protection of the forest as well as in easing
reforestation.
Svensk sammanfattning
Skogstacket i tropikerna minskar I snabb takt. I Madagascar tacker numera skogarna
bara spillror av vad de en gang gjorde. Att bevara skogarna I form av “Participatory
Forest Management (PFM) ar en av strategierna som har satts in for att skota och
bevara de skogar som finns kvar. I skogen Tsaratanana i sydostra delen av landet har
WWF introducerat PFM for att bidra till losningen. Befolkningen i omradet kommer nu ta
over skotseln av skogen. Denna studie syftar till att studera uttaget av trad och vad for
faktorer som paverkar uttagsnivaerna. Aven anvandningsomradena for dessa trad
studerades. En uppskattning av hur stort andel av skogen som ar paverkad av
traduttaget gjordes ocksa. Resultatet visar selektion av vissa arter i deras storre
diametrar och i ovrigt ett stort uttag av yngre trad. De faktorer som visade sig paverka
uttagsnivaerna var strukturen av vegetationen gransande till skogen och avstandet fran
bebyggelse till platsen I skogen. De viktigaste och storsta anvandningsomradena for de
uttagna traden var ved och virke men en viktig del utgjordes aven av medicinalsyfte.
Studien uppskattade att mellan 31 och 50% av skogen ar paverkad av detta uttag. De
uttagsnivaer som tillampas idag ar inte langsiktigt hallbara utan maste minska for att
garantera skogens fortlevnad. Studien kommer till slutsatsen att den exotiska arten
Lantana camara kan vara av nytta for skyddet av skogen liksom for att aterskoga
forlorade omraden.
2
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Content
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 5
Importance and challenges of tropical forests.............................................................. 5
Madagascar a diverse island and country.................................................................... 6
Madagascar’s ecology of international importance ...................................................... 6
Madagascar’s forests and their declining area............................................................. 7
Poverty, population growth and social institutions related to deforestation .................. 8
Tavy, a sustainable land use or the method of deforestation? ..................................... 9
Edges and fragmentation affecting forests and their diversity.................................... 12
Introduced invasive species posing a threat to indigenous species or a way to reforest?
................................................................................................................................... 15
Conservation the goal for forest remnants of Madagascar ........................................ 17
Participatory Forest Management outside Midongy du Sud National Park ................ 17
Motives to this Study.................................................................................................. 19
Methods ....................................................................................................................... 21
Location and site description...................................................................................... 21
Field Surveys ............................................................................................................. 22
Data and map analysis .............................................................................................. 23
Results ......................................................................................................................... 26
Slope and vegetation affects basal area in type I tests .............................................. 26
Vegetation and total accessibility affects the extraction in Type III regression test .... 26
Vegetation, village and edge distance correlate to tree extraction ............................. 27
Sizes and species of tree stumps .............................................................................. 28
Different species most frequently extracted in different size classes ......................... 28
High degree of endemism among extracted tree species .......................................... 29
Construction and firewood for people or food for lemurs ........................................... 30
Up to half of the forest area affected by extraction leaving fragmented core areas ... 30
Discussion ................................................................................................................... 32
Edge vegetation structure and distance from villages and forest edges limit the
outtake of wood.......................................................................................................... 32
3
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Potentially selective outtake for size can have ecological implications ...................... 33
Diverse but selective outtake of tree species related to household needs but also to
over exploitation......................................................................................................... 34
Fuel and construction wood as the largest utility fields brings implications for
management .............................................................................................................. 36
Medicinal purposes fill an important role in tree extraction in Tsaratanana................ 37
Socially unsustainable and destructive honey extraction needs to be amended........ 38
Unsustainable fruit extraction and selection for trees competing with lemurs ............ 38
Risk of increasing pressure on Tsaratanana due to creation of Midongy du Sud
National Park ............................................................................................................. 40
Incentives for managing the forest sustainably .......................................................... 42
Introduced invasive species a good or bad in Tsaratanana? ..................................... 45
A large part of the forest affected by selective tree extraction having implications for
the ecosystem............................................................................................................ 46
Conclusions................................................................................................................. 48
What could have been done differently in this study and why did it turn out this
way? ............................................................................................................................. 49
More extensive social information.............................................................................. 50
Satellite imagery ........................................................................................................ 50
Limitations in field work resources ............................................................................. 50
Acknowledgement....................................................................................................... 52
Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. 52
Reference list............................................................................................................... 52
Diverse....................................................................................................................... 52
Articles ....................................................................................................................... 52
Internet Links ............................................................................................................. 54
Literature.................................................................................................................... 55
Appendix A.................................................................................................................... 57
Appendix B.................................................................................................................... 60
Appendix C.................................................................................................................... 63
Appendix D.................................................................................................................... 65
Appendix E.................................................................................................................... 68
Appendix F .................................................................................................................... 70
4
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Introduction
Importance and challenges of tropical forests
Less than one tenth of the Earth’s terrestrial surface is covered with tropical forests but
they host 50% or more of all terrestrial species (Harper et. al. 2007). They are important
for the functioning of the planet and for maintaining life. They contribute to regulating
climate systems both on a regional and local scale. Their carbon dioxide capturing
properties make them important carbon sinks and they provide many human
populations across the planet with vital resources and ecosystem services (Ingram et al.
2005). Deforestation is considered a threat to many tropical forest species’ survival and
is continuously shrinking their habitat. When the forests are being diminished they are
also increasingly being fragmented into forest pieces too small to harbor or support
viable populations of both animal and plant species. With increasing fragmentation, the
extent of edge effects increases. These effects are present in areas far greater than the
actual deforestation itself. (Harper et. al. 2007) Fragmentation and edge effect are
considered among the most deleterious processes in the tropics today (Broadbent et al.
2008).
Tropical forests are being lost with an alarming speed all across the globe, in some
estimates by 5.8 million ha per year. Their loss influences global environmental change
and climate which has become of a growing concern. Little is known about the
regeneration rate of tropical forests. It has been estimated to be 1 million ha per annum
in the humid tropics. A stable forest cover has a strong relation to strong local social
institutions. (Elmqvist et al. 2007)
In tropical forests it is not uncommon with plant and primate codependency. Many
primates rely on fruit trees as main or dominating food resource and the tree species in
turn depend on the frugivourous primates for their seed dispersal. In Kibale National
Park in Uganda it is recorded that primates are the main frugivors and that the
germination of seeds increased if they were consumed by Chimpanzees. The
maintenance of primate populations can thus be critical for tropical forest regeneration.
Logging or extraction of non wood products can lead to a decrease in resource
availability for the primates and is presumed to have negative impact on their
communities. On the other hand the recruitment of trees can be negatively effected by
hunting of primates. In cases where human activities influence either seed dispersal or
fruit production there can be secondary effects on other interactants. Disruption of the
interactions between these parties can have negative cascading effects on processes
and species in the ecosystem in question. Protected areas are often considered as a
solution to eliminating the pressure on forest species. But extractive reserves can turn
out to pose a threat to primate populations in the cases where their food species are
affected. People and primates generally have the same preferences when it comes to
fruit. The species they both prefer are usually nutritious and grow in dense stands.
5
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 There is risk of fruit tree species becoming locally extinct following extensive extraction
by humans. (Chapman, C.A., Onderdonk, D.A., 1998) Primates, including humans, are
thus key actors in forests in the tropics. In the area of this study there is six species of
lemurs (Öberg, 2009). All but one of these species are entirely or partly frugivourous.
Madagascar a diverse island and country
Madagascar is among the world’s poorest countries and also has a high population
growth of 3% (World Bank, Central Intelligence Agency and International Monetary
Fund, Central Intelligence Agency). The island has been inhabited by humans no longer
than 2000 years, the oldest traces of people are animal bones with cut marks from tools.
A campsite under a rock overhang is the oldest found settlement determined to be from
A.D. 450. The number of settlements started increasing in the 9th century and today the
population is more than 20,6 million mainly concentrated to the highlands of the island.
(Wright and Rakotoarisoa, 2003, Central Intelligence Agency)
Madagascar’s population is composed of several ethnic groups that share the same
language and culture and trace their origin to Africa, Indo-Asia, the Middle East, China,
India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Europe (Ariey et. al, 2003). Eighty percent of
Madagascar’s population is rural. The communities depend largely on the ecosystem
services offered by the forests and on being able to extract construction material and
wood for fuel from these. Thus the forests are keys to many livelihoods on Madagascar.
(Ingram et al. 2005)
Madagascar’s ecology of international importance
The island of Madagascar is home to a great number of endemic species much thanks
to its isolation following the separation from India and Antarctica more than 100 million
years ago and from the African continent in the late Jurassic era (Gautier and Goodman,
2003).
It has been classified as a biodiversity hotspot and the degree of endemism is high both
in families and genera. The 25 biodiversity hotspots identified in the world contain the
only remaining habitats to 35% of the planet’s vertebrate species and 44% of the plant
species. One criterion for the classification is that the endemic plant species of a hot
spot make out at least 0.5 % of all plant species found on this planet. Madagascar is
home to 9,704 endemic plant species and 771 endemic vertebrates, which in turn
represents 3.2 % of the global plant diversity and 2.8 % of the vertebrates globally.
(Olson and Dinerstein, 2002) As noted by Gautier and Goodman (2003) in their Natural
History of Madagascar the level of endemism among large shrub and tree species can
be close to 96%, according to a study by Schatz from 2002.
Madagascar’s primary vegetation has been depleted to such an extent that only 9.9% of
it remained in the year 2000. The island is considered to be among the “hottest
6
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 hotspots” world wide (Myers et. al., 2000). Many of the habitat types special to
Madagascar are listed among “The Global 200”, showing that its ecoregions are found
to be of importance for global conservation. Madagascar’s environment and species are
thus determined to be of high priority and importance for conservation of our biological
heritage. (Gautier and Goodman, 2003; Olson and Dinerstein, 2002) Around 90% of the
vertebrate species that are unique to Madagascar depend of forest for their living
habitat which stresses the importance of preserving these forests (Dufils, 2003).
Madagascar’s forests and their declining area
The island of Madagascar contains a diversity of ecosystems. It has in two similar
models, one by Humbert and Cours Darne in 1965 and a more recent one by Schatz
from 2000, been divided into five or six ecoregions respectively. They are defined by the
different bioclimatic parameters that exist within the country. The most significant
difference lies between the dry deciduous and spiny western and the moist evergreen
eastern biome. Within each altitudinal zone in the eastern forest ecoregion, there is
relative homogeneity within the forest from north to south; however the composition of
species and the structure of the forests change considerably with changes in
microclimate, relief and elevation. (Nicoll, 2003)
The picture of modern day Madagascar’s forest cover is a shadow of what it used to be.
The lowland forest ecoregion defined by Schatz comprises 319 925 km² and most of the
remaining forest bodies are found on steep rough slopes along a thin, non continuous
band, that stretches north to south parallel of the moist east coast of Madagascar. In the
southern sector the forest is still relatively continuous but severely encroached upon.
The forest to the north is facing immediate risk of becoming very fragmented. In 2001
less than 9% of the forests at altitudes lower that 400 m remained and since this further
forest loss has occurred. Humid forests located between 400 and 800 m still covered 35
% of its original expanse in 2001 while forests between 800 and 1200 m altitude only
remained to 6 %. Of these forest habitats the large majority is located outside protected
areas. (Nicoll, 2003)
During centuries the forests of Madagascar and thus its forest dwelling species have
suffered huge areal losses and the level of fragmentation has increased massively. The
lowland and mid-elevation forests covered an area of about 1 967 000 ha and
2 952 000 hectares respectively in 1996 in contrast to covering 4 625 000 and
3 146 000 ha respectively in 1965 (J.M Dufils, 2003). Between 1993 and 1999 the
deforestation rate has been estimated to 1.6 % per year of Madagascar’s evergreen
forests (J.M Dufils, 2003). Before man’s arrival to the island, approximately 90% of the
island is estimated to have been covered by forest. Madagascar has lost at least 2/3 of
its forests since then. From the 1950s, when only 27 % of the land was forested, up until
2000 the forest cover in Madagascar has decreased by 40%, and core forest areas
(interior forest area further away than 1km from the edge of the forest) has during the
7
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 same period decreased by 80%. Since then deforestation has been continuing. (Harper
et. al. 2007) The degree of forest area affected by edge factors is high due to the
degree of fragmentation in the remaining forest cover (Lehman et al. 2006).
Poverty, population growth and social institutions related to deforestation
The common explanation to the forest loss in Madagascar is encroachment, by a
population which is one of the most rapidly growing populations in the world. Poverty
and lack of opportunities increases the pressure on the remaining forest. Because of an
increased demand of a scarce product, following the decreased size of forests and
access to them, the value of timber has risen. The prognosis for Madagascar’s forests
has been that they will continue to diminish and become even more fragmented. (Nicoll,
2003)
Apart from the commonly argued socioeconomic reasons for forest degradation in
Madagascar, such as lack of alternative cultivation methods and poverty, there are
several other reasons for the country’s high rate of deforestation. The deforestation of
Madagascar accelerated in the 1980s. One explanation is the increase in migrants
leaving their overexploited lands to find new land to cultivate and therefore moving into
new areas. There is a strong social cohesion and structure in the original communities
in Madagascar which is based on a respect for values and the production system. The
land is inherited by the ancestors and the traditional land-use is respected. But when
people move into new areas they disorganize the social cohesion and structure of the
communities they enter and for reasons, such as the destructive or innovative activities
of the newcomers, in combination with the original inhabitants increased use of the
forest to state their ownership, the deforestation of the area increases. Another reason
for the increase in deforestation and loss of biodiversity is the high demand of charcoal,
fuel wood and construction material in the urban areas. There is a high dependency on
natural forests for the provision of these resources. (Durbin et al. 2003; Nicoll, 2003)
In addition to the reasons for extraction there are also legal and political implications to
consider when it comes to deforestation in Madagascar. There is not enough capacity
for the forestry administration to apply the forestry legislation or carry up the monitoring
and control of illegal activities in humid forests in Madagascar. Today many of the
remaining forest areas remain only because they are found in inaccessible territories
where the population densities are low or because they are considered taboo forests
(so called Alafady) protected by the local communities. Strong social communities with
respected leaders are often important factors for the protection of the forests and
responsible use of its resources. (Durbin et al. 2003; Nicoll, 2003)
Apart from the reasons for forest loss in Madagascar there are also reasons to explain
the forests that are left on the island and what is important to consider when aspiring
protection of the remaining forests. The social institutions are determined to be
8
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 important factors in deciding reasons for loss or regeneration of semi arid forests in
southern Madagascar, and are likely to be in many of the remaining forest of the country.
A study from southern Madagascar has shown that forests far from markets in an area
with low population density are more prone to decrease in size while forests with an
easier access to markets and with a higher population density are more stable in area.
There is a higher loss of forests in areas where insecure property rights are found.
Forests can even increase in size where the property rights are well defined.
Spontaneous regeneration of forests has in these cases often been explained by a
combination of decreasing grazing pressure, changes in rain frequency and a
decreased human population pressure which might not be possible in moist forest areas
where the population pressure is very high. (Elmqvist et al.2007)
For forest cover to remain intact the social institutions need to be strong and have the
capability to enforce protection of the forests and prosecution in cases of transgression.
In areas where the ancestral rights remain strong there is a more secure management
of the forests than in areas where newcomers have entered. In the latter case there is
often a competition to clear land and gain formal rights to this, with the consequence of
forest loss. In areas with a strong social institution newcomers and seasonal dwellers
need to gain permission from the original inhabitants with the ancestral rights to the land
to be able to visit the lands for cattle grazing or to cut any trees. But at low population
densities it can be difficult for the local authorities to control whether outsiders enter
their areas or the behavior of these newcomers. Fady forests or taboo forests that
belong to a clan or family usually have a very strong protection. The climatic factors of
an area can also have an importance in whether people will persist in the area or not.
This can in turn lead to a lesser degree of forest clearing in the specific area. (Elmqvist
et al. 2007)
Tavy, a sustainable land use or the method of deforestation?
The traditional land use in the eastern parts of Madagascar is “slash and burn"
agriculture, locally known as tavy, a land use form that is considered to be sustainable
at low population densities with access to abundant land. However, in Madagascar it
has been declared to be unsustainable due to the rapid population growth. When
practicing tavy, forest or secondary vegetation is first cut down. The field is then burned
and upland rice is grown for one season. At the season for rice cultivation the people
tend to move to temporary homesteads closer to the tavy fields. After this is harvested,
a root crop, such as sweet potatoes or cassava, is grown. When these are finally
harvested the land is left to fallow before it is cleared and burned again. (Styger et.
al.2007)
The recent 150 years tavy has been the reason for extensive forest loss in Madagascar.
The consequences of this intensive land use are forest and biodiversity loss and
degradation of ecosystems, understandably critical in a biodiversity hotspot. The fallow
9
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 periods when practicing tavy in
Madagascar are reported to having
decreased from a length of 8–15 years
to a period of 3–5 years. The habit of
frequently burning the land is
benefiting the establishment of exotic
and aggressive species who replace
the indigenous vegetation. Grasses
are favored and woody species are
disfavored by the frequent fires. Finally
one reaches a stage with minimum
ecological and productive value.
These extensive grasslands, that
Figure 1. The state of the land after several years of Tavy. What remains is unfertile grasslands that at the most can be used for cover a large portion of Madagascar,
grazing of cattle. have extremely low productivity and
are at most managed for cattle grazing after annual fires (see figure 1). The time it takes
from rainforest till land falls into unproductive grasslands has shrunk to a time span of
20–40 years. This is five to ten times faster now than previously reported. (Styger et.
al.2007)
The fallow vegetation in tavy practice changes with the fallow cropping and fallow cycle.
