Aristotle
Books – Categories (on logic)
Poetics, Rhetoric (on aesthetics)
Metaphysics, Politics (on Philosophy)
Aristotle’s famous book ‘Politics’ consists of 8 chapters on different topics:
1 Chapter – Origin of state.
3 Chapter – Citizenship, Law, Justice.
5 Chapter – Revolution
7 Chapter – Political Ideals and Education system.
“The state came into existence for sake of good life”.
“State is moral institution”.
“The nature is the end”.
For what each thing fully developed, we call its nature whether we are speaking of a man, horse
or family. The nature is seen not in the origin, but in their destiny.
Major characteristics of Aristotle’s state:1. “Natural is best, best is natural”. Aristotle’s state is natural.
2. State is essential – According to Aristotle, state is a moral institution and plays essential
role in the life of human being for self-realization. Human beings satisfy all of their needs
in realm of state. That’s why it’s essential and without state human being would not be
able to achieve its best.
3. The state is prior to individual .Here, the word ‘prior’ has been used in the philosophical
term, and not in the historical term. According to Aristotle, human being in his full/best
can only be identified in realm of the state and precise meaning of human being is
dependent on the state. Thus, without state human being can’t get his best and has no
meaning. That is why; state is prior to individual in other words, man can be understood
only in the context of state, not an individual entity.
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4. State is organic - According to Aristotle, state is an association of associations and it has
been developed from individual to state. That’s why it’s organic.
5. State has certain objectives and functions. The state comes into existence originating into
bare needs of life and continuing in existence for the sake of good life.
Slavery system
According to Aristotle, property is an essential component of family and slaves are important
instrument of action. Aristotle considered slaves as ‘animate’ (living property) and they can only
production, but of action, hot for making some particular article, but to aid in the general conduct
of life, i.e., it is domestic, rather than agricultural slave. Aristotle characterized there major
features of slaves. He stated that he who is by nature not his own but another and yet a man, by
nature a slave, and he may be said to belong to and other, being human being is also a
possession and a possession may be defined as instrument of action separable from the
possessor.
Aristotle classified slaves into two categories1. Nature slaves
2. Law slaves (slave by law)
Nature slaves
Aristotle believed that some people are slaves by nature. In other words, people who by nature
not his own but another’s is natural slave. Thus slaves are obvious arrangement of nature
According to Aristotle, natural slavery is based on three basic assumptions.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Inequality is natural and in nature.
Inferiors are subject to rule by superiors.
Every human being has special expertise According to his nature. In other words,
division of labor is bases According to nature of human being.
Slaves are mentally weak and physically strong.
Slaves are less in intellect and.
Aristotle justified natural slavery on the basic of following:1. Master can get leisure because of slaves in order to develop moral and intellectual
capacity master should not be involved in household activities, slaves are meant for that
2. Slavery is not only imp. For masters but also for slaves. As we know that slaves are
having element of appetite as core one and element of wisdom is unavailable or in less
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quantity, vice-versa their masters. Slaves with interaction with masters can evolve
wisdom and could be freed at any point of time. Masters also provide protection to
slaves. Here Aristotle compares slaves to pets. That is why, According to Aristotle
slavery is both expedient and right.
Law slaves
According to Aristotle, slaves by laws are not natural slaves, they are prisoners of war or have
been detained in other matters. Aristotle made it clear that base of slavery is only natural not
birth or anything else. In case of law slaves, he stated that winner of wars is no doubt powerful
but may or may not be well – qualified (having high moral value and qualities). He revealed in
other aspects of slavery by stating that it may be possible that the cause or reason of our may be
illegal or unjustified. He continued that the creeks are freeman and can’t be held as prisoners lie,
creeks can’t be natural slaves). Thus, Greeks cannot be slaves at any point of time.
Relationship between Master and Slaves
1. It is like soul and body.
2. Slave is a part and master is a whole.
3. Both are beneficial to each other due to master, slave can develop his personality and
moral part on the other hand master will get leisure time to participate in politics in order
to improve moral objectives.
4. Master has right of command and slave has duty to follow it.
5. According to Aristotle, natural slaves should be treated friendly but law slaves must be
under extreme control or dictatorial rule.