Studies have been made that show that the fallow periods need to be extended in time
with each cycle for the soils to remain at a similar productive level. The different fallows
following after deforestation are characterized by their species composition, life forms,
appearance of the vegetation and their agricultural potential. (Styger et. al. 2007)
The vegetation changes remarkably between the fallows and is a good indication of
what state the soil is in. The fallow following directly after deforestation is in Madagascar
usually dominated by the tree species; Harungana madagascariensis and Trema
orientalis or the shrub Psiadia altissima and sometimes with Solanum mauritianum. The
latter usually gives way to Trema orientalis after about a year of rapid growth. In the
second fallow cycle a shift in species occur: shrub species almost entirely replace trees.
Psiadia is now the dominating species (it was called Dinga in the study area of
Tsaratanana). In the third fallow period exotic and invasive species like Lantana camara,
Aframomum angustifolium and Rubus moluccanus take over and form dense single
species stands. Rubus moluccanus and L. camara have similar ecological requirements,
i.e., medium fertile soil, and both form dense thickets with spiny vines that are not
possible to penetrate without cutting way with a machete. After the canopy has closed
at 2.5–4 m height it does not grow higher. It is then difficult to tell if a fallow is 5 or 20
years of age. If R. moluccanus occurs at the same location as the other species it out
competes them and impedes development of any regenerating indigenous trees. During
10
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 this cycle ferns and grasses start to appear at lower densities. The ferns are mainly
Pteridium aquilinum and Sticherus flagellaris, and the grass is Imperata cylindrica. After
the fourth cycle these species become dominant and after the sixth cycle new grass
species appear. (Styger et. al. 2007)
In some regions of Madagascar tavy is practiced sustainably. In the cases where it is
used like a sustainable land use management it does not degrade the soils and leave
the land in an infertile state. It can even be followed by secondary forests with a high
biodiversity. For this sustainability to be possible one can not cut and burn the fallows in
certain sensitive stages. One should avoid this to allow for the woody species to grow
strong so they do not get damaged by burning or cropping. These trees are the keys to
restoring agricultural productivity. Burning at this stage would open up for herbaceous
plants in the next stage and the plot would drift into degradation. If the fallow is
harvested as the shrubs (like Lantana camara) have reached a dark green color and a
height of 2–4 m it will be sustainable tavy. However the time till the plot reaches this
stage gets longer and longer the more times the land is used. It can finally require ten
years or more to become mature. If the fallow is left to stand, and is not exposed to fire,
it will eventually be dominated by light mediocre wood species that protect young
seedlings of more precious tree species. After about 60 years the secondary forest
contains trees of soft wooded species of sizes that can be used for e.g. for timber
boards. In the understory at this time, the hard wood species are establishing and
eventually a secondary forest will once again cover the plot. (Styger et. al. 2007)
With an increase in population pressure and a growing need of food for the day, the
fallow periods tend to become shorter and shorter. The farmers rotation between their
different plots become more frequent and they tend to move further up on the hillsides,
cut new forest areas and eventually cultivate hilltops (see figure 2.). The hillside plots
degrade more rapidly, but for a short period of time they feed the underlying plots with
nutritious soils extending their
production for a few more seasons.
When the fields in the valleys are
burnt the fire often escapes upward
and destroys crops and prematurely
burns fallows and spreads into
forests. (Styger et. al. 2007) It all
becomes problematic when the
uplands are degraded, young
farmers then tend to move to
localities closer to the forest borders,
this to convert new land into fields for Figure 2. Secondary forest on a hillsideburnt as tavy. In the beginning it Will give good yields of sweet potatoes, hill side rice and cassava. agriculture. Even if the felling of trees
11
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 is illegal there is no enforcement of the law in these areas, and the resources are often
considered to be free access. The pressure on the forests is multiplied by the fact that
the population densities are the highest closer to forest areas where the land has not
yet been as degraded.
Edges and fragmentation affecting forests and their diversity
Tavys are often found along the edges of moist forests and show a remarkable contrast
in structure and vegetation from the interior of the forest. It constitutes a sharp physical
edge to the forest ecosystem. Forest edges can be both natural and anthropogenically
created and have implications for the physical and biological conditions within the forest.
This implies negative effects on less resilient species, which in the case of endemics
and endangered species can be detrimental. With the high degree of fragmentation in
Madagascar the over all edge effect in the forests of the island is likely to be extensive.
The forest habitat bordering to non-forested areas differs from them far from the forest
edge. The edge is constituted by a dynamic zone, characterized by the penetration of
conditions from the environment surrounding the area, the zone stretches to varying
depths and with varying intensity towards the forest interior (Lehman et al. 2006). Forest
areas are in other words exposed to edge effects from the surrounding matrix. Edge
effect, or edge influence as some prefer to call it, are defined as “the effect of processes
(both abiotic and biotic) at the edge that result in a detectable difference in composition,
structure or function near the edge, as compared with the ecosystem on either side of
the edge” (Harper et. al. 2005). The following description of edge influences is from
Harper et al. (2005):
“Abiotic and biotic gradients near created forest edges generate a set of primary
responses to edge creation. Indirect effects from these primary responses and the
original edge gradient perpetuate edge influence, leading to secondary responses.
Further changes in vegetation effect the edge environment, resulting in ongoing edge
dynamics” (Harper et al, 2005).
Further they describe that “the magnitude and distance of edge influence are a direct
function of the contrast in structure and composition between adjacent communities on
either sides of the edge. Local factors such as climate, edge characteristics, stand
attributes, and biotic factors affect patch contrast” (Harper et al, 2005).
Thus there ought to be a big edge influence on either party when both the communities
are constituted by on the one side agricultural fields and human settlements and on the
other side forests as is the case in many Malagasy regions. Forest edges are increasing
in area around the world. This is due to increasing human activities such as; settling,
agriculture, extraction of resources and harvesting of timber. And in turn they all may
lead to degradation of the remaining forest fragments (Harper et al. 2005).
12
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Deforestation creates new forest edges. The direct effects of edge creation are physical
disturbance of soil and vegetation; changes in the abiotic environmental gradients such
as wind, moisture and light; and an increase of access for external organisms and
materials (Harper et al.2005). Changes in micrometeorology, increasing wind exposure
and damage, changes in fire frequency, livestock grazing and trampling, entry by nonforest animals and people who affect the forest, e.g., through hunting, are further
examples of specific factors affecting forest edge ecology (Harper et. al. 2007).
The consequences following edge creation can first of all be physical damage and
exchange of species or matter; as a response to this the productivity, nutrient cycling,
decomposition and dispersal increases; the structural responses following this is a
decline in canopy cover, tree density and biomass and an increase of fallen wood; the
recruitment, growth, mortality and reproduction increases as a 2nd degree response with
increasing sapling density and understory cover following nearby in time. As a final
result the species composition of the edge area changes in relation to the unaffected
core area. The new composition of species is typically dominated by shade–intolerant
species and exotics. (Laurance et al. 2006)
With time the edge effects can decline in magnitude, but the distance of the edge effect
can despite this still increase towards the forest core in some cases. In other cases
where the edge is maintained, the distance of the edge effect can be found not to
extend as far into the forest after some time, while the magnitude of the edge effect is
still strong. This occurs in cases where a wall of dense secondary vegetation is
developed and reduces the penetration of biotic and abiotic edge effects towards the
interior. The edge effect distance is generally longer in cases where the edge is kept
open instead of being left to seal. (Harper et al.2005) In the Amazon rain forest tree
mortality has been found to be significantly higher within a 100 m distance from the
edge due to desiccation stress and wind turbulence. Trees larger than 60 cm in
diameter are extra vulnerable and die at a speed three times faster close to the edges
than in the interior of the forest. As a consequence of the high mortality the wood
biomass rapidly decreases and the forest at the edges also gets a higher degree of tree
fall gaps opening up to regeneration as well as vines. (Laurance et al. 2006)
The area exposed to edge effects is relative to the forest edge and not to the size of the
forest. The area that is not affected by this edge effect is referred to as core area. This
is the area of interior forest not showing any edge influence and it is found outside the
zone of significant edge effect (Harper et al. 2005). Fragmentation exposes more area
to edge effects. Thus smaller forest fragments can even be lacking unaffected core
areas. To properly assess the biodiversity impact of deforestation one apart from the
actual deforested area itself, also needs to take into concern the area of edge habitat in
a forest as well as its degree of isolation (Harper et al. 2007). As fragmentation
increases basal area decreases and a high basal area is generally associated with
13
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 larger old growth forest fragments both in India and Madagascar. The complexity of the
matrix and the connectivity of forest fragments can be important factors in explaining the
richness of tree species in these fragments, and affects the guilds structure of the forest.
The forest size also has been recorded to determine the degree of human disturbance
and impact in the forest e.g. the number of tree stumps and cow paths. The larger the
forest is the smaller the extent of human disturbance is in turn. (Echeverría et al. 2007)
The effects from the environment surrounding a forest can have deleterious effects on
the primates inhabiting the forest. In Madagascar this would be the lemurs, which are
among the most threatened taxa of primates globally. (Lehman et al. 2006) This is
because the vegetation of a forest changes towards its edges. A higher degree of
invasive species are found and the composition of tree species is different than from the
interior. The density and size of the tree species preferred by lemurs decreases near
the forest edge and predation on these is also likely to be higher (Lehman et.al.2006).
In the case of severe fragmentation, the biotic pollinators or dispersers can become rare
or disappear and the tree species dependant on them for their gene flow will become
affected (Echeverría et.al.2007).
Over all fragmentation of forests affects the species richness and abundance. If
fragmentation reaches too far the effect can be that even ecological processes are
reduced. (Echeverría et al. 2007) The smaller a fragment is the faster some of the more
susceptible species will decline. An increasing degree of fragmentation also increases
the access for people to forest resources. Voices have been raised that there is reason
to believe that the generally accepted ”intermediate disturbance hypothesis” is not
applicable in tropical forests. On the one hand a small number of taxa may increase in
numbers as a positive disturbance response. But on the other hand in tropical forests
disturbance has been recorded to generally cause a decline in diversity as it increases
the extinction probability of several species. (Cadotte, Lovett-Doust, 2007)
Cadotte and Lovett-Doust (2007) highlighted that no one has studied human
disturbance measured as proximity of villages to forest fragments in cases where
communities are reliant on extracting forest resources for their subsistence. Structural
features can be used to indicate degree of disturbance of a forest; these features can
be, e.g., number of tree stumps or coppiced individuals of trees. There are other
disturbance factors that are not as easily observed, such as the removal of leaves or
fruit. Measurable structural features representing both biodiversity and human impact
have been inquired for to help to aid in management of forests. Stand density, diameter
of stems, and size class distribution among stems are forest structural features that
respond to disturbance and in turn have a relationship with the biodiversity of tropical
forests. The environmental and anthropogenic factors differ widely and are often unique
from location to location; this in turn complicates predictive theory. (Ingram et al. 2005)
14
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 In this study tree stumps and basal area will be used as parameters representing the
degree of edge effect in the study area.
Introduced invasive species posing a threat to indigenous species or a way to
reforest?
One of the obstacles likely to be limiting the human accessibility to the forest, and thus
the extraction of wood, are the dense thickets of spiny Solanum species and Lantana
camara.
Introduced invasive species are considered a huge threat to the world’s biodiversity but
this threat has been outweighed by the impacts of erosion, deforestation and fires so far
on Madagascar (Binggeli, 2003). However, some species have now been recognized as
a threat to the native species on the island. (Binggeli, 2003) The invasive species
introduced to Madagascar only become dominant in disturbed areas such as secondary
forests, after tavy or after logging (Binggeli, 2003). This anthropogenic disturbance can
have a huge impact on the native species of Madagascar. There is a risk that the native
species diversity never recovers after logging as a consequence of the persistence and
dominance of invasive species. Logging decreases species diversity in moist forests of
Madagascar after selective as well as clear-cut logging due to the establishment of
invasive species. This effect is maintained also when 150 years has passed since the
area was logged. (Brown and Gurevitch, 2004). Invasive species have then after all
become a threat to the internationally recognized hotspot.
Solanum mauritianum and Solanum auriculatum, both native to South America, are
considered problematic invasive species in Madagascar. The former species is common
in secondary forests, cultivated fields and also natural forests. It is classified as a highly
invasive species that tends to become dominant or co-dominant and constitutes a threat
to the native flora and ecosystem. Solanum auriculatum is reported to suppress all
native vegetation and is easily spread by birds. This species is also a health threat to
people. When they are clearing it from the land fine hairs containing toxins are
dislodged into the air. When these are inhaled they can cause respiratory problems.
(Binggeli, 2003)
Lantana camara is a species that dominates many forest edges and fields in
Madagascar and typically so in the study area. This species is native to the American
tropics and is also classified as a highly invasive species that tends to become
dominant or co-dominant and constitutes a threat to the native flora and ecosystems
(Binggeli, 2003). Lantana camara is seen as a pest in cultivated land and also in natural
areas. The specie today comprises of several hybrids and cultivars. The variety that has
invaded Madagascar is the prickly L. camara var. aculeata. The shrub varies in growth
form; it can grow as high as 2–5 meters and forms dense, impenetrable and extensive
thickets in disturbed areas. Its seeds are spread by birds but the shrub also spreads
15
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 vegetatively. It is limited in its spread by shading but it is benefited by fire and grazing
that decreases competition and increases the resource availability. Fire even stimulates
a thicker regrowth of Lantana. After tavy L. camara makes out one of the main
component in the secondary succession. It hasn’t yet been noted as an invasive
species in the open forests in Madagascar, but it has elsewhere in the world. In
Madagascar it is restricted to edges of protected areas and along foot paths, but also
across open areas and it often encroaches on agricultural land. The shrub has been
used for erosion control and it has occasionally been used for medicines or fuel wood.
Its negative impacts for both people and the natural areas of Madagascar are important.
The spines and dense thickets of the shrub hinder access to both agricultural land and
natural areas. The berries can cause poisoning in livestock and has been recorded to
kill children who have eaten of the unripe berries. Rats (Rattus rattus is a species
introduced to Madagascar that also carry fleas that spread e.g. plague) are attracted to
its massive seed production and thus the rats increase in numbers and the negative
effect they have on crops and human health as well. L. camara’s large biomass also
increases the susceptibility to fires. (Binggeli, 2003; Duplantier and Duchemin, 2003).
Lantana camara has playes a part in the
deforestation in Madagascar at the same time as
it offers possibilities of reforestation. The species
has allelopathic qualities that can inhibit the
growth and seed germination of natural
regeneration of forest vegetation, tree species
and crops. Historically there are records of
people abandoning land infested by L. camara in
Madagascar. They moved on to new areas
clearing new forest instead of clearing the shrub
and as a consequence deforestation took
another giant leap. Eradication of the invasive
Figure 3. Impenetrable thickets of Lantana camara species is considered impossible once it has
boardering to the forest. This is the stage after leaving a new tavy to fallow for a couple of years. established itself (see figure 3.). Its roots
resprout freely and seedlings recolonize and
establish themselves in the area quickly. There is however a positive observation where
Perrier de la Bâthie in 1928 recorded that L. camara can have a transitory existence
and that under the dense shrubs a humus layer is deposited under the span of a
decade. In the shade of the shrubs young native trees could in this case then establish
and grow strong and eventually out shade the L. camara. Thus Bâthie had hopes for
using L. camara to reforest lateritic soils in deforested moist areas of the country. This
observation is however unique for Madagascar and has not been observed anywhere
else in the tropics and needs further investigation before it can be considered as a
method for reforestation. (Binggeli, 2003) The theory is somehow supported by the
16
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 transition described by Styger et al. (2005) when they speak about tavy. They claim L.
camara thickets to eventually develop into tertiary vegetation and eventually secondary
forest.
Conservation the goal for forest remnants of Madagascar
Several scientists have reached consensus on the conservation priorities of
Madagascar. Among the priorities was the landscape approach to conserving
Madagascar’s biodiversity. This included the importance of protection and maintaining
of corridors between protected areas in order to safeguard the exchange of species and
the gene flow between already fragmented populations. (Hannah et. al. 1998) As a step
towards protecting Madagascar’s natural heritage many national parks have been
established. The protected areas of the nation were promised to be increased three fold
by the year of 2009 by president Ravalomanana at the Durban World Parks Congress in
2005 (Unesco).
As part of the work to preserve the remaining forests of the island a law has been in
place since November 2002. The law stipulates that farmers that set a fire after cutting
down trees can be imprisoned for up to five years. In other words tavy is forbidden but
unfortunately enough there is no alternative offered to people of many regions.
(Nambena, 2003) Because of the population’s high dependency on forest resources for
their daily livelihoods and the high degree of poverty it must be important to find win-win
solutions when conserving the remains of Madagascar’s biodiversity (Ingram et al.
2005). These solutions need to incorporate optimization of livelihood security as well as
protection of the biodiversity. This demands an understanding of human use of the
forests and the impacts of people on the system. This information is considered to be
crucial when developing new schemes for sustainable resource management of
unprotected forest areas (Ingram et al. 2005). There is much support for sustainable
forest management as an alternative to protected areas to conserve biodiversity at a
landscape level and a means to this is Participatory Forest Management
(PFM)(Erdmann, 2003)
Participatory Forest Management outside Midongy du Sud National Park
The region of Midongy Sud, where this study took place, has lost more than 50% of its
forest, within a period of 10 years (WWF 2). To protect the remaining forests in the
region Midongy du Sud Befotaka National Park was established in 1997. Its principal
natural habitat is dense humid evergreen forest. The park is located in the south eastern
part of the country and is coupled with Special Reserve of Vondrozo far north of this
park. These two protected areas are linked together by a corridor of forest patches and
mountain rock. In this corridor a high number of endemic flora and fauna is found just as
inside the protected areas. The remaining forest patches are under pressure from the
local communities who depend on the exploitation of subsistence farming and natural
resources from the forest for their daily survival. (WWF 3) The extraction of forest
17
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 products is in Madagascar usually an important complement for peoples livelihoods
when food and cash crop production (e.g. bananas) is insufficient, as an example can
be mentioned that weeds are collected and used as leafy vegetables. (Styger et al.
2007)
As a means to preserve forest areas outside of protected areas, PFM or Community
Based Management has become a more and more often used strategy in Madagascar.
The involvement of communities in the management and benefit sharing of the forest is
the most important component. The local communities sign a contractual agreement
with the Malagasy Forest Service. Often a third party is facilitating the process. This is
usually a conservation or development organization. (Raik and Decker, 2007) In the
case of the forest corridor of Midongy the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
constitutes this third party. WWF’s program for forests has two principal strategies; the
sustainable use of forest resources outside of protected areas and the conservation of
forests within protected areas. (Erdmann, 2003)
WWF is actively working to preserve Midongy’s remainders of forest habitat and keep
the corridor intact in a manner that is sustainable for both people and the forest itself.
The organization has been running the Community Forestry Project in Midongy du Sud
(specified as WWF Project MG0860- Ecoregion Conservation and Community Forestry
Development in the Malagasy Humid Forest) since 2003. The goal is to restore, protect
and develop the forests for the benefit of the local community. The priority work is
subdivided into three sectors; forest conservation; developing alternatives to tavy and
gender issues. (WWF 3) Participatory community based management of a few
remaining forest areas in the region has recently been implemented as part of the
project. WWF and the local communities are the main stakeholders in the agreement
which is then legalized by the authorities. The community is required to be organized in
the form of a Grass root Community organization (a so called COBA). Traditional
agreements, so called Dinas, are set up at the grass root level. The Dinas include
prescriptions and measures, permissible and non-permissible acts in the different land
use zones and the division of the territory. Inventories are carried out by WWF together
with the COBAs to delimit the actual forest areas to be managed. Development and
management schemes are set up as part of the process. The area gets subdivided into
different zones for different land use and purposes, such as; a shade tolerant buffering
cash crop zone, agricultural zone, protected forest area etc. The Dinas must be
respected by everyone living in the territory or passing through it. In Midongy du Sud
five COBAs have been established to manage their own forests and the transfer of
management was finally officially handed over to the COBAs in October 2007. (WWF 4,
T.K Erdmann 2003)
The participatory management in Midongy limits the numbers of tavys allowed in the
forest both in number and the ways they are carried out. No new forest areas are to be
18
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 opened up for tavy and no logging is allowed to be carried out in the forests (unless it is
part of the management plan).To replace tavy and improve and diversify the livelihoods
of people the project has introduced new cultivation methods in Midongy. These include
new, more effective and profitable, rice cultivation methods, vegetable gardening and
agro forestry. In Midongy du Sud the population is dominated by the Antaisaka clan.
Among this Malagasy clan, women traditionally has had an inferior rank e.g. when it
comes to decision making. They have been dependant on men even for purchasing
basic necessities such as soap, salt and oil. In the WWF project, information and
awareness-rising concerning the importance of involving both women and men in order
to ensure economic development and wellbeing of the community and families is a key
component. The project is also strengthening women’s capacities by small scale
businesses such as sewing or duck farming. The activities of the community forest
project in Midongy have had a very positive impact so far. Several other communities
have contacted WWF with the wish to participate. Parallel with the forest project WWF
has been running a project to protect the lemurs in the Midongy forests. The activities of
this project are also beneficial for the forest conservation and the living conditions of
the local communities. (WWF4, WWF 5 and Fara Lala RAZAFY)
Motives to this Study
Rainforests are important pools for the biodiversity of this planet. Biodiversity is one of
the important factors in ecosystem services that all people are reliant on for our
wellbeing and survival. The importance of these ecosystem services and the
preservation of biodiversity have been realized in modern times as we see the
resources of our planet being over exploited and in some cases eradicated. The
strategies to preserve these resources have differed just as the reasons for preserving
them. Most commonly used has been the introduction of protected areas (PAs) that
exclude the local populations from the area entirely. Excluding the traditional land users
from the forest areas has not always been politically motivated and can lead to
displacement and conflicts. Today Participatory Forest Management (PFM) has taken a
leap forward in complementing PAs as ways to preserve forests. In these PFM forests
the original inhabitants of the forest areas are given the rights to utilize and manage the
forest in a sustainable way according to an agreement that is usually done with
government or other landowners. The possibility to utilize the forest legally and benefit
from its resources gives motives for the communities to take care of the forest and hand
it over to their children in turn. The management of a forest that in some cases has
been over utilized or targeting some species harder than others requires a well thought
through management plan. This plan requires knowledge of the ecology of the species
and on the number of individuals of them. Even in forests that have been well managed
also before the PFM implementation, one needs to do inventories and decide outtake
levels to prevent future effects on the targeted species. Along with the management
monitoring is usually an important compartment as well. In the case of the study area,
19
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Tsaratanana, the forest has legally been handed over to the community. Before the
PFM outtake from the forest was completely forbidden and with the PFM a plan on how
to utilize the forest sustainably will be introduced. This requires knowledge about what
species people have preference for, the utility fields of the forest products and the
needs of the people. Before the PFM there was illegal logging and tavy burning in the
area. Today tavy is said to have seized entirely because of the PFM agreement.
However logging is still carried out in the forest and also traces of previous logging can
be seen. The local population’s dependency on forest products is believed to be high
and by studying their utilization of the forest something can be learnt about what needs
they have. This study is exploring the effect of natural obstacles on outtake levels of
wood. If there is a difference in effect on forest areas bordering obstacles and areas
with more free access this study can give recommendations to consider when
delineating and zoning forest areas for PFM.
The overall objective for this study is to contribute to the solutions for sustainable
utilization of the forest in the future Participatory Forest Management by contributing to
the background information needed for WWF’s set up of the Management and
Conservation Plan for the forest corridor. Further the objective is to get a picture of the
targeted species and their utility fields, likely to be reflecting the needs of the local
population. The assumed edge effect, in terms of human disturbance, is also intended
to be explored. This is to see the amount of potentially unaffected core forest area there
is left that can harbor more specific and sensitive species.
The distinctive aims of the study were mainly:
• To see if the outtake of trees from the forest is selective by studying what tree
species and size classes are more frequently taken out of the forest for
human utility.
• To record what the different species are used for.
• To determine if there is risk of a competitive overlap between utility species
for people and food/habitat species for lemurs.
• To see if edge characteristics affect the amount of removed wood from the
forest and what edge characteristics in that case are more effective in
hindering access to the forest.
• To see how far into the forest people tend to go to remove wood and how
large proportion of the forest is affected by this.
The theory of this study is that the more accessible a forest area is the more important it
is for the local community to utilize for their livelihoods, and this can be considered
when designing sustainable management plans for the conservation of the forest both
for people and biodiversity.
Null hypothesis: There is no difference in outtake of wood products between the
interior and exterior zones of the forest. Not in preferences for sizes, species or uses
20
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 nor in the total outtake. Edge characteristics such as water, slope and vegetation
degree does not affect the outtake.
Alternative hypothesis: The degree of outtake of wood products decreases with the
distance from the villages or forest edge towards the forest core. It differs with the
degree of accessibility by water, vegetation and slope. The tree species and size
classes removed from the forest are more selective further into the forest than at the
edges.
Methods
Location and site description
The study was conducted in an area classified to be
Moist Forest Ecoregion, by WWF, in the district of
Midongy Atsimo in southeastern Madagascar (see figure
4). The habitat is classified as evergreen humid forest of
low elevation but with some parts exceeding 800 m
above sea level and thereby being categorized as
evergreen humid forest of mid elevation (Du Puy and
Moat, 2003). The elevation of the study site was between
607 and 830 meters above sea level.
The specific forest the study was conducted in was
divided into two halves by a central valley. The two forest
areas have irregular edges. The larger fragment is
named Tsaratanana and is located to the west. The
Figure 4. The forest of Tsaratanana, marked as a smaller fragment, Sambeza, is located in the east (see
polygone here, is located north figure 5). From now on the whole study area will be
of the national park Midongy du referred to as Tsaratanana. Their cores consist of
Sud in the southeastern part of primary forests that have not previously been logged, but
Madagascar. Picture from Google Earth 2006. there is selective logging being carried
out at the edges. The topography is
rugged with exposed peaks, forested
hills, steep slopes, cultivated and
forested valleys and wetlands. The
main forest is approximately 6000 ha
in area. Both forest fragments are
considered important as corridors for
species and gene flow between two
major protected areas in the region.
The region experiences 12 wet months
per year (Wells, 2003). The region has
Figure 5. The valley of Marovato encompassed by the forests of Zambeza and Tsaratanana.
21
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 heavy rains and cyclones from December up until March sometimes with big damage to
agricultural lands and forest accompanying this.
The centre of the study area is an elongated valley with Marovato as centre village. The
valley is inhabited by some hundred people. They cultivate the land mainly with rice,
sugar cane, sweet potatoes, coffee and beans. Especially the valley area is exposed to
flooding during the rainy season and, hence, most villages lie on hill tops in the valley.
Tavy has been the main agricultural method for decades, but in the beginning of the
80’s the forest in the area started declining rapidly in size. There are a number of small
forest fragments, covering around a hectare each, scattered across the valley. These
are taboo forests with restricted or no access, so-called Ala fady, and these could not
be incorporated in the study.
The research plots were distributed in both forest patches surrounding the valley. The
hillsides reaching up to the forested hilltops are covered by tavy fields, secondary
vegetation, forest or Ala fady. Several of
the fallowing fields in the study area had
been taken over by Lantana camara
thickets or by Solanum species growing
large in size and quite impenetrable in
density (see figure 6.). Occasionally
Aframomum angustifolium and Rubus
moluccanus are dominating species in the
fallow fields. The specific Solanum
species were not determined in the field,
but field agents of WWF have confirmed
that it is the introduced species Solanum
Figure 6. Most of the remaining forest is located at the top of the hill sides. The hillsides are covered with L. camara or crops.
auriculatum and Solanum mauritianum.
Field Surveys
The field work was conducted from the beginning of October to the middle of November
2009. At about 20 locations descriptions of the forest edge and its structure was done.
GPS positions were taken at the same descriptive points. This information set was at a
later stage combined with Satellite imagery from Google Earth to determine the
characteristics of the forest edges of the study area.
The inventory of the tree stumps was carried out using subdivided plots. The
encompassing plot is 25×25m, inside this plot a 10×10m plot is located in the corner of
the bigger plot, inside this one a 5×5m plot is located in the same corner.
In the 5×5 m plot the stumps with a diameter from 1 cm up to 5 cm were recorded. In
the 10×10 m plot the stumps greater than 5 cm up to 10cm in diameter were recorded.
22
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 In the 25×25 m plot the trees exceeding 10 cm in diameter were recorded. The tree
stumps were only recorded if they obviously had been cut and specifically showed
traces of tools.
71 plots were inventoried in total; 30 were located closer to the forest interior, 30 in the
peripheral zone of the forest and 11 just inside the forest edge. The second category
and the third category are however in some cases rather similar in their distance to the
forest edge. GPS-data was noted for each of the inventoried plots, specifically;
longitude/latitude, accuracy and altitude.
The variables measured and information recorded on
the tree stumps were the following: Diameter at the
location of the cut (often half a meter or more from the
ground) and the vernacular name of the species (see
figure 7). For all plots in the edge zone information on
what the tree is used for was also recorded and
whether it is a food species for lemurs or not, the
same was also done using sample specimens in the
village. The work with recording logged trees and
Figure 7. The species, diameter and utility their use required some mutual trust between the
fields of the tree stumps were measured. This is Menahihy that had been cut for accessing researcher and the informant. There was some
honey. suspicion at the beginning from the villagers. This was
said to be because they feared repercussions
because of the logging. Just before the start of the study a number of farmers had been
arrested because of the illegal logging they had been carrying out.
In 62 of the plots the basal area (BA) was measured in the plots using a relascope. This
intends to give a relative comparative number of the tree density and not an absolute
volume of the wood (since it is constructed for production forests).
A collection of samples from the majority of the cut species as well as a complementary
number of utility species was gathered and taken to Antananarivo for determination.
The determination has not to date been able to complete.
Data and map analysis
The density of stumps per hectare was calculated for each plot and for each species.
The average diameter of the stumps per plot was calculated.
Google Earth was used to mark the position of all the examined plots. The villages and
single houses were also marked in the program. The distances from each plot to the
nearest village and forest edge was then measured. Using a coordinate system the
distance between all plots and all houses and villages was calculated. The accuracy of
23
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 these distances mustn’t be considered to be exact due to the limits in accuracy of the
GPS and Google Earth.
The Google image of the study area is from 14 June 2006, six months before the
agreement not to create more tavy areas. A subjective classification of accessibility
was set up reflecting the increased difficulty of access to each plot considering water,
vegetation, topography and distance to forest edge and closest homestead respectively.
The classifications for direct access were:
Topography:
1. Topographically easy uniform access, plain surface.
2. Some slope, relatively easy access.
3. Steep slope or varying terrain, demands effort for access, no foot paths.
4. Very steep slope or varying terrain where the ground is unstable and hardly
supports access, no foot paths.
Water:
1. No wet area to access through on the way or where plot is located.
2. Seasonally affected by water but not problematic to cross.
3. Demands crossing of water/wet areas for access, but the ground is stable.
4. Demands crossing of water/wet areas, ground unsupporting/unstable, changing
water levels in season.
Vegetation:
1. No vegetation barrier hindering access.
2. Demands penetration of some vegetation for access, e.g. through natural forest
vegetation with lianas and wild jams.
3. Hardly accessible without crossing a lot of forest vegetation or some shrub areas.
4. Not accessible/penetrable without hard work necessary to cut open a path,
through e.g. Solanum and/or Lantana camara spiny thickets.
Distance to nearest edge and to village respectively was adjusted to a continuous
variable between 0 and 4 through the formula: 4* (distance for n/max distance).
After combining the grades from all the above access categories the total accessibility
was found and then tested as the above categories. Excel and SAS System were used
for the statistical analysis of the data. A multiple regression analysis (general linear data
model) and a non parametric test; Spearman’s rank correlation were done to look for a
possible effect between the different access classifications and the observed outtake in
matter of stump density and BA. For the model the assumption was made that the
difficulty of fetching wood increases linearly with the distance to access. The tendency
to fetch wood should decrease with the distance that has to be covered to retrieve the
resource. In other words the outtake should decrease linearly with the increasing
24
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 distance to villages or/and edge and with the increasing level of all other access
categories.
To evaluate the size of the forest area affected by human disturbance as well as the
area potentially unaffected by it a map analysis was done. The entire forest of
Tsaratanana was delineated as detailed as possible, as a polygon in Google Earth. This
polygon was then extracted and treated in Paint Shop Pro to get distinctive edges easy
to read in the following computer analysis. An area of 150 and 300 meters respectively
was measured, drawn up and extracted in the Paint Shop Pro document. These two
distances were selected based on two reasons: the location of the majority of cut tree
stumps in this study (the number of stumps beyond 150 m from the edge were few) and
on two previous studies on edge effect, fragmentation and patch size effects on
biodiversity and BA. The more recent of the two was Cristian Echeverría et al.’s study
from 2007. It examines forest fragmentation, in Chile, and core area values at distances
from 100-500m from the forest edge, looking at BA, biodiversity, traces of human
disturbance as well as a number of other parameters. James E. M. Watson et al.’s study
from 2004 investigates forest bird species in Madagascar. The littoral forest birds are
discussed to be affected at a distance of 300 m from the edge. Thus, using 300 meters
as one of the distances was used to give an indication of how much area is lost due to
edge effects for some species. The different images of the forest, with different “edge
effects”, were then analyzed using the program WINSEEDLE . The surface area of each
alternative was calculated and the resulting area was then transformed to hectares.
25
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Results
Slope and vegetation affects basal area in type I tests
The independent variables that are significant in relation to the dependent variable BA
in the type I regression test are: slope and vegetation. High values of these indicate a
higher basal area inside the forest edge. Water is close to significant (Sh.>F=0.059) but
doesn’t show enough significance to determine BA in the forest. The distance
categories show no significance. In the type III test slope is close to significant. Total
accessibility shows significance in both tests. (See table 1.)
Vegetation and total accessibility affects the extraction in Type III regression test
For the different stump density categories (≤5cm, 5-10 cm, >10cm, total density)
vegetation is a significant predictor of outtake in the type I test. Village distance can also
significantly determine the outtake, as the results from the type I regression test shows.
However village distance looses influence when tested in relation to the other variables,
in the type III test. Vegetation is the only significant independent variable in the type III
tests. Water is close to significant in type III tests for ≤5cm density category and total
stump density. Slope is close to significant for the ≤5cm density category. Total
accessibility, from all access categories, is significant as predictor for all dependent
variables, in both tests, and is able to determine the outtake level. (See table 1.)
Table 1. Results from regression analysis, type I and III. Accessibility categories vs. BA and outtake.