Property
Aristotle, contrary to Plato, supported the idea of personal property. He clearly mentioned that
each and every segment of society has right to collect and preserve property, Although he
imposed certain restrictions in form of production, distribution and exchange According to
Aristotle, wealth is a store of things which are necessary or useful for life in the association of
city or household. He continued wealth may be defined as no. of instrument to be used in a
household or state. Production of property can be classified into two categories:1. Natural production e.g., Agriculture, fishing.
2. Artificial production e.g., Trade and commerce, usury
According to Aristotle, all means of artificial production of property and the persons who
practiced it are immoral and enemy of a good and just society. He blamed use/ invention of
currency as the main source of artificial property. That’s why he is highly critical to middleman,
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traders and users because he believed they are parasites and it also leads to moral degradation.
According to Aristotle, property should be personal but it should be subject to collective
consumption.
Logic in favour of personal property
1.
2.
3.
4.
Personal property acts as a motivational factor for progress and hard work.
Sense of being rich or property holder provides happiness and satisfaction.
Personal property is essential for development of personality he termed it “realized will”
Aristotle believed that personal property is justified ever on moral grounds. Personal
property helps in reflection of certain good qualities e.g., good host, kind.
5. Accumulation of personal property must not be unlimited because excess accumulation
of personal property leads to revolution. Finally, he considered that ultimate aim of
human being is a good life and personal property is means to this end.
Citizenship
Aristotle limited the right to citizenship by imposing certain limitation. That’s why, he defined
who can’t be citizen, rather than directly defining who is citizen. According to Aristotle, as state
came into existence for the sake of good life, so citizens must participate in administrative and
judicial works in order to achieve their final moral worth.
Who cannot be a citizen?
1. Residence cannot be case of citizenship e.g., slaves and aliens can’t be citizens.
2. Legal rights can’t be guarantee of citizens.
3. Being descendant of citizen is not the basic of being citizen or son/ daughter of a citizen
can’t claim for right of citizenship.
Thus, Aristotle negated residence legal right, birth as basic of right to citizenship. He advocated
that “he who has the power to take part in deliberative or judicial administration in any state a
citizen of that state a citizen of that state According to Aristotle, “he who holds a judicial or
legislative office fulfils our definition of citizen Aristotle’s citizen is economically free, he is
owner of property but not involved in creation or production of property directly. This has to be
done by either slaves or aliens. Hence, a citizen will get enough time to participate in
administrative and judicial work.
Aristotle deprived artists, traders, farmers, slaves and woman from right to citizenship and
justified it on following two bases:
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1. These people are directly involved in production process or household activity. That is
why, they are not having enough and sufficient time to focus on judicial and
administration works or state affairs.
2. These people are directly involved in those activities which are physical and physical
work converts soul into non-liberal element, and become unable to accommodate good
and moral qualities. According to Aristotle, non-citizens are not part of the state but are
essential conditions only citizens are parts of the state non-citizens are bound with the
duty of service to the citizens. Thus, they are men and being citizen is end in itself.
LAW
According to Aristotle, unlike Plato, law is not a necessary evil, but supreme highest good.
Aristotle believed that for the sake of good life law is indispensable and the rule of law is best
among the other ruling systems.
Meaning of law
Meaning of law in the Greek language is “pastoral or currency”. This word ‘law’ has evolved
from ‘nommas’.According to Aristotle, law is dispassionate reason. The law is reason unaffected
by desire. Here, Aristotle mentions that law is reflection of reason. It is actually reflection or
synonym of reason. Aristotle clarifies that action According to reason tend towards morality. In
other words, law is equal to reason and reason in equal to morality so, law is equal to morality.
So, Aristotle established that law is a symbol of pure reason and highest morality.
Origin Of law
According to, law is made by legislator or law is a product of scholar legislator. That’s why,
legislator are greater than status man. Aristotle accepted the role of citizens in amending law but
negate their role in legislating act. Although he accepted that law is expressed will of society but
it is this form, law is made by legislators and well-approved by society and citizen.