Dependant variable Test
Basal Type I Sh.>F
Area
F
Type III Sh.>F Slope
Water
Vegetation
Village distance
Edge distance F (model) Sh. >F (model) R² (model)
3.21
0.0128
0.2229
Total accessibility R²
0.0170
0.0599
0.0249
0.6041
0.3951
6.05
3.69
5.32
0.27
0.73
0.0266
5.17
0.0677
0.1158
0.1465
0.8589
0.3951
0.0266
F
3.47
2.55
2.17
0.03
0.73
5.17
T‐test t‐value
‐1.86
1.6
1.47
‐0.18
0.86
Stump Type I Sh.>F
0.0644
0.1561
<0.0001
0.0001
0.6776
density F
3.54
2.06
35.87
17.07
0.17
21.97
≤5cm
2.27
11.74
<0.0001
0.4746
<0.0001
0.1505
0.0502
<0.0001
0.1710
0.6776
<0.0001
F
2.12
3.38
31.68
1.92
0.17
21.97
T‐test t‐value
‐1.46
2.0
‐5.63
‐1.38
‐0.42
Stump Type I Sh.>F
0.3033
0.9208
<0.0001
0.0008
0.2466
density
F
1.08
0.01
23.75
12.43
1.37
23.83
5‐10 cm
Type III Sh.>F <0.0001
0.3727
<0.0001
0.5664
0.8643
<0.0001
0.6572
0.2466
<0.0001
0.33
0.03
20.43
0.20
1.37
23.83
T‐test t‐value
4.75
0.17
‐4.52
‐0.45
‐1.17
Stump Type I Sh.>F
0.1102
0.8160
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.4375
density F
2.62
0.05
23.05
18.81
0.61
31.01
<0.0001
0.4099
<0.0001
0.1488
0.7836
<0.0001
0.2572
0.4375
<0.0001
2.13
0.08
19.44
1.31
0.61
31.01
T‐test t‐value
‐1.46
0.28
‐4.41
‐1.14
‐0.78
Total Type I Sh.>F
0.0638
0.2154
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.5549
density
F
3.56
1.56
39.36
19.16
0.35
25.27
of stumps
Type III Sh.>F 0.3101
‐5.57
12.80
<0.0001
0.4961
<0.0001
0.1597
0.0755
<0.0001
0.1881
0.5549
<0.0001
F
2.02
3.26
34.61
1.77
0.35
25.27
T‐test t‐value
‐1.42
1.81
‐5.88
‐1.33
‐0.59
‐5.03
26
0.2567
‐4.88
9.03
F
Type III Sh.>F 0.2415
‐4.69
7.73
F
>10 cm
Type III Sh.>F 0.079
0.2681
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Vegetation, village and edge distance correlate to tree extraction
Spearman’s rank correlation test shows significance for the negative relationship
between vegetation, village distance, edge distance and total accessibility on the one
side and average stump diameter, stump density of all size classes and total stump
density on the other (see table 2).
Village distance
Edge distance
-0,239
0,323
0,177
0,430
0,442
0,346
p
0,0609
0,06289
0,0104
0,1679
0,0005
0,0003
0,0059
0,0844
-0,249
-0,388
-0,510
-0,389
Avg. stump diameter
r
p
0,603
0,484
0,0365
0,0008
< 0,0001
0,0008
0,0236
Stump density ≤5cm
r
-0,0962
0,139
-0,432
-0,552
0,425
0,248
0,0002
< 0,0001
-0,506
<
0,0001
-0,0326
p
-0,468
<
0,0001
r
-0,0988
0,00086
0,994
< 0,0001
-0,574
<
0,0001
-0,201
0,412
-0,460
<
0,0001
-0,595
p
-0,485
<
0,0001
r
-0,1734
0,04256
-0,432
-0,571
0,724
0,0002
< 0,0001
r
0,148
0,00789
-0,546
<
0,0001
-0,197
p
-0,469
<
0,0001
0,0946
0,433
-0,573
<
0,0001
-0,131
0,513
-0,499
<
0,0001
-0,618
P
-0,460
<
0,0001
Stump density 5-10 cm
Stump density >10 cm
Total stump density
< 0,0001
-0,287
Total
stump density
Vegetation
Basal Area
Basal Area
Water
r
Variable
Total
accessibility
Slope
Table 2. Spearman’s Rank Correlation on accessibility categories vs. basal area, stump diameter and density.
0,723
<
0,0001
0,8013
0,118
0,124
0,311
In other words; more inaccessible edge vegetation, or longer distances from edge or
village, gives lower numbers of stumps. Also higher vegetation obstacles give a lower
average diameter of removed tree stumps. In the correlation test no significant
relationship can be shown to exist between BA and edge vegetation, however distance
to village and edge respectively show significance in correlation to basal area. This
means that the basal area, and thus tree density, increases at further distances to
villages and/or edges. Water also has a significant positive relationship with basal area.
This in turn means that the more difficult water obstacles there are to reach a forest
area the higher the basal area tends to be. Slope is close to significant in negatively
correlating with basal area. Basal area also correlates negatively with the average
diameter of the extracted trees, showing that smaller trees are extracted in an area of
high BA or the reverse; that larger trees have been extracted in an area of low BA.
Village and edge distance show a strong correlation (not shown in the table, with an r
27
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 value of less than 0.0001 and a correlation coefficient of 0.787) and the more influential
of these two on the dependant variables is distance to village as shown in the
regression analysis. This means they are highly related to each other. Thus the distance
categories will be considered together. The total accessibility, emitted from the compiled
values of all edge categories, shows significant correlation to all variables. The total
density of stumps is positively correlated to the average stump diameter, meaning that
the more stumps a site has the higher the average diameter of these is.
Sizes and species of tree stumps
The size class most targeted for outtake was trees leaving a stump smaller than 5 cm in
diameter. In this group, 200 observations of 56 vernacular species were made. In the
medium size category, between 5 and 10 cm, 139 observations of 49 vernacular
species were made. In the category of trees exceeding 10 cm in diameter 119 stumps
were observed of 52 vernacular species. However these numbers are not comparable
since the different size categories were observed in sub compartments of the plot. To
make these comparable one needs to extrapolate them to the same area to retrieve a
measure of density. The smaller size category can easily be multiplied by 25, the
medium class can be multiplied by 6,25, giving comparable numbers of 5000 small tree
stumps, 869 medium and 119 large tree stumps. For detailed information on density per
ha of each species see appendixes A-D. There were 31 plots without any observations
of cut trees.
Table 3. The number of stumps observed, their numbers after extrapolation and the number of species observed being extracted in this study. The maximum possible number of scientific species utilized in the forest, assuming that the unidentified species only consist of one scientific species. Observations are subdivided by size classes. Category
<5 cm
5-10 cm
>10 cm
Total
Total number of stumps, observed and after
extrapolation
200/5000
139/869
119/119
458/5988
Number of vernacular species total
56
49
52
88
Maximum number of possible scientific species
154
Different species most frequently extracted in different size classes
The vernacular names of the trees with the highest density of stumps in the forest
across all size categories were Hazondambo (109 stumps /ha, with an average
diameter of 3.5 cm), Sanira (103 stumps /ha, with the average diameter of 4.1 cm) and
Rotry (92 stumps /ha, average diameter being 3.5 cm) (see appendix. A). The same
species as above were the most common in the smallest size class (≤5cm) (see
appendix B). The species most common in the 5-10cm size category was Hazondambo
(14 stumps/ha), Taimboalavo (14 stumps/ha, in small size class position 20, average
28
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 diameter of 4.5cm) and Ranovoasahy (12 stumps/ha, in small size class position 28,
3.4cm). Rotry and Sanira are found on places 8 and 9 in this category with 7 stumps /ha.
(See appendix C) The most common species in the larges size category (>10 cm shown
in appendix D) were Ambora, Boboka, Vimboa and Varongy. The species found most
frequently to be removed at large sizes are less frequently or not at all removed at
smaller sizes. Boboka is not found at all in the other size classes but is extracted at 1
stump/ha, and has an average diameter of 43.2 cm very high in comparison with all
other species. Varongy is not found in the medium size category and found only at the
bottom of the smallest size category. Ambora is found in position 7 in the medium size
category and in 31st position in the smallest size category. Vimboa take the 29th position
in the medium class and is at the bottom of the smallest size category. The average
diameters of the cut tree species are generally low. But a few species have larger
average diameters due to a limited degree of small stumps among their numbers e.g.
Boboka, Afokalalao, Vonoa, Vanga and Fandramana and specifically Menahihy that
only was observed once as a specimen with a 120 cm trunk diameter.
High degree of endemism among extracted tree species
The study shows that among the extracted tree species there are many species that are
endemic to Madagascar. The vernacular names of tree species in Madagascar are
often local, but sometimes shared within larger regions. The case in Tsaratanana is that
a large number of names are unique for the area. This made determination of all
species complicated. Among all 88 observed extracted species 21 are still
undetermined. The determination of the samples collected during the field work was not
possible to complete and therefore a list from the tree diversity inventories of the area
has been used to see what vernacular names represent what scientific species. It is
common that several species share the same vernacular name. I can not assume that
species sharing the same name are equally extracted since field guides from the area
reported that some of them were not used. However looking at the list of scientific
species it shows that 48 species are endemic taxa, 19 are of an endemic genus and 3
are members of an endemic family. Thus this would indicate an endemism of more than
58% among utility species in the forest assuming that the extraction of all these species
is equally distributed. The degree of endemism is probably higher considering the 20
unidentified vernacular species names. In the total inventory of the forest trees there
was 70 species that lacked a vernacular name but could be determined to scientific
names. This could indicate that they are not utility species or extraordinary in their
appearance.
29
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Construction and firewood for people or food for lemurs
The main fields of use for the extracted species are firewood and construction wood.
(See figure 8.) There are other fields of use that are not as commonly reported among
the extracted species. These are for example: walking sticks; bowls and mortars for
removing the husk from the rice; rope; beds and medicinal use. 69 species out of the
observed ones are used for construction and 44 for firewood. 29 of the species are
preferred as food species by lemurs according to the field guides. Many of the species
overlap in their fields of use, depending on the size of the tree or the direct need. Some
species have a wide variety of utilities while others are more specifc (see Appendix E
showing a list of the top 15 most extracted species and their utility fields). Rotry is used
for four different utility fields (excluding food species for lemurs) while e.g. Ranovoasahy
only has one utility field, apart from being a food species for lemurs. Many of the tree
species that are extracted
are also food species for
lemurs in the area (See
appendix F). A few of the
species such as Kalavelo,
Ravinovihazo and
Andrimena are used only
by people. Among the 32
most frequently cut tree
species one is recorded to
be used only by lemurs.
Seven are used only by
people and one is
recorded to be used by
Figure. 8. Fields of use for the extracted tree species of Tsarananana forest. neither of the two. The
remaining 23 are used by both people and lemurs. The number of species that can be
utilized for construction and fire wood is diverse but only a few of the most extracted
species are used for tea or ropes (appendix E). There is a difference between the size
categories when it comes to their utility fields. They are all used for e.g. for construction
but there is less large trees used for fire wood and none of them for walking sticks or
ropes. The species extracted at large sizes are the ones used for carpentry, e.g. for
beds.
Up to half of the forest area affected by extraction leaving fragmented core areas
The human induced edge effect, here defined as wood extraction, was limited to the
edge areas of the forest. In figure 9 the estimated density of stumps/ha is plotted
against distance to forest edge. Most observations were made within 100 m from the
30
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 edge. However there are still a
few observations made further in
than 300 m from the edge. The
outtake from the forest drops to
zero after 350 m but there is too
few sample points located further
into the forest to be able to
determine this with good
accuracy. There is a large area of
forest affected by extraction of
trees (see fig 3-6). The map
analysis estimated the forest of
Figure 9. Density of stumps (stumps/ha) of all size categories plotted Tsaratanana, including the forest
against distance to edge (meters). Only three plots have observations at strip that stretches down to the
a distance of more than 100 meters from the forest edge. Midongy road, to be
approximately 7,560 ha. An
estimated edge effect of 150 m around the whole forest would result in around 2,400 ha
of affected forest (31,7%). An edge effect of 300m would answer to an affected area of
3,800 ha (50,2%). The core area left unaffected inside 150 m of edge would be 5,140
ha. With an edge of 300m the core forest would be 3,810 ha (see fig 10-13). This would
mean that more than half of the forest area is disturbed by human activities. With an
assumed edge effect of 150 m the analysis shows an increase in forest core fragments.
The larger forest compartment is in that case still relatively intact in its core area but
there are several smaller core areas appearing out of which three are close to 1 sq km
in area. In the case of a 300 m edge effect there is mainly two core areas remaining,
one of which is smaller than 1 sq km.
Figure 10‐13. Figures of edge areas with human disturbance. The first figure from the left shows an edge zone of 150 meters. The second figure shows the remaining core area in the case of 150m extractive zone along the edges. The third figure shows an edge area of 300m. The fourth figure shows the remaining forest core inside an extractive zone of 300m. 31
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Discussion
Edge vegetation structure and distance from villages and forest edges limit the
outtake of wood
In this study it was found that forest areas far away from villages or from forest edges
have a lower outtake of trees than forest spaces closer to human populations. Also the
diameter of the removed trees is lower far away from edges and villages. The increase
in basal area with increasing distance to villages and forest edges that also is found in
this study strengthens this conclusion and is in turn supported by Ingram (2005) who
shows that basal area decreases with increasing accessibility.. This is likely to be
because it requires more effort to carry out wood from an area far into the rugged forest
or across the hilly agricultural lands back to the villages. The effort to carry large trees is
bigger than the one required for carrying smaller trees. Large tree stems are also naily
to carry through dense forest. The study further shows that the average diameter of the
cut trees is negatively correlated to the vegetation structure of the forest edge. The
more inaccessible the forest edge is the smaller the tree stumps tend to be. This can
also be explained by the increased difficulty of removing larger trees through dense or
thorny vegetation. Edge and village distance are possible covariates where the actual
determinant seems to be the distance to village which is plausible considering the fact
that that is the actual distance people need to carry the wood from the forest to home.
The distance from the village to a forest area seems to be able to determine the outtake
level of the site. This factor is likely to be related to the distribution of villages in the
valley and that people tend to access areas closer to home or the place where the wood
is to be used, thereby saving energy and time when carrying the heavy wood.
The study also shows that the outtake amounts of all size classes are highly related to
the vegetation structure at the forest edge leading to the plot. A higher degree of
difficulty and more challenging structure limits the access to the forest and thereby the
tree extraction significantly. Vegetation structure was the single most important variable
limiting the outtake of wood in both the regression and correlation tests. The number of
stumps decreased significantly inside edge areas of more impenetrable vegetation. The
importance of vegetation as a limiting factor for outtake of forest products is supported
by Harper et al. (2005). They state that the edge influence decreases when shrubs and
secondary vegetation grows up to be a protective wall at the edge of the forest. In this
study, this is confirmed by the result that outtake of trees decrease inside edge areas
occupied by impenetrable Lantana camara and Solanum sp. thickets. These results
indicate that secondary vegetation such as Lantana camara and Solanum sp. are
“good” barriers for limiting the outtake of trees from the forest. A lower degree of human
disturbance and presence can avoid negative effects on sensitive species e.g. tree
extraction or hunting. However, these introduced species are not all together beneficial
32
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 for the human community or the ecosystem where they become established and there
is a risk of them dominating agricultural lands or outcompeting indigenous species.
Ingram has previously showed a decrease in basal area due to increased accessibility
as well as increasing disturbance pressure (Ingram et al. 2005a, Ingram et al. 2005b).
This is corresponding with the results from this study. It is also documented that the
stem density among smaller tree categories can increase with increasing disturbance
pressure (Ingram et al. 2005). This is not possible to confirm in this study since the
inventories of trees and their sizes is not available at this point. The data is however
collected and could result in future analyses. In this study the degree of water obstacles
correlate significantly to the basal area of the forest but not with the outtake of trees.
The degree of slope is also close to significant in correlating negatively with basal area.
These results can be indications of ecological factors affecting the stands of trees rather
than related to outtake and will thus be left here.
Potentially selective outtake for size can have ecological implications
In this study it is found that the general stump diameter is rather low. The low average
diameter for the selected tree species is related to the large number of small stumps.
There can be several explanations to this. In cases where the regeneration is located
close to the mother tree it is likely that many small individuals of the same species are
cut to access the large individual, thus showing a lower average diameter. In many of
the examined plots observations were made on young trees cut to access larger
individuals. These small trees were not often present in the plots which show that they
were removed to be used as well. The fact that people effectively use trees of all sizes
is a reasonable explanation. There are many utility fields also for small trees and they
do not require much effort to cut or remove from the forest. In some instances it can be
found more meaningful to harvest many small individuals rather than one large. A third
explanation to the high removal of young trees can be that the extraction is equal
between all age classes and the high number of small tree stumps just is a reflection of
the age class distribution of the forest.
This study further shows that many tree species that are extracted at large sizes are not
extracted as young individuals to the same extent. This indicates a selective extraction
of large individuals of these species. An example of this is Boboka that is exclusively cut
down as old growth palm trees. In contrast, a few species, such as Tsatoky, are only
extracted in the two smallest size categories and not at all in the largest category. This
could indicate a selective outtake of small individuals, perhaps related to its field of use
as flexible wood poles. In the case of Kalavelo, which is used for medicines and spiritual
protection in folk belief large individuals are not required either for filling the purpose.
Another explanation could be that these species are not large-growing species and that
the individuals being removed are the largest existing. However, this cannot be verified
without access to the actual size class distribution of these species in the forest.
33
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 The study shows that the outtake of wood differs among size classes and tree species.
Whether this is due to selective logging or only reflects the species and size
composition of trees in the forest remains to be tested. An outtake that is putting an
unproportionally high pressure on a certain age class or species may negatively affect
the future forest in the sense that it can no longer support species depending on specific
structures or host or food species for their lifecycles, e.g. some animal species or
epiphytes who rely on old growth trees. Selection for large sizes could also limit the
regeneration of tree species by decimating adult, seed-bearing individuals. It is
important that there are no generation gaps in the tree society.