Nature of law
Aristotle supports the natural view of law against the conventional view. A popular Sophist
thinker Lycopheron accepted law as convention because it has been evolved from customs and
for the welfare of human being. Aristotle retaliated this view and argued that function of state is
positive, not negative as goal of law is not only to protect citizen punish culprits but to make
citizens morally and intellectually develop. So, according to Aristotle just because of morality,
law is natural. In other words, law is moral, that’s why it is natural.
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Aristotle believed that nature and art is equal. Aristotle continued that legislator normally do not
legislate lows by their own will or wish but with the help of prudence, moral foresightedness and
expertise. They search universal well-accepted and long lasting laws.
Classification of law
In his book “Rhetoric”, Aristotle classified law into two parts1. Particular law
2. Universal law
Particular law is made by the state (i.e., legislators) for citizens to control and co-ordinate their
relation. It could be written or unwritten but universal laws are natural laws these laws are
always existent, it doesn’t matter people obey it or not.
Generally, Aristotle accepts law should keep on changing but especially for barbarian society not
for others. Although he believed that it is an art but change transformation leads towards crisis,
chaos and destruction change in laws produces danger for the stability of state. Therefore there
should be no change in law. Thus, Aristotle accepts the supremacy of law.
Barker commented on Aristotle as “thus, here also Aristotle appears as a conservative, pleading
for the right of existence of existing”. Aristotle clarified that for man when perfected is the best
of animals but when separated from law and justice he is the worst of all.
Justice
According to Aristotle, justice is reflection of virtue/ prudent or in different words, justice is
virtue. He believed that justice unites the citizens and make citizens able to choose wrong and
right.
Type of justice
According to Aristotle, there are two type of justice –
1. Complete justice
2. Particular justice.
According to Aristotle, complete justice is sum total of all virtue it is virtue of moral community
therefore, member of moral community state under laws. Laws discharge its moral obligation of
the society and establish justice by being virtuous. Complete justice is working according to law
in a moral community (i.e., state) and it is possible only in ideal state
Particular justice
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It may be defined as quality of an association of equals (i.e., state) which on one hand, awards to
its members according to the amount of their contribution, the offices and the other rewards it
has to bestow, and on the other hand prevents encroachment of one member upon the sphere of
another. In a line, it both guarantees the arena of each individual against every other and secures
to each individual his proper position as a part of whole.
Basically, particular justice is related to social behavior of citizens and residents. Actually it is
code of social behavior into two parts
1. Corrective justice
2. Distributive justice
Corrective justice is a measure of interpersonal relationship of citizens of the corrective justice is
to regulate control and coordinate behavior or relationship of citizen and residents. Enforcement
of agreements and punishment of theft and robbery are measure cases of corrective justice. This,
corrective justice is to control and coordinate individual relation, on the other hand distributive
justice is related to citizens and state relationship. According to Aristotle, citizens and resident
help state to achieve its purpose and state also provides help citizens in order to achieve god life.
Thus, the relation is symbiotic.
Aristotle argued that every citizen and resident of the state gets according to the contribution to
the state and citizens contribute according to their ability and competent. Here, Aristotle clarifies
that state should provide its post, reward, honor on the basis of proportional equality because
absolute equality is root cause of revolution. According to Aristotle, contribution or the
parameter of ability and competence differs from system to system. In democracy, it is freedom
in oligarchy, it is wealth and in polity it is virtue according to Aristotle. Hence, state should
distribute according to virtue of citizens in order to establish a just state. In Aristotle’s words, our
conclusion then is that pol. Society exists for the sake of ruble actions and not mere for
companionship and they who contribute most to such society have greater share in it than those
who have the or greater freedom or nobility of birth but are inferior to them in pol. Virtue, or
then those who exceed them in wealth but are surpassed by them in virtue.
Classification of Constitution
According to Aristotle, classification of constitution should be based on two major assumptions:(a) Purpose of the rule
(b) Number of rulers
Purpose of the Rule
According to Aristotle, if purpose of the rule is in interest of public or society then it is good rule
or pure form. If it is in interest of a group or individual, then it is distorted one.