Diverse but selective outtake of tree species related to household needs but also
to over exploitation
In this study 88 tree species were observed to be extracted from Tsaratanana forest,
these are as mentioned only represented by their vernacular names and they can
correspond to +- 154 scientific species. The total number of tree species in the forest,
recorded in a parallel inventory, was determined to be approximately 288
(Lovanomenjanahary, 2009). This means that the proportion of species used is 30–53%
of all tree species. In previous studies in Southeast Madagascar it has been reported
that 84 % of the basal area was constituted by utilitarian species, representing 58 % of
the number of species (Ingram et al. 2005). The high degree of unidentified species in
this study is not unique, but rather corresponds with previous reports from Malagasy
rain forests in which there are various examples of observations that cannot even be
identified to family level (Cadotte et al. 2002). This has important implications for the
forest dependant communities. The more species they can utilize the more resilient and
adaptable their communities are in the case of shocks to the species they utilize. The
high degree of endemism that was observed among the extracted species in
Tsaratanana needs to be weighed in carefully when considering utilization of them. The
selection for specific species to fill different purposes can be related to traditions or the
qualities of the wood. If the management plan will imply changes to the communitie’s
extraction of trees it is important to take into consideration the qualities of the wood. If
alternatives are offered from e.g. woodlots, the qualities of this wood needs to meet the
requirements of the people.
The utility fields of the selected tree species in Tsaratanana correspond with and
confirm previous studies done on forest resource extraction in Madagascar. The fields
of use are almost exclusively for household needs. The utility field for each species is
often diverse as well, just as the number of species used for each utility is diverse. This
indicates good resilience of the community. The use of forest tree species by local
communities has previously been examined by Ingram et al. (2005). Their study from
the littoral forest in the far south east of Madagascar presented a list of species as well
as recorded the use of some of these. In cases where the species coincide the utility
34
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 fields recorded in Tsaratanana forest and in the other study are the same (e.g.,
Fotsikahatry (Canthium sp) and Volonakohofotsy (Homalium involucratum) used for
firewood and construction). Not all species used in Tsaratanana were recorded as utility
species in the other study (e.g. Andrimena (Trilepisium madagascariense) and not all
species had the same utility field in Tsaratanana (e.g. Rotry (Syzygium emirnense)
recorded to be used for medicinal purposes by Ingram et al. (2005) but not in this study).
Although not conspecific, many species from the two studies are at least congeneric,
e.g., Suregada sp., Dombeya sp., and Erythroxylum sp. and they are often used in the
same way in both studies.
Tendrikazo (Mimusops salicifolia) and Reheiky (Chrysophylum boivinianium) are two
species observed in this study that are within the family Sapotaceae. Tendrikazo was
found to be used mainly for construction and firewood. Reheiky is used for construction
material and for the bowl and mortar used to remove the husk from the rice. Their wood
is confirmed by other studies to be considered as heavy duty, high quality timber for
construction in many parts of the tropics. Their fruits are also often favored by mammals,
especially lemurs, and birds that all are important vectors for the dispersal of the seeds.
They are often considered among the top ten most important families from inventories
of Malagasy forests. (Gautier, 2003) Their presence during this study is thus important
both ecologically and socially. Since rice is the main food source in the region and in
Madagascar as a whole, the possibility to continue to utilize wood for this purpose under
the new management plan will be essential to the community unless alternatives are
provided.
Two species that are observed to be extracted in Tsaratanana are Dalbergia baroni and
Dalbergia orientalis, with the vernacular name Vimboa. Both of these species are
classified as vulnerable in the IUCN red list. They are selectively logged and
overexploitation of large individuals of the first of the above species has lead to rarity in
its numbers (Labat and Moat, 2003). These species are part of the family Fabaceae or
Leguminosae and as many trees in the family they have attractive qualities like hard
and durable wood. Their use for construction as well as their preferred choice for fire
wood, tools and furniture is confirmed also by other studies. (Labat and Moat, 2003)
Hoffmann and McPherson (2003) claim that trees of the species Euphorbiaceae “are
not threatened by exploitation for commercial products such as wood, mainly because
most of the tree species are too small to be logged”. However in this study the
frequently felled trees Sarivoangy (Petalodiscus espèce, Cleistanthus boivinianus),
Kalavelo (Suregada boiviniana) and Lampivahatra (Meineckia humbertii, Meineckia
humbertiana) are all members of the Euphorbiaceae family. The first and the third are
used for firewood and construction material in Marovato, and Kalavelo is used as a
medicinal species and in folk belief for protection of babies against bad spirits. If this is
the case in Tsaratanana it is likely to be the case also in other parts of the Midongy
35
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 region. At least if the practice is related to the traditional use of the Antaisaka. Perhaps
it can be the case for larger parts of Madagascar if this study reflects a more general
use pattern. Just because a tree isn’t large in its size doesn’t mean it can not be utilized
for different purposes than the commercial market. Even for the commercial market
thinner wooden poles can be important, as is the case in Ethiopia where thin trees of
Eucalyptus supports a large market for firewood and scaffolding (FAO, 2009). This can
mean that species like Sarivoangy and Kalavelo do indeed risk over exploitation despite
the statement by Hoffmann and McPherson. Also if the case is that the general lack of
forest is now increasing the extraction as Nicoll (2003) claims it is reasonable to believe
that more tree species, even though less commercially attractive, will become extracted
and utilized when the more attractive species are missing or becoming too rare.
Also the utility fields of Coffea sp. that is frequently extracted from Tsaratanana is
confirmed by previous studies in Madagascar. Coffea spp. are members of the
Rubiaceae family. Their use is noted by Davis (2003) who mentions that many of the
wild species of Coffea have strong and durable wood that is attractive as construction
material for houses, beds and coffins.
Finally it is important to mention that there is a high outtake of some species in
Tsaratanana, but it should not be forgotten that occasionally several species are lumped
under a single vernacular name. Assuming that the species sharing the same
vernacular name are all extracted the density of stumps for each taxon would decrease.
On the other hand, many of the species sharing the same name are not utility species,
according to the community informant, and some may not be extracted at all. Hence,
the numbers given in the table are not exact. The utility fields of the cut tree species are
recorded but there are more species known to be utilized that have not yet been
observed and recorded as cut and, thus, the study should be extended further.
Fuel and construction wood as the largest utility fields brings implications for
management
This study shows that the wood extracted from the forest is primarily used as
construction material and firewood. It shows the needs of the people of Tsaratanana
and it reflects social challenges that need to be addressed in the future management
plan of the forest. Firewood is normally taken from newly opened tavys or forest dead
wood. Newly created tavys are generally open to anyone to gather firewood from and
their use is not restricted to the one who first burnt them. The results, showing
extraction of firewood also in the form of live trees from the forest, indicate that the need
of fuel is likely to be larger than can be covered from the tavys. There are ways to
lessen the pressure on the forest even if the need remains as high. Fuel efficient stoves
can lessen the amount of fire wood consumed or alternative fuel sources can be
introduced. If the latter would be the case it needs to be something that is economically
and easily accessible. One fuel source that has been provided elsewhere is drying of
36
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 cow dung. However this requires dry conditions and perhaps more cows than the poor
population in Tsaratanana possess.
Despite the fact that houses built by forest wood have a relatively long durability (up to
40 years according people from the community) there is an obvious need also for more
construction material from the forest. This can be related to the rapid population growth
in the region, bringing with it a high proportion of young people that require homing of
their own at a relatively low age. This in combination with the lack of alternative building
materials in the area leads to high extraction of these materials from the forest. The
effect of the extraction has not been determined in this study neither the long term
sustainability of it.
The high need for building material and fuel will no doubt have implications for the new
participatory management of the forest. To be able to reach the goal of preserving the
forest intact, in area and diversity, the management plan needs to include guidelines for
the extraction of timber and firewood. If the extraction of trees from the forest will be
allowed in the management plan it needs to be determined whether the current levels
are sustainable or if they need to be adjusted. The guidelines should focus on extraction
methods, “no-go” sensitive areas, selection of species and age classes, time intervals
and volumes. When it comes to fuel wood what usually implies in PFM plans are that
only dead wood can be collected for this purpose. Extensive extraction of dead wood
can also have ecological implications as they provide habitat for many species and
eventually provide nutrients to the poor rainforest soil or substrate for young seedlings
to settle on. So even in the case of dead wood collection there should be regulations in
the management plan.
Medicinal purposes fill an important role in tree extraction in Tsaratanana
This study shows that a large proportion of the extracted wood in Tsaratanana also fill
medicinal purposes. The likely reasons for this harvesting are first of all the limited
access to health care that can treat ailments and diseases such as pest and malaria in
the valley. At present the closest clinic is located in Midongy Atsimo at least 5 hours
walk from Marovato. The proportion of traditional healers to western trained doctors can
be 150:1 in some African countries as pointed out in the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MEA, 2005). Secondly, people have a limited income from their
subsistence agriculture that has to cover all expenses of the family, school fees and
basic necessities like soap, salt and oil and therefore can not afford paying for hospital
expenses. Thus a visit to the forest or the traditional healer will be more attractive.
Finally the trust and belief in the traditional medicines and knowledge is still strong as is
the belief in witchcraft. There is also mistrust towards “modern” health care in some
instances. By word of mouth from the WWF team this is an example to illustrate: In this
area women do not access the forest unless for very special reasons. On one occasion
there was a group of doctors visiting the different villages in the area with the purpose to
37
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 give vaccines to the children. There was a fear among the people towards this and as a
result women and children took their refuge to the forest to hide from the visitors and
avoid the vaccine. Because of the lack of alternatives and the preserved knowledge of
the community the need for traditional medicines from the forest must continually be
available under the new management plan of the forest. Regulations on extraction
methods might be necessary to put in place if the current methods are damaging to the
trees as can be the case when whole trees are cut to access leaves, bark or fruits.
Socially unsustainable and destructive honey extraction needs to be amended
In this study there were observations of honey extraction that created concern. There
where a few observations in Tsaratanana where trees have been cut down to access
this forest resource. Large trees had been cut to the ground the honey had been
collected. The biggest tree cut exceeded 120 cm in diameter at two meters height
where the cut was made approximately 2 ½ meters from the ground. It was cut down to
access honey far up in a hole in the stem. The stem was still lying on the ground after
what was reported to be a couple of years. The wood was strong and durable,
untouched by fungi and other detrivors. The field guide said that it would take two men
eight hours to cut it down. For this effort a quantity of about five liters of honey is
collected, giving an income of about 800 Ariary (approximately 0.37 USD, February
2010) per liter in Midongy Atsimo. To my knowledge, in many cultures around the world,
wild bee honey is usually harvested sustainably and with great care by climbing trees
and taking out only a portion of the honey. Why this is not done in Tsaratanana is not
known to me. Whether it is people from Marovato or visitors from outside the area who
have this habit is unclear. It would be valuable to investigate honey extraction further to
see if the harvesting method described above has a negative impact on pollinators and
ecosystem services in the area. It would also be interesting to know for what reasons
extraction of honey is done destructively by cutting trees, whether it has become more
common in recent years, and whether it can be done with a smaller impact, in a
sustainable way, in the future within the new management plan. In other parts of Africa
traditional beehives are kept in forest trees for apiculture. This can be a more
sustainable and more energy efficient alternative that also would contribute more to
than affect the ecosystem services of the forest.
Unsustainable fruit extraction and selection for trees competing with lemurs
In this study it was also seen how large fruiting trees were cut down to access the fruit.
Fruit extraction by the means of cutting down entire fruiting trees can’t be considered to
be sustainable. Fruits are nutritious and add value to poor food resources. In season
they can give a good addition to the local community. Fruits are especially important for
the children and as a complement to the main food sources at times when food is
scarcer (MEA, 2005). Thus the importance of fruits to people must be considered and
valued. However so, the ecological implications of cutting down trees to access the
38
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 fruits can be many depending on to what extent it is done. There might be an increase
in seedlings at the site of the cutting but the time before these will bear fruit will be long.
If all fruiting trees are cut in the forest it could have huge impacts. There is a risk of gaps
being created both in time and space for the continuity of these species, and as
importantly species that are reliant on them, to be secured. There might also be a risk of
outcompeting the endemic primate species in Tsaratanana. The majority of the lemur
species found in Tsaratanana are partly frugivourous and red listed (see box1). Lowlevel alterations in the forest habitat from selective timber extraction or of non-timber
forest products is said to influence the viability of lemur populations in other parts of
Madagascar (Merenlender et al. 1998). An eventual loss of lemurs in the area can in
turn lead to a decrease in pollination and regeneration of tree species. (Merenlender et
al.1998). In the case of fruit extraction from the forest it has to be looked into more
specifically whether the main food sources of the lemurs risk being diminished by
harvesting and what levels of harvest can be allowed. If the extraction level of fruits in
the new management plan isn’t carefully thought through it could result in an impact on
the efforts made to manage the forests in a sustainable way.
Figure 14. Eulemur collaris, one of the lemur species that occurs in Tsaratanana. There is a great overlap between the families that
lemurs in Tsaratanana rely on for food and the
families extracted from the forest by humans.
Hence, there is a potential for competition
between lemurs and humans, but this needs to be
further investigated. In general it is important to
consider possible effect on lemur communities
when calculating the outtake levels of all tree
species for the management plan of Tsaratanana.
Cutting down trees for fruit extraction should be
prohibited and zoning can be an alternative
considered for fruit collection. Equipment for
accessing these fruits without cutting down the
trees could be an important tool for continued
harvesting of fruits in a non damaging way.
39
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Box.1 The lemur species found in Tsaratanana forest during inventories 2008 (Kajsa Öberg, 2009), the tree species they favor for food and their IUCN red list classification. Observe that there are also other families of lianas, epiphytes and herbs that are part of the lemurs’ diets but they are not mentioned here. The species marked with * are trees observed as cut in Tsaratanana during this study. Avahi laniger (folivore) food‐tree species from the following families: Annonaceae, Clusiaceae*, Erythroxylaceae, Euphorbiaceae*, Lauraceae*, Malvaceae*, Melastomataceae*, Moraceae*, Myrcinaceae*, Myrtaceae*, Ochnaceae, Pittosporaceae*, Rhizophoraceae, Rubiaceae*, Rutaceae, Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae*. (Birkinshaw and Colquhoun, 2003) Red list classification: Least concern. (IUCN) Cheriogaleus major (frugivore‐folivore) food‐tree species from the following families: Aphloiaceae*, Apocynaceae, Araliaceae*, Clusiaceae*, Cunoniaceae*, Ebenaceae*, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae*, Fabaceae*, Flacourtiaceae, Lauraciae*, Loganiaceae*, Moraceae*, Myrcinaceae*, Myrtaceae*, Rubiaceae*, Sapindaceae. (Birkinshaw and Colquhoun, 2003) Red list classification: Least concern. (IUCN) Daubentonia madagascariensis (frugivore‐graminivore) food‐tree species from the following families: Aracaceae*, Burseraceae, Combretaceae, Fabaceae*, Moraceae*, Streliziaceae*. (Birkinshaw and Colquhoun, 2003) Daubentonia madagascarensis was not observed during the inventories but is likely to occur in the area. Red list classification: Near threatened. (IUCN) Eulemur collaris (frugivore‐folivore) food tree species from the following families: Celtidaceae, Clusiaceae*, Melastomataceae*. (Birkinshaw and Colquhoun, 2003) Red list classification: Vulnerable. (IUCN) Hapalemur griseus (folivore‐frugivore) food‐tree species from the following families: Apocynaceae, Arecaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae*, Malvaceae*, Melastomataceae*, Moraceae*, Rubiaceae*. (Birkinshaw and Colquhoun, 2003) Red list classification: Vulnerable. (IUCN) Microcebus rufus (frugivore‐omnivore) food‐tree species from the following families: Aphloiaceae*, Aquifoliaceae, Buddlejaceae, Clusiaceae*, Euphorbiaceae*, Fabaceae*, Gentianaceae, Loganiaceae*, Melastomataceae*, Moraceae*, Myrsinaceae*, Rubiaceae*. (Birkinshaw and Colquhoun, 2003) Red list classification: Least concern. (IUCN) Risk of increasing pressure on Tsaratanana due to creation of Midongy du Sud
National Park
Reports to the study team, from the community of Tsaratanana, say that outsiders have
been extracting timber and honey from the forest. This can be an indication of a
possible challenge to the new management of the forest and its sustainability. The
housing material in the Midongy area is almost exclusively made out of wood or other
forest products. This was e.g. observed in the town Midongy Atsimo, where the house
walls were often made from Boboka (see figure 15). Considering the closeness of the
forest and the poor road conditions of the only road leading to the town, this
construction material was likely to have been fetched from the forest nearby. This large
forest fragment, that surrounds Midongy Atsimo on three sides, has now become a
protected area. With the formation of Midongy du Sud National Park access to forest
40
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 resources for people in adjacent areas was
probably severely limited or even cut off. The
concern and possible threat is that people
from Midongy Atsimo, who previous to the
National Park establishment could get their
construction material from that forest, now
have to get their material from other forests.
This could directly or indirectly constitute an
increasing pressure on Tsaratanana forest,
which is the closest non protected forest in
the area. This in turn can put an increasing
pressure on the community of Tsaratanana
and thus jeopardize the sustainability of their
management plan. It could lead to a
weakening of the management of the COBAs
or to social conflicts. The Dinas strength
Figure 15. Boboka stump with a diameter of about 43 cm.
depends on a mutual agreement among
community members on how to manage the
forest for the benefit of this and future generations. This strength could be weakened in
case outsiders take access to the area in increasing numbers. This risk is imminent
considering the current road constructions taking place improving accessibility to the
Midongy Atsimo district. This could increase the number of people coming from outside
the region as well (e.g. mineral hunters have already been visiting the area to find
potential prospect sites). The community might, if this scenario would be the case, need
support from outside to strengthen their social institutions in developing coping
mechanisms for this external pressure.
In a worst case scenario, establishment of the National Park can lead to indifferences
among people living close to the park and those of the outback, like Tsaratanana. Near
the park people has the benefit of being able to earn a living on tourism but might also
need to fill their household needs by accessing forests resources in more distant areas.
The people in e.g. Tsaratanana, far from the park, have legal rights to utilize and
manage their forest, but might suddenly face competition from neighboring communities.
If the population density is still high in the area and the resources from the forest are not
sufficient to offer a good livelihood it could lead to an increased wish to migrate to
Midongy, to try ones luck in business with the potential tourists. The best case scenario
is if the whole region could benefit from the establishment of the park, taking the
opportunity to open new markets with products made from sustainably extracted forest
products from Tsaratanana such as honey and medicinal plants. Ecotourism and
homestead stays can also be a possible addition to incomes for the PFM communities.
41
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Incentives for managing the forest sustainably
In this study we have seen that the reliance on forest products in the poor community of
Tsaratanana is high. This will be a challenge for the new management system of the
forest. The sustainabile management that is required for the continuation of the forest
will be put in the hands of the community who have previously harvested its resources
for survival with the effect that the forest was lost.Their access to the forest will now be
lawful but restricted. How does one ensure that they manage to carry the responsibility
that is put in their hands? The new management of the forest will require a lot from the
community and the success is dependent on their engagement.
Traditional people often have high incentives for protecting their forests since they are
dependent on the resources from it (Ingram et al. 2005). An argument that is often used
is that forests generate ecosystem services which should provide incentive to protect it
(MEA, 2005) The forest of Tsaratanana probably plays an important role in producing
ecosystem services not only to the valley of Midongy, but also to large areas outside of
the forests direct vicinity creating more stakeholders to keep in mind. Forests are in
some studies believed to provide a more even flow of water over the year (MEA, 2005).
Without the forest, seasonal flooding in the area is likely to be a lot more severe than it
is today (Kramer et al. 1995). This in turn could affect the agriculture in the area and the
livelihoods of several communities. Already today the valley of Midongy is severely
flooded annually due to cyclone rains. Forests are also labelled with the property of
protecting against soil erosion and landslides (MEA, 2005). These two functions
together service the communities’ essential rice production by not clogging them with
silt or washing away the banks separating the fields. Despite the importance of these
arguments for preserving the forest they will not be enough for the community. Erdmann
(2003) points out that people have known of these indirect economic forest benefits, for
a long time in Madagascar and it has not yet restrained the expansion of tavy. It may be
so but it is still a concern of the people of Marovato. In the study area members of the
community pointed out that the importance of the forests for clean water, for themselves
and future generations, was an important reason why they wanted to be part of the
transition to sustainable management of the forest. There is an outspoken concern in
Marovato valley about the forest loss and the possibilities of future generations to
survive. The villagers themselves want to be part of the PFM project and to solve the
hardships they are facing in everyday life. Their willingness to participate is an important
factor for the success of the project. Richard R. Marcus (2001) reports of a similar
concern coming from communities living around other national parks of Madagascar. In
his case people have completely lost or been restricted in their access to the forest
areas. They do want to preserve their resources and are well aware of the value of them
and the fact that they are being depleted. However they believe they can’t afford
conservation and that simply conserving the forest doesn’t offer a viable alternative to
their present land use. Conservation issues are in their case implemented and
42
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 sustained by external agents. Economic needs and the ability to survive are of higher
priority to these people than direct conservation. (Marcus; 2001) this could well be the
case in Marovato as well. If so further incentives need to be given. In Tsaratanana the
WWF project offers alternative income sources and higher yields of rice due to new
cultivation methods. This is likely to offer an extra economic incentive for the people to
participate and will probably contribute to a success.
Eucalyptus plantations have been requested by the community, as part of the PFM in
Tsaratanana. But it has not yet become clear whether there will be any put in place.
Plantations or woodlots with exotic tree species like Eucalyptus sp.; Pinus sp.; Grevillea
robusta and cypress sp. are sometimes introduced in PFM sites as an alternative wood
source. There is a deficit in studies and results on indigenous tree species for plantation.
If the quality of the fast growing Eucalyptus wood is durable and strong enough to fill the
needs for construction, and whether planting Eucalyptus is an environmentally sound
idea in an area with endangered endemic species remains to be decided by the
stakeholders involved in the PFM in Tsaratanana. The topic is highly controversial and
will not be focused on further here.
If the wood extraction allowed in the management plan is not sufficient to cover the
immediate needs of the people there is a risk that the Dina will be violated. Thus, for the
social and the ecological sustainability of the community, the needs and requirements of
the people must to be considered and filled.
By taking care of the management and reaping the benefits from the forest the needs
might be filled to some extent. But is it going to be enough to provide the livelihoods of
the community? The additional resources in terms of improved rice cultivation methods
and new crops will give relief in terms of food resources but the question is whether
incomes of the community will increase enough to. A possible solution to examine to
add economic value to the forests can be by promoting sustainable harvesting of forest
products, both non-timber and timber products. The products are to be sold outside the
region to generate incomes for the local communities.(Erdmann, 2003) In combination
with land-use planning that includes zoning of the forest and agreements on how the
zones should be used, some forest areas can still be left intact without being effected by
the selective outtake of wood. What would be important to know, to implement this,
would be whether the outtake levels of trees today are sustainable or not and if the
amount extracted at sustainably managed levels is enough to fill both household needs,
like construction, and quality wood for market apart from this. The second question is
hard to answer but the first one we can get an indication of at least.
There is a study from Madagascar that gives an indication of what products and outtake
levels can be sustainable and add a fair income and thus expelling tavy. In the
mentioned study Erdmann (2003) points out some possible obstacles for the trade in
timber and non-timber forest products. The distribution of non-timber forest products
43
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 can be scarce, e.g. palm leaves, bamboo, crayfish or medicinal plants, are often
scattered over vast areas. To be able to harvest quantities large enough to be viable
economically while selectively harvesting sustainable proportions, large areas
comprising of several villages need to be exploited. He reports of there not being a safe
market available for these products and of these not bringing revenues big enough to
support a whole village and replace tavy as the favored provision for everyone.
The most lucrative forest product is reported to be timber. It is calculated that timber
would generate 1400-5540 US dollars per year (in 2001) assuming a forest of 300 ha, 5
ha per year is selectively logged and the rotation time is 60 years. Erdmann (2003)
estimates a removal of 14-24 stems larger than 35 cm /ha/60 years would leave the
majority of the forest standing (Erdmann, 2003). In the forest of Tsaratanana this would
mean a possible income of more than 28.000 dollars annually to be divided by all
communities in the area, of course a very welcome addition to the income of the
community. In Tsaratanana the outtake of trees exceeding 35cm in diameter was 4,73
stems/ha. The time of the study was short but assuming that the tree stems that were
cut were no more that 3 years old due to decomposition, this would mean an outtake of
94 stems per hectare during a cycle of 60 years. At these levels the outtake is not
sustainable. Thus a reduction of the outtake would need to be in place for this to be
considered as sustainable.
If commercial extraction would be a solution to be considered in the case of
Tsaratanana there are also some other issues that need to be addressed. If selective
logging is to be an alternative in the new sustainable management plan, the ecology,
distribution pattern, regeneration and specific growth rates of the logged tree species
and their ecological importance in the system for other species, e.g. lemurs, need to be
further investigated. The specific species that could be both economically motivated to
harvest for markets should also be evaluated. Whether natural regeneration is sufficient
or supported regeneration would be necessary should be looked into. Also, there has to
be an available and fair market for selling the timber within reasonable access. The new
road could in this case bring more opportunity to reach markets outside of the region,
perhaps certification of the wood and non wood products can in this case be an
alternative. Certification of forest coffee has created international markets and higher
incomes for people in Ethiopian highlands (FAO, 2010). This is an opportunity that could
be explored also in the case of Tsaratanana. Also spices and honey make out an important
addition to the family income in Ethiopian PFM sites, something to consider in Tsaratanana
(FAO, 2010).
The “selective” outtake carried out in the Tsaratanana forest today could in other words
continue, but under lower outtake levels, and could with benefit be directed to generate
an economic income for the communities. For this to work alternative sources for fire
44
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 wood and construction material need to be found. A larger proportion of non-timber
forest products should also be considered to be marketed.
Another important factor to take into consideration in the management of the forest and
when encouraging commercial forest products as an income is the social differences
that appear within the community and how one can enable equal sharing of benefits
between villagers. This is necessary not to magnify the inequalities within the
community and weaken the community in their capacity to manage the forest. First of all
poorer households that do not have the same access to rice paddies or crop fields are
usually the ones who live on the frontier outside the agricultural perimeter and are more
reliant on extracting resources from the forest to survive. If the management plan
restricts access to the forest, these people will be hit harder than families who are
already more self-sufficient. This outcome has been anticipated in Ranomafana
National Park in a previous study (Ferraro, 2002). Whether this is the case in the
community of Marovato has not been examined in this study, but a study of how the
revenues and resources are shared within the community could be useful in the future.
Introduced invasive species a good or bad in Tsaratanana?
Invasive species are generally considered to be problematic for biodiversity (MEA,
2005). This is to a certain extent also true in Marovato where they occupy formerly
forested, currently agricultural land. However, it may also have some positive sides to it.
Assuming the land was kept open by repeated tavy and used as agricultural land the
soil would soon deteriorate completely and be useless for people for many years to
come. So the fact that the invasive species are able to colonize former fields on the
slopes actually means that the soil is kept from degrading in areas that are already lost
to deforestation. It also means that erosion is kept at a minimum and that the water
quality improves. Besides, the impenetrable shrubbery may serve as nursery for
seedlings and be instrumental in reforestation. As an addition to the ecological
properties of Lantana camara the plant can also be used for its medicinal properties.
While leaving the Lantana camara communities can benefit from its presence by using it
for medicines. This is done by the Betsimisaraka and Tanala clans in another eastern
region of Madagascar (Novy, 1997). They use the tea from L. camara as a treatment of
scabies (to drink or wash with), or for the treatment of colds or in combination with a
steam bath to treat fevers and shakes (Novy, 1997). The juice is also used as a
cicatrizant for healing of wounds (Novy, 1997). The other problematic exotic species in
Tsaratanana, Solanum auriculatum, also has some medical properties as it can be used
externally to treat cracked skin (Novy, 1997). As described in the introduction L. camara
is not possible to eradicate in Madagascar. But if no new areas are cleared for tavys
they will hopefully not pose a continued threat to the native vegetation. The plant’s
allelopathic properties are however something that needs to be considered and further
investigated if one will leave the L. camara fallows for forest regeneration. Caution
45
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 needs to be exercised as endemic and endangered species are found in the forest not
to commit any mistakes. Continuous monitoring of the progress of L. camara as well as
the development of soils and seedlings of trees can be a carried out to find out more
about the effect of leaving the thickets.
A large part of the forest affected by selective tree extraction having implications
for the ecosystem
This study shows clearly that human disturbance in the form of tree cuttings is an
anthropogenic edge effect in Tsaratanana. The occurrence of tree stumps and pole
cuttings along the forest margin implies that the structure and composition of the forest
is changed. The images of the estimated edge zones (Fig. 3-6) give an idea of how big
areas could be affected by the surrounding matrix. Most cuttings are located within 150
m from the edge, but the effects of these cuttings are likely to penetrate deeper into the
forest. For example, the forest is struck annually by several cyclones. In 1997 a massive
cyclone struck the forest with devastating effects. An eye witness from the community
reports that massive quantities of trees fell and that animal life was severely affected
(one species of lemur is believed to have become locally extinct). The exposure in a
selectively logged forest is likely to be higher that in an intact forest. Therefore, the
estimation of a 300 m edge effect could well be relevant in this case at least seasonally.
Another anthropogenic edge effect that was observed in Tsaratanana is fire. Fire
constitutes a major threat to Madagascar’s biodiversity. Huge areas are being lost to
fires every year when these spread from pastures and tavy areas into natural
habitats.(WWF 6) Selective logging in the forest changes biophysical qualities such as
the properties of aquatic systems it also creates wind and water stress which in turn can
lead to a higher susceptibility to fire (Broadbent 2008). It also contributes to the fuel load,
following higher tree mortality, and in combination with increased desiccation the
damage is magnified further. (Cochran and, Laurance, 2002; Laurance et al., 2006)
Uncontrolled fires not only have a significant edge effect but can often penetrate far into
the forest interior. Therefore, control of burning tavy, especially on hillsides, and the use
of firebreaks should be of high importance in the management plan.
The lower basal area at the edge which is seen in this study corresponds to the lower
wood biomass that Laurence et al. (2005) has previously found in edge zones. If one
would measure the age structure of trees at the edges it could be possible to
strenjgthen the result further. The edge effect illustrations from this study show that
small, isolated core areas are created in the edge matrix. To what degree this affects
the forest species adapted to intact core areas has to be examined. It is likely is that the
impact varies depending on the species. Tree species with animal vectors for seed
dispersal and pollination may not be badly affected assuming that their dispersal vectors
can still move through the edge zone. However, fragmentation is likely to affect the
distribution of lemurs that are not prone to cross open or disturbed areas. This could
46
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 eventually lead to a different tree species composition in the smaller forest fragments
where lemurs or birds cannot distribute seeds anymore. At the same time species
composition is likely to be very different due to selective logging and edge effects. There
is a risk that species could become locally extinct in the smaller forest areas and in the
larger fragment as well, if their habitat becomes too degraded. (Watson et.al.2004) One
species that is easily affected by the disturbance in the edge zone is the fat tailed dwarf
lemur, Chierogaleus major. It is known to become less frequent in the edge zone, due to
lower tree diameters giving a lower fruit and liana abundance in this zone. (Lehman,
2006)
To limit the effect on sensitive species zoning is a wise practice to make in
Tsaratanana’s new management plan, as has already been decided. One strategy can
be to leave the more thin strips of forest between the larger islands untouched to enable
movement of animals between the compartments. The plots that are considered for a
selective outtake should not be located in areas preferred as habitat by sensitive
species or that offer food or other resources that are of importance to their life cycle. In
the planning of the zones one can with benefit take advantage of the edge factors that
limit outtake, as seen in this study, to prevent access to areas that need to recover or
that need to remain untouched. Zoning of the forest at the edges where some areas are
to be sustainably utilized and others untouched is likely to ease the regeneration of the
edge zones, and L. camara thickets can potentially ease this. In addition movement by
primates and other animals need not be disturbed in these areas and seeds can be
spread more easily further easing the forest recovery. It is also important to not locate
utility plots in areas with difficult access since this might push people to utilizing no-go
areas instead of the designated ones.
It is desired that this study is followed up by a more complete evaluation of the quality of
the forest of Tsaratanana. This can be done following the remote sensing method used
by Ingram et al. (2005). The method is effective in determining forest cover and
structures, in this case basal area, that determine conditions and quality of forest areas
that can not be inventoried due to lack of resources or time. It is combined with artificial
neural networks to get coverage maps of forest quality and this in combination with
other information of anthropogenically altered areas and settlements, effectively shows
the degree of human accessibility. This method could show to what extent the forest is
affected throughout the edge areas and in the core area. The information could be
combined with more detailed analyses of the topography and the hydrology of the area
as well as other factors such as successional vegetation to more accurately determine
what zones of the forest are affected by selective logging and how much intact core
area is actually left and what the factors limiting the selective outtake are. The remote
sensing could also be used to monitor the future management of the forest area and
47
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 see if it has the desired outcome on the forest structure and expanse or if the
management needs further development efforts.
Conclusions
This study has shown that the outtake from the forest of Tsaratanana is not evenly
distributed among species and size classes. The extraction gives indications of being
selective both in terms of species and sizes. It is at the same time diverse in terms of
species that are selected. Small trees are more frequently removed in their over all
numbers but the selection for species is more clear in the large individuals. The study
further shows that there is an overlap between utility species of lemurs and humans, but
whether this competition has a negative impact to any of the parties is not investigated.
The outtake levels today of individuals more than 35 cm in diameter is too high to be
ecologically sustainable.
The study shows the largest utility fields for the extracted trees to be firewood and
construction wood. This also reflects the livelihood needs of the local community. To
create the best possible foundation for the restoration, protection and development of
Tsaratanana, the management plan for the area has to incorporate solutions to fill the
obvious needs of the community.
The study further shows that edge characteristics determine the outtake in the forest
inside. These are distance to villages and the type of vegetation that occupies the edge.
In the case of Tsaratanana exotic species, such as Lantana camara, are very efficient in
limiting access to the forest. These species can be used in two ways as a tool in the
new participatory management of the forest. They limit the outtake of trees from the
forest bordering to them at the same time as they can potentially aid in the reforestation
of the hillsides of the valley by offering growing grounds for indigenous species.
48
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 What could have been done differently in this study and why did it turn out this
way?
This study would likely have benefited from a higher number of sample sites around the
entire forest as well as in comparative sites such as the National Park. Band transects,
positioned in angle from the forest edge towards its interior, distributed around the entire
forest, would have been a more comprehensive and effective method to use. Preferably
all environmental variables characterizing the intensity of disturbance caused by logging,
fire and cattle grazing would be estimated. The previous study carried out by Vieira and
Scariot in Brazil (Vieira and Scariot 2008) would be a good reference also giving some
interesting insights in comparisons between Brazil and Madagascar. This was planned
from the beginning but due to restrictions in capacity it could not be done. One of the
initial aims was to see in what way the tree species composition and occurrence differ
between areas that are more or less prone to be accessed by the local community. The
data collected would optimally have included an inventory of the tree species as well as
invasive species indicating edge effects. Temperature, topography, vegetation structure
and canopy cover would also be measured quantitatively to see what other
environmental factors can be related to the species distribution and the selective
outtake. The qualities of the preferred species should also be examined. If some
species are rarer than others or more sensitive to selective extraction, to what degree
are they substitutable by other species? It would be interesting to look more directly at
the effect on the population structure of the target species before and after selective
outtake. How does the outtake affect the age distribution and phenotypes? The data on
outtake of trees could be compared to data on where lemurs are observed and find
patterns in their distribution in relation to where different tree species are located or
extracted from, and whether there is a difference in seedling density in relation to where
lemurs are observed and not. This was the intention from the beginning but the two
transects used in the Lemur inventories (by Kajsa Oberg) were not sufficient for
statistical analysis.