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Aristotle argued that rule of one person refers to monarchy. Rule of a group refers to aristocracy
and rule of many refers to polity. But these rule took shape according to its purposes, it is as
below:
Number of Ruler
a) One
b) Group /A few
c) Many
Purpose
System
Public interest
Monarchy
Group interest
Tyranny (perverted form)
Personal interest
Tyranny (perverted form)
Public interest
Aristocracy
Group interest
Oligarchy (perverted form)
Personal interest
Oligarchy (perverted form)
Public interest
Polity
Group interest
Democracy(perverted form)
Personal interest
Democracy (perverted form)
Aristotle believed that democracy is a rule of poor, oligarchy is a rule of rich and polity is the
rule of middle class
According to Aristotle, monarchy has five types, best one is absolute monarchy and worst one is
barbarian monarchy which was popular in Asia. According to Aristotle, polity is a mixed ruling
system it is a mix rule of oligarchy and democracy, property and free birth and poor and rich
people. Sovereignty (i.e., rule of authority) was enshrined in middle class. Thus, polity is a mix
of oligarchy and democracy if quality of both ruling systems is balanced, then it is the best one
because he believed that best is enshrined in the median. Aristotle argued that this median is fine
balance and coordination of two anti-elements. e.g., foolhardiness and cowardice -> courage
According to Aristotle, polity is based on rule, follows distributive justice and led by middle
class. The best form of political society is one where power is vested in the middle class.
Revolution
Aristotle in the ‘Politics’ has described about revolution. According to Aristotle, revolution is
transformation or change in ruling system. Aristotle specified the nature of change as follows*************************************************************************************
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1. Change in the constitution of state- Here, he argued that change in constitution refers to
change in nature and forms of political system e.g. Monarchy -> oligarchy.
2. Change in any part of political system e.g. in Sparta, Pausanias tried to remove (local)
head of the state.
3. Quantitative change in form of political system or change in degree in their ruling system
e.g. democratic system be reduced to less democratic system.
4. Change in form of rulers, not system so, change in rule is revolution. It is not at all
related with social, cultural or political changes.
Causes of revolution
Aristotle has classified causes of revolution into three categories:
1. General causes
2. Particular causes
3. Causes related to particular or specific ruling system
General causes
Aristotle believed that the most general causes of revolution is inequality. Here inequality refers
to pol. Inequality refers not social or economic inequality Aristotle equality is proportion
equality. So revolution occurs when unequally have been treated equally. Thus, people due to
pol. Injustice pol. Disregard go for revolution against the state.
Particular causes
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Misconduct of ruler
Desire of respect and regard
Existence of superiority
Fear, hatred
Unequal development within state
Conspiracy in election
Dispute in ruler’s family
Carelessness-According to Aristotle, due to careless attitude, masses elect those rulers or
persons who act against the constitution.
Causes related to particular or specific ruling system
1. Democracy- According to Aristotle, in democracy there are two basic causes of
revolution:
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(a) Exploitation and injustice with oligarchs or wealthy persons
Aristotle argued that when larders of democracy start imposing taxes unproportionally and
masses prefer to be with the rulers, then oligarchs used to hire professional revolutionaries to set
changes in the state.
2. Leaders of democracy become despotic by seizing all powers. So, masses revolt.
3. Oligarchy- Two reasons of revolution under it:
(a) External
If oligarchs exploit the poor or all equal oligarchs do not get equal regard, respect, and
share in ruling/political system.
(b) Internal
Compaction among oligarchs starts promoting factionism among the rulers.
4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Aristocracy – Four reasons of revolution under it:
If number of rulers are not sufficient.
If majority is talented and intelligent and if they have faith in their talent and intelligence.
If rulers disregard/ dishonor talented, intelligent and scholars.
Thinking of a great ruler that only he can rule and others are not able or attitude of
superiority in ruler.
5. Polity- The core of revolution in polity is misbalance between the elements of democracy
and oligarchy. Aristotle clarified that polity is a fine balance and blend mixture of
democratic and oligarchic elements. It there is misbalance or elemental misbalance, then
revolution occurs.
6. Monarchy(a) Internal fight in family of monarch.
(b) If king starts believing arbitrarily and ultimately becomes despotic.
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