In combination with the data on sapling and tree density collected by
Lovanomenjanahary my data on extracted trees and regenerating tree stumps was
intended to estimate different projections on how the future forest could look.
It was not possible to compare the distribution of size classes among the cut trees and
the distribution of the same species in the forest in general. Hence, is has not been
possible to show whether the outtake is targeting specific size categories and could
affect the age structure of the forest. If the outtake would be clearly selective for either
specific sizes or species the composition and structure of the future forest could be
affected. I would have liked to calculate a measure of the extracted volume of each
species and for each field of use. However this was not possible since I could not
access the data on height of all observations of tree species to be able to make
49
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 estimates on diameter height relationship. This information could otherwise have been
useful to understand the needs of the people in the community for the different fields of
use and to look at possibilities for substitutability in case some species are exceeding
sustainable outtake levels.
More extensive social information
As part of the study a set of interview questions was supposed to give information on
people’s use of the forest. The set of questions were included in interviews carried out
by Rova RASOLONDRAMANITRA. Unfortunately it has not been possible to access
the interview material since the study was made.
Satellite imagery
It is said that the deforestation took a giant leap in the area in the middle of the 1980s. A
detailed study of the deforestation pattern in Tsaratanana through the study of maps
and satellite imagery would have been a good complement to this study and could
benefit from a socio historical study on reasons for deforestation. However the Satellite
images retrieved from Landssat 7 were not detailed enough to give information on the
forest loss. These images could also have been used to see patterns in how the
deforestation has been progressing and what areas perhaps were subject to more rapid
forest loss. Properties of these areas should be recorded both through the imagery and
through field study to see whether they share common characteristics explaining the
deforestation speed.
Limitations in field work resources
The location of the plots was not possible to determine before accessing the forest
because of limited GPS positioning possibilities and lack of detailed map material. They
were therefore representatively distributed by the field agents once in the field. The
plots were to be located mainly in two zones, intact and degraded. It turned out that
intact plots had some degree of outtake as well and therefore the classifications were
not used in the analysis. Otherwise a Kruskal-Wallis test could had been used to
compare the zones. The distribution of stumps was very patchy. There is a risk that the
observations are either over estimated or underestimated due to this. I had to share
field guide and field agent with another student conducting her study: We were not
allowed to access or work in the forest without these agents and guides accompanying
us and they did not arrive to work all days. Also the main language was Malagasy and
secondly French and therefore I was sometimes rather dependent on the other student
being able to translate communications with the agents and guides during the fieldwork.
There has not been any research carried out in this area before, meaning there is no
reference material to compare with. Due to time constraints the entire forest edge could
not be GPS positioned. The same edge characteristics that has been recorded in this
study limited our access to the forest, especially the thickets of Lantana camara
sometimes this determined if we could at all access an area directly from the edge or if
50
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 we had to access it by walking around long areas. This took a lot of time at these
occasions. The detailed edge description was not always possible to do in the field
because of difficulties of access and therefore they have been complemented by the
study of the Google image. Water levels are highly variable through out the year in the
area with flooding during the rainy season. When this study was conducted the water
levels were not very high and estimations of where water levels are higher during rainy
seasons had to be made that might be not corresponding with the actual accessibility.
A lot of material and data from the study was left in Madagascar and was supposed to
be accessed from Sweden on return there. However due to political turmoil and other
reasons the material has not been possible to access.
51
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Acknowledgement
Thank you to Fara LALA RAZAFY, Allan Carlson, Niklas Petterson, John Swensson at
WWF for making this possible. Thank you to Bente Eriksen Molau and Kjell Wallin for
good supervision.
And thank you to Kajsa Öberg, Lova, Rova, Jules, Fidele, Maxime, Roger, Thelemy,
Gruel, Raholijaona and every one else at WWF Midongy and to Manakava and Raoto
for the good food, to Iaben’I Piscine, Iaben’I Cassava, Iaban’I Felicite, President KOTO
and president of COBA, and all other field guides in Marovato. And thank you to Dan
Carlsson for plowing the ground.
Abbreviations
CIA- Central Intelligence Agency
IMF- International Monetary Fund
WWF- World Wide Fund for Nature
Note: Many names in Madagascar are written with capital letters and should not be
mistaken for abbreviations.
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Lovanomenjanahary, M.; Cortège Floristique de la Forêt de Marovato; University of Antananarivo; 2009
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Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Lehman, S.M., Rajaonson, A., Day, S.; Edge Effects on the Density of Cheirogaleus major; International
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54
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 IUCN:
http://www.iucnredlist.org/search,
10 August 2009
UNESCO:
portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.phpURL_ID=14248&URL_DO=DO_PRINTPAGE&URL_SECTION=201,
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WWF 1
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WWF 2
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56
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Appendix A. Total species list of extracted species in Tsaratanana, Madagasacar. The list includes the calculated outtake of trees of all size categories compiled per hectare (est. outtake/ha); the average diameter of the removed stumps for each species and the rate of endemicity. Endemic species: ES; Endemic genus: EG; Endemic family: EF; Undefined endemic: E (An exact determination of the species was not carried out due to the political instability of the country at the time, and, therefore, all scientific names are listed whether they are utilized or not in appendix A‐D and F.) Vernacular name Family Scientific name & endemicity Est. Out take /ha Average diameter (cm) 109,86 3,5 Hazondambo RUBIACEAE Saldinia littoralis Chassalia nentiflora Gaertnera macrostipulata ES Gaertnera obovata ES Mapourea parkeri Psychotria subcapitata Saldinia axillaris Sanira ARALIACEAE MELIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE Polyscias maralia Lepidotria sp. Filicium longifolium EG Macphersonia chapelieri ES Macphersonia perrieri ES Macphersonia madagascariensis ES Molinae brevipes Molinae retusa radeus Plagioscyphus louvelii EG Pseudopteris dicipiens Plagioscyphus sp. EG Tinopsis chrysophylla EG Tina thouarsiana EG Stadmania excelsa Lepisanthes sp. 103,49 4,1 Rotry MYRTACEAE Eugenia radiciflora Syzygium parkeri Syzygium emirnense ES 92,45 3,5 Sarivoangy EUPHORBIACEAE Petalodiscus espèce Cleistanthus boivinianus 69,24 4,3 Tsatoky MYRSINACEAE Oncostemon radkolleri 63,38 3,4 Kalavelo OLACACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE Olax emirnensis ES Suregada boiviniana 60,56 3,9 Lampivahatra EUPHORBIACEAE Meineckia humbertii ES Meineckia humbertiana ES 45,30 5,0 Fotsikahatry RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE Canthium evenium Canthium bosseri cavaco 45,07 3,7 Tavolo LAURACEAE Cryptocaria littoralis 42,70 4,6 Hazomainty EBENACEAE Diospyros emirnensis Diospyros tampoketsensis ES Diospyros gracilipes ES Diospyros sakalavarum ES 42,48 4,6 57
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Ravinovihazo RUBIACEAE Scolopia madagascariensis ES 38,03 3,3 Mokarana EUPHORBIACEAE RUBIACEAE Macaranga alnifolia Homolliela sp 37,07 4,2 Maroapotony FABACEAE LAURACEAE RUBIACEAE Cynometra labra Ravensara flouibinda Homalium nudiflorum 33,52 4,0 Vahitsonjo LAURACEAE PITTOSPORACEAE Potamea thouarsii ES Pittosporum madagascariensis ES 32,39 4,1 Afimena MALVACEAE Dombeya lauriformis 31,44 4,3 Taimboalavo ERYTHROXYLACEAE Erythroxylum sphaeratum ES 31,44 4,5 Volonakohofotsy/
Volonakofotsy EUPHORBIACEAE OLEACEAE RUBIACEAE Blotia oblongifolia EG Nohronia linoceroides EG Homalium involucratum 28,17 2,4 Ranovoasahy RUBIACEAE Calisia sp Rothmania taolanana Tricalysia ovalifolia 24,17 3,4 Ambihitry OLACACEAE Olax dissitiflora 23,94 3,8 Reheiky SAPOTACEAE Chrysophylum boivinianium ES 22,25 4,5 Hela CLUSIACEAE MELASTOMATACEAE Eliea articulata EG Memecylum longicuspe ES 19,94 4,6 Andrimena CANELLACEAE MORACEAE Cinnamosma faechinata EG Trilepisium madagascariense ES 17,35 3,3 Voasingiry ANACARDIACEAE Sorindeia madagascariensis ES 15,72 3,1 Dikana RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE SARCOLENACEAE Allophylus cobbe EG Allophylus sp. Rhodocolea racemosa EF 14,99 4,9 Ambora MONIMIACEAE Tambourissa microphylla ES Tambourissa trichophylla ES 14,93 5,6 Disaky CLUSIACEAE CLUSIACEAE ICACINACEAE Psorospermum brachypodium Rheedia aphanophlebia Apodytes dimidiata ES 14,08 4,2 Tomizo MELASTOMATACEAE MELASTOMATACEAE MELASTOMATACEAE MYRTACEAE OLEACEAE Memecylum culiflora Memecylum galeatum Memecylum longipetalum Eugenia closelii ES Nohronia humbertiana EG 14,08 3,8 Ambilazo FABACEAE Vigueranthus pervillei 13,13 4,8 Angoto MENISPERMACEAE Burasaia madagascariensis EG 12,68 2,8 Fandrianakanga LOGANIACEAE Strychnos madagascariensis ES 12,68 2,3 Harongapanihy CLUSIACEAE Psorospermum discolor 11,27 2,3 Faza CYATHEACEAE Cyathea boivini ES 10,99 7,5 Vimboa FABACEAE Dalbergia orientalis Dalbergia baroni 9,80 5,7 Matora 7,49 3,9 58
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Sarisoky MELIACEAE Malleastrum sepaliferum EG 7,49 4,7 Vona EUPHORBIACEAE Antidesma petiolare ES 7,27 3,9 Fantsinakoho 7,04 3,8 Sarikafe RUBIACEAE Coffea sp 7,04 3,2 Tavolozaha LAURACEAE Cryptocaria louvelii 7,04 2,9 Tsiramy ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE BURSERACEAE Abrahamia mintifolia ES Micronychia tsiramiramy ES Rhus tarantana ES Canarium madagascariensis ES 7,04 3,4 Varongy LAURACEAE Ocotea auriculiformis Ocotea cymosa ES Ocotea leavis Ocotea trichantha 6,99 4,6 Mangy CLUSIACEAE CLUSIACEAE MYRTACEAE Mammea rubrifolia ES Mammea punctata ES Eugenia emirnensis ES 5,86 5,3 Voapaky EUPHORBIACEAE Uapaca louvelii ES 5,86 3,3 Voavoa BIGNONIACEAE Ophiocolea delphinensis EG 5,86 5,2 Amboralahy HAMAMELIDACEAE MONIMIACEAE MONIMIACEAE Dicoryphe stipulacea EG Tambourissa religiosa EG Tambourissa thouvenotii ES 5,63 3,0 Araseha MORACEAE Ficus trichoclada 5,63 3,0 Bemahova EUPHORBIACEAE SARCOLENACEAE Blotia sp. EG Schizolaena cauliflora EF 5,63 3,6 Havisahy (?) 5,63 4,1 Hazomamy RUBIACEAE Chassalia bojeri 5,63 3,8 Maintofotsy 5,63 3,2 Maranidravy VIOLACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE Rinorea sp. E Drypetes madagascariensis ES 5,63 3,8 Resonjo PHYSENACEAE Physena madagascariensis EF 5,63 5,0 Tokambahatra RUBIACEAE Stadmania acuminata 5,63 1,2 Vahy 5,63 2,5 Vatsilambato ARALIACEAE Polyscias lancifolia EG Polyscias madagascariensis ES 5,63 3,5 Fandramana APHLOIACEAE Aphloia theiformis 5,13 9,5 Ampalimaraha MORACEAE Ficus soroceoides ES 3,04 8,6 Vanga 3,04 11,2 Vonoa 1,63 8,5 Afokalalao TILIACEAE Grewia decaryana Grewia flavicans 1,41 10,0 Lalo CUNONIACEAE Weinnemania stenostachya ES 1,41 7,0 59
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Nato ERYTHROXYLACEAE Erythroxylum nitilidum ES 1,41 1,2 Panakarety 1,41 7,0 Vatoa 1,41 6,9 Voatanga 1,41 6,0 Boboka ARECACEAE Ravenea madagascariensis ES 1,35 43,2 Dipaty 0,90 26,1 Harongana CLUSIACEAE Harungana madagascariensis ES 0,90 15,2 Hary EUPHORBIACEAE Bridelia tulasneana ES 0,68 38,5 Tavilo ARECACEAE Dypsis sp. EG 0,68 23,2 Anjarezo 0,45 16,5 Fiadivy RUBIACEAE Rothmania verrucosa 0,45 26,7 Ambiotra EUPHORBIACEAE RUBIACEAE Cleistanthus capuronii E Craterispermum laurinum 0,23 18,0 Bobokomby 0,23 41,7 Hafitry 0,23 23,1 Menahihy ANACARDIACEAE Protorhus dintimena E 0,23 120,0 Ravindasy STRELITZIACEAE Ravenala madagascariensis ES 0,23 19,8 Rotrala 0,23 16,3 Sambalahy FABACEAE Albizia gumifera 0,23 15,0 Tavilo sp2 ARECACEAE 0,23 22,2 Tendrikazo SAPOTACEAE Mimusops salicifolia 0,23 45,5 Vakoa PANDANACEAE Pandanus vandani ES 0,23 11,0 Vatsila ARALIACEAE Polyscias ornifolia EG Schefflera stauffarana E Schefflera vatsilana ES 0,23 12,0 Vitano CLUSIACEAE Calophylum chapelieri 0,23 13,0 Vonitry 0,23 30,0 Appendix B List of the tree species extracted in the size class between 1 and 5 cm in diameter. The density of the stumps listed in the right column. Vernacular name Hazondambo Family Scientific name RUBIACEAE
Saldinia littoralis
Chassalia nentiflora
Gaertnera macrostipulata
Gaertnera obovata
Mapourea parkeri
Psychotria subcapitata
Saldinia axillaris
60
Avg. no <5 cm/ha 95,77 Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Polyscias maralia
Lepidotria sp.
Filicium longifolium
Macphersonia chapelieri
Macphersonia perrieri
Macphersonia madagascariensis
Molinae brevipes
Molinae retusa radeus
Plagioscyphus louvelii
Pseudopteris dicipiens
Plagioscyphus sp.
Tinopsis chrysophylla
Tina thouarsiana
Stadmania excelsa
Lepisanthes sp.
95,77 Sanira ARALIACEAE
MELIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
MYRTACEAE
Eugenia radiciflora
Syzygium parkeri
Syzygium emirnense
84,51 Rotry Sarivoangy EUPHORBIACEAE
Petalodiscus espèce
Cleistanthus boivinianus
61,97 Tsatoky MYRSINACEAE
Oncostemon radkolleri
61,97 Kalavelo OLACACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
Olax emirnensis
Suregada boiviniana
56,34 Fotsikahatry RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Canthium evenium
Canthium bosseri cavaco
39,44 39,44 Hazomainty EBENACEAE
Diospyros emirnensis
Diospyros tampoketsensis
Diospyros gracilipes
Diospyros sakalavarum
Lampivahatra EUPHORBIACEAE
Meineckia humbertii
Meineckia humbertiana
39,44 Tavolo LAURACEAE
Cryptocaria littoralis
39,44 Mokarana EUPHORBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Macaranga alnifolia
Homolliela sp
33,80 Ravinovihazo RUBIACEAE
Scolopia madagascariensis
33,80 Vahitsonjo LAURACEAE
PITTOSPORACEAE
Potamea thouarsii
Pittosporum madagascariensis
28,17 Volonakohofotsy/Volonakofotsy EUPHORBIACEAE
OLEACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Blotia oblongifolia
Nohronia linoceroides
Homalium involucratum
Afimena MALVACEAE
Dombeya lauriformis
22,54 Ambihitry OLACACEAE
Olax dissitiflora
22,54 Cynometra labra
Ravensara flouibinda
Homalium nudiflorum
22,54 Maroapotony FABACEAE
LAURACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Hela CLUSIACEAE
MELASTOMATACEAE
Eliea articulata
Memecylum longicuspe
16,90 Reheiky SAPOTACEAE
Chrysophylum boivinianium
16,90 Taimboalavo ERYTHROXYLACEAE Erythroxylum sphaeratum ES 16,90 Ambilazo FABACEAE
Vigueranthus pervillei
11,27 61
28,17 Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Andrimena CANELLACEAE
MORACEAE
Cinnamosma faechinata
Trilepisium madagascariense
11,27 Angoto MENISPERMACEAE
Burasaia madagascariensis
11,27 RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
SARCOLENACEAE
Allophylus cobbe
Allophylus sp.
Rhodocolea racemosa
11,27 Dikana CLUSIACEAE
CLUSIACEAE
ICACINACEAE
Psorospermum brachypodium
Rheedia aphanophlebia
Apodytes dimidiata
11,27 Disaky Fandrianakanga LOGANIACEAE
Strychnos madagascariensis
11,27 Harongapanihy CLUSIACEAE
Psorospermum discolor
11,27 RUBIACEAE
Calisia sp
Rothmania taolanana
Tricalysia ovalifolia
11,27 Ranovoasahy Tomizo MELASTOMATACEAE
MELASTOMATACEAE
MELASTOMATACEAE
MYRTACEAE
OLEACEAE
Memecylum culiflora
Memecylum galeatum
Memecylum longipetalum
Eugenia closelii
Nohronia humbertiana
Voasingiry ANACARDIACEAE
Sorindeia madagascariensis
Ambora MONIMIACEAE
Tambourissa microphylla
Tambourissa trichophylla
5,63 HAMAMELIDACEAE
MONIMIACEAE
MONIMIACEAE
Dicoryphe stipulacea
Tambourissa religiosa
Tambourissa thouvenotii
5,63 Amboralahy Araseha MORACEAE
Ficus trichoclada
5,63 Bemahova EUPHORBIACEAE
SARCOLENACEAE
Blotia sp.
Schizolaena cauliflora
5,63 Fantsinakoho 5,63 Havisahy (?) 5,63 Hazomamy RUBIACEAE
Chassalia bojeri
5,63 Maintofotsy 5,63 CLUSIACEAE
CLUSIACEAE
MYRTACEAE
Mammea rubrifolia
Mammea punctata
Eugenia emirnensis
5,63 Mangy Maranidravy VIOLACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
Rinorea sp.
Drypetes madagascariensis
5,63 Matora 5,63 Resonjo PHYSENACEAE
Physena madagascariensis
5,63 Sarikafe RUBIACEAE
Coffea sp
5,63 Sarisoky MELIACEAE
Malleastrum sepaliferum
5,63 Tavolozaha LAURACEAE
Cryptocaria louvelii
5,63 Tokambahatra RUBIACEAE
Stadmania acuminata
5,63 Tsatoky ? 5,63 62
11,27 11,27 Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
BURSERACEAE
Abrahamia mintifolia
Micronychia tsiramiramy
Rhus tarantana
Canarium madagascariensis
5,63 5,63 Varongy LAURACEAE
Ocotea auriculiformis
Ocotea cymosa
Ocotea leavis
Ocotea trichantha
Vatsilambato ARALIACEAE
Polyscias lancifolia
Polyscias madagascariensis
5,63 Vimboa FABACEAE
Dalbergia orientalis
Dalbergia baroni
5,63 Voapaky EUPHORBIACEAE
Uapaca louvelii
5,63 Voavoa BIGNONIACEAE
Ophiocolea delphinensis
5,63 Vona EUPHORBIACEAE
Antidesma petiolare
5,63 Vonoa/Vona? 5,63 Tsiramy Vahy 5,63 Appendix C List of the tree species extracted in the size class between 5 and 10 cm in diameter. The density of the stumps listed in the right column. Vernacular name Family Scientific name Hazondambo RUBIACEAE
Saldinia littoralis
Chassalia nentiflora
Gaertnera macrostipulata
Gaertnera obovata
Mapourea parkeri
Psychotria subcapitata
Saldinia axillaris
Taimboalavo ERYTHROXYLACEAE Erythroxylum sphaeratum 14,08 RUBIACEAE
Calisia sp
Rothmania taolanana
Tricalysia ovalifolia
12,68 Ranovoasahy Faza CYATHEACEAE
Cyathea boivini
9,86 FABACEAE
LAURACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Cynometra labra
Ravensara flouibinda
Homalium nudiflorum
9,86 Maroapotony Afimena MALVACEAE
Dombeya lauriformis
8,45 Ambora MONIMIACEAE
Tambourissa microphylla
Tambourissa trichophylla
7,04 MYRTACEAE
Eugenia radiciflora
Syzygium parkeri
Syzygium emirnense
7,04 Rotry 63
Avg no 5‐10 cm/ha 14,08 Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 7,04 Sanira ARALIACEAE
MELIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Polyscias maralia
Lepidotria sp.
Filicium longifolium
Macphersonia chapelieri
Macphersonia perrieri
Macphersonia madagascariensis
Molinae brevipes
Molinae retusa radeus
Plagioscyphus louvelii
Pseudopteris dicipiens
Plagioscyphus sp.
Tinopsis chrysophylla
Tina thouarsiana
Stadmania excelsa
Lepisanthes sp.
Sarivoangy EUPHORBIACEAE
Petalodiscus espèce
Cleistanthus boivinianus
7,04 Andrimena CANELLACEAE
MORACEAE
Cinnamosma faechinata
Trilepisium madagascariense
5,63 Fotsikahatry RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Canthium evenium
Canthium bosseri cavaco
5,63 Lampivahatra EUPHORBIACEAE
Meineckia humbertii
Meineckia humbertiana
5,63 Fandramana APHLOIACEAE
Aphloia theiformis
4,23 Kalavelo OLACACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
Olax emirnensis
Suregada boiviniana
4,23 Ravinovihazo RUBIACEAE
Scolopia madagascariensis
4,23 Reheiky SAPOTACEAE
Chrysophylum boivinianium
4,23 Vahitsonjo LAURACEAE
PITTOSPORACEAE
Potamea thouarsii
Pittosporum madagascariensis
Voasingiry ANACARDIACEAE
Sorindeia madagascariensis
4,23 Ampalimaraha MORACEAE
Ficus soroceoides
2,82 RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
SARCOLENACEAE
Allophylus cobbe
Allophylus sp.
Rhodocolea racemosa
2,82 Dikana CLUSIACEAE
CLUSIACEAE
ICACINACEAE
Psorospermum brachypodium
Rheedia aphanophlebia
Apodytes dimidiata
2,82 Disaky 2,82 Hazomainty EBENACEAE
Diospyros emirnensis
Diospyros tampoketsensis
Diospyros gracilipes
Diospyros sakalavarum
Hela CLUSIACEAE
MELASTOMATACEAE
Eliea articulata
Memecylum longicuspe
2,82 Mokarana EUPHORBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Macaranga alnifolia
Homolliela sp
2,82 Tavolo LAURACEAE
Cryptocaria littoralis
2,82 64
4,23 Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Memecylum culiflora
Memecylum galeatum
Memecylum longipetalum
Eugenia closelii
Nohronia humbertiana
2,82 Tomizo MELASTOMATACEAE
MELASTOMATACEAE
MELASTOMATACEAE
MYRTACEAE
OLEACEAE
Vanga 2,82 Vimboa FABACEAE
Dalbergia orientalis
Dalbergia baroni
2,82 Afokalalao TILIACEAE
Grewia decaryana
Grewia flavicans
1,41 Ambihitry OLACACEAE
Olax dissitiflora
Ambilazo FABACEAE
Vigueranthus pervillei
1,41 Angoto MENISPERMACEAE
Burasaia madagascariensis
1,41 Fandrianakanga LOGANIACEAE
Strychnos madagascariensis
1,41 Fantsinakoho 1,41 Lalo CUNONIACEAE
Weinnemania stenostachya
1,41 Matora 1,41 Nato ERYTHROXYLACEAE
Erythroxylum nitilidum
1,41 Panakarety 1,41 Sarikafe RUBIACEAE
Coffea sp
1,41 Sarisoky MELIACEAE
Malleastrum sepaliferum
1,41 Tavolozaha LAURACEAE
Cryptocaria louvelii
1,41 Tsatoky MYRSINACEAE
Oncostemon radkolleri
1,41 Tsatoky ? 1,41 Abrahamia mintifolia
Micronychia tsiramiramy
Rhus tarantana
Canarium madagascariensis
1,41 Tsiramy ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
BURSERACEAE
Vatoa 1,41 Voatanga 1,41 Vona EUPHORBIACEAE
Antidesma petiolare
1,41 Vonoa 1,41 1,41 Appendix D List of the tree species extracted in the size class exceeding 10 cm in diameter. The density of the stumps listed in the right column. Vernacular name Family Scientific name Ambora MONIMIACEAE
Tambourissa microphylla
Tambourissa trichophylla
2,25 Boboka ARECACEAE
Ravenea madagascariensis
1,35 65
avg no >10cm/ha Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 1,35 Varongy LAURACEAE
Ocotea auriculiformis
Ocotea cymosa
Ocotea leavis
Ocotea trichantha
Vimboa FABACEAE
Dalbergia orientalis
Dalbergia baroni
1,35 Faza CYATHEACEAE
Cyathea boivini
1,13 FABACEAE
LAURACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Cynometra labra
Ravensara flouibinda
Homalium nudiflorum
1,13 Maroapotony Reheiky SAPOTACEAE
Chrysophylum boivinianium
1,13 RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
SARCOLENACEAE
Allophylus cobbe
Allophylus sp.
Rhodocolea racemosa
0,90 Dikana Dipaty Fandramana APHLOIACEAE
Aphloia theiformis
0,90 Harongana CLUSIACEAE
Harungana madagascariensis
0,90 MYRTACEAE
Eugenia radiciflora
Syzygium parkeri
Syzygium emirnense
0,90 Rotry Hary EUPHORBIACEAE
Bridelia tulasneana
0,68 Sanira ARALIACEAE
MELIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Polyscias maralia
Lepidotria sp.
Filicium longifolium
Macphersonia chapelieri
Macphersonia perrieri
Macphersonia madagascariensis
Molinae brevipes
Molinae retusa radeus
Plagioscyphus louvelii
Pseudopteris dicipiens
Plagioscyphus sp.
Tinopsis chrysophylla
Tina thouarsiana
Stadmania excelsa
Lepisanthes sp.
Tavilo 0,68 Afimena MALVACEAE
Dombeya lauriformis
0,45 Ambilazo FABACEAE
Vigueranthus pervillei
0,45 Andrimena CANELLACEAE
MORACEAE
Cinnamosma faechinata
Trilepisium madagascariense
0,45 Anjarezo 0,45 Fiadivy RUBIACEAE
Rothmania verrucosa
0,45 Matora 0,45 Mokarana EUPHORBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Macaranga alnifolia
Homolliela sp
0,45 Sarisoky MELIACEAE
Malleastrum sepaliferum
0,45 Taimboalavo ERYTHROXYLACEAE Erythroxylum sphaeratum 0,45 0,90 0,68 66
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Tavolo LAURACEAE
Cryptocaria littoralis
0,45 Ambiotra EUPHORBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Cleistanthus capuronii
Craterispermum laurinum
0,23 Ampalimaraha MORACEAE
Ficus soroceoides
0,23 Bobokomby 0,23 Hafitry 0,23 0,23 Hazomainty EBENACEAE
Diospyros emirnensis
Diospyros tampoketsensis
Diospyros gracilipes
Diospyros sakalavarum
Hela CLUSIACEAE
MELASTOMATACEAE
Eliea articulata
Memecylum longicuspe
Lampivahatra EUPHORBIACEAE
Meineckia humbertii
Meineckia humbertiana
0,23 CLUSIACEAE
CLUSIACEAE
MYRTACEAE
Mammea rubrifolia
Mammea punctata
Eugenia emirnensis
0,23 Mangy Menahihy ANACARDIACEAE
Protorhus dintimena
0,23 RUBIACEAE
Calisia sp
Rothmania taolanana
Tricalysia ovalifolia
0,23 Ranovoasahy Ravindasy STRELITZIACEAE
Ravenala madagascariensis
0,23 Rotrala 0,23 Sambalahy FABACEAE
Albizia gumifera
0,23 Sarivoangy EUPHORBIACEAE
Petalodiscus espèce
Cleistanthus boivinianus
0,23 Tavilo (‐hafa) 0,23 Tavilo/Tavolo 0,23 Tendrikazo SAPOTACEAE
Mimusops salicifolia
0,23 Vakoa PANDANACEAE
Pandanus vandani
0,23 Vanga 0,23 0,23 Vatsila ARALIACEAE
Polyscias ornifolia
Schefflera stauffarana
Schefflera vatsilana
Vitano CLUSIACEAE
Calophylum chapelieri
0,23 Voapaky EUPHORBIACEAE
Uapaca louvelii
0,23 Voasingiry ANACARDIACEAE
Sorindeia madagascariensis
0,23 Voavoa BIGNONIACEAE
Ophiocolea delphinensis
0,23 Vona EUPHORBIACEAE
Antidesma petiolare
0,23 Vonitry 0,23 Vonoa 0,23 67
0,23 Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Appendix E Firewood Construction Walking stick Bowl for stomping rice Guitarr Bed Tea Rope Protection/Medicinal Lemur Table of top 15 extracted species of each size category with their utility fields marked with an X. size class top 10 observed species >10 cm Ambora x x Vimboa x x x x Varongy x x Boboka x Maroapotony x x x Reheiky x x x Faza Rotry x x x x Dikana x x Fandramana x x Dipaty x Harongana x Sanira x x Hary x Tavilo x >5‐10 cm Taimboalavo x x Hazondambo x x Ranovoasahy x x Maroapotony x x x Faza x Afimena x x x Ambora x x Rotry x x x x x Sanira x x x Sarivoangy x x x Andrimena x x Lampivahatra x x x Fotsikahatry x x x x x Reheiky x x x x Fandramana x x ≤5 cm Hazondambo x x x 68
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Sanira x x x Rotry x x x x x Sarivoangy x x x Tsatoky x x x Kalavelo x Lampivahatra x x x Fotsikahatry x x x x x Tavolo x x x x Hazomainty x x Ravinovihazo x x x Mokarana x x x Vahitsonjo x x x Volonakohofotsy x x x Maroapotony x x x all size cat Hazondambo x x x Sanira x x x Rotry x x x x x Sarivoangy x x x Tsatoky x x x Kalavelo x Lampivahatra x x x Fotsikahatry x x x x x Tavolo x x x x Hazomainty x x Ravinovihazo x x x Mokarana x x x Maroapotony x x x Vahitsonjo x x x Afimena x x x 69
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 Appendix F Table showing overlapping interest and utilities by people and lemurs. The top list of extracted species in number of stems per ha, all size categories combined. Color indicates use by lemurs or people or both. *** ** * **** used by lemurs used by lemurs and people used by people not used by people nor lemurs Use ** Vernacular name Hazondambo Family Scientific name RUBIACEAE
Saldinia littoralis
Chassalia nentiflora
Gaertnera macrostipulata
Gaertnera obovata
Mapourea parkeri
Psychotria subcapitata
Saldinia axillaris
avg outtake all cat/ha 109,86
103,49
Polyscias maralia
Lepidotria sp.
Filicium longifolium
Macphersonia chapelieri
Macphersonia perrieri
** Sanira ARALIACEAE
MELIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Rotry MYRTACEAE
Eugenia radiciflora
Syzygium parkeri
Syzygium emirnense
92,45
** ** Sarivoangy EUPHORBIACEAE
Petalodiscus espèce
Cleistanthus boivinianus
69,24
** Tsatoky MYRSINACEAE
Oncostemon radkolleri
63,38
* Kalavelo OLACACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
Olax emirnensis
Suregada boiviniana
60,56
** Lampivahatra EUPHORBIACEAE
Meineckia humbertii
Meineckia humbertiana
45,30
** Fotsikahatry RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Canthium evenium
Canthium bosseri cavaco
45,07
** Tavolo LAURACEAE
Cryptocaria littoralis
42,70
Macphersonia
madagascariensis
Molinae brevipes
Molinae retusa radeus
Plagioscyphus louvelii
Pseudopteris dicipiens
Plagioscyphus sp.
Tinopsis chrysophylla
Tina thouarsiana
Stadmania excelsa
Lepisanthes sp.
70
Tropical Forest Resources and Extraction; Ellen Winberg; Master of Science in Biology; Göteborg University; 2009 ** Hazomainty EBENACEAE
* Ravinovihazo RUBIACEAE
Scolopia madagascariensis
38,03
** Mokarana EUPHORBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Macaranga alnifolia
Homolliela sp
37,07
Maroapotony FABACEAE
LAURACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Cynometra labra
Ravensara flouibinda
Homalium nudiflorum
33,52
** Vahitsonjo LAURACEAE
PITTOSPORACEAE
Potamea thouarsii
Pittosporum
madagascariensis
32,39
** ** Afimena MALVACEAE
Dombeya lauriformis
31,44
** Taimboalavo ERYTHROXYLACEAE Erythroxylum sphaeratum 31,44
Volonakohofotsy/Volonakofotsy EUPHORBIACEAE
OLEACEAE
RUBIACEAE
Blotia oblongifolia
Nohronia linoceroides
Homalium involucratum
28,17
** Ranovoasahy RUBIACEAE
Calisia sp
Rothmania taolanana
Tricalysia ovalifolia
24,17
** ** Ambihitry OLACACEAE
Olax dissitiflora
23,94
** Reheiky SAPOTACEAE
Chrysophylum boivinianium
22,25
* Hela CLUSIACEAE
MELASTOMATACEAE
19,94
* Andrimena CANELLACEAE
MORACEAE
** Voasingiry ANACARDIACEAE
** Dikana RUBIACEAE
RUBIACEAE
SARCOLENACEAE
Eliea articulata
Memecylum longicuspe
Cinnamosma faechinata
Trilepisium
madagascariense
Sorindeia
madagascariensis
Allophylus cobbe
Allophylus sp.
Rhodocolea racemosa
* Ambora MONIMIACEAE
Tambourissa microphylla
Tambourissa trichophylla
14,93
Psorospermum
brachypodium Rheedia
aphanophlebia
Apodytes dimidiata
14,08
Disaky CLUSIACEAE
CLUSIACEAE
ICACINACEAE
Memecylum culiflora
Memecylum galeatum
Memecylum longipetalum
Eugenia closelii
Nohronia humbertiana
14,08
Tomizo MELASTOMATACEAE
MELASTOMATACEAE
MELASTOMATACEAE
MYRTACEAE
OLEACEAE
FABACEAE
Vigueranthus pervillei
13,13
12,68
10,99
*** ** **** Ambilazo 42,48
Diospyros emirnensis
Diospyros tampoketsensis
Diospyros gracilipes
Diospyros sakalavarum
* Angoto MENISPERMACEAE
* Fandrianakanga LOGANIACEAE
* Harongapanihy CLUSIACEAE
Burasaia madagascariensis
Strychnos
madagascariensis
Psorospermum discolor
** Faza CYATHEACEAE
Cyathea boivini
71
17,35
15,72
14,99
12,68
11,27