World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
World Conference on Women 2016
Dear Delegates,
Welcome to the 2016 World Conference on Women! I am so excited
to welcome another crowd of intelligent, worldly high schoolers to
our campus, and I am especially excited to be working in such an
exciting, forward-thinking committee with you all. I’m Emily Jackson,
a junior here at William & Mary majoring in International Relations
and minoring in Economics. Outside of class, I work as a Research
Assistant for the Institute for the Theory and Practice of International
Relations and participate in volunteer advocacy for NARAL ProChoice Virginia and the Planned Parenthood Action Fund. In my free
time I love cooking, being outside and hanging around coffee shops
with friends.
Above all else, I am a lover and promoter of human rights and
gender equality. I had the honor of directing the Seneca Falls
Convention at WMHSMUN XXIX last year, and I am so excited
to continue WMHSMUN’s legacy of a focus on women’s
empowerment by updating the discussion to 2016.
This year, we will focus on women’s rights in the context of
development. Our goal is to examine the UN’s Sustainable
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
Development Goals (SDGs), evaluate how successful they have
been, and collaborate to produce innovative resolutions that
not only address our topics, but contribute towards a broader
framework for women’s equality worldwide.
Our topics were selected from the SDG Goal 5: Gender Equality
and Women’s Empowerment. They address economic, political,
social and cultural challenges to women’s equality, and it is
important for you all to consider all of those dimensions as we
discuss and resolve the topics. Gender equality will not come
simply from passing out land titles or criminalizing infanticide;
consider social stigma, cultural history, and regulatory governance.
I hope you all are as excited as I am about a weekend full of
women’s rights and development. Position papers are required;
please take a look at WMHSMUN’s guide located on the
conference website. Email them to me at ejackson01@email.
wm.edu with “WCOW position paper” in the subject line before our
first committee session.
Good luck and feel free to email me with any questions.
Emily Jackson
Director, World Conference on Women 2016
[email protected]
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
O
ur committee
is modeled
after the UN’s
Background World Conferences
on Women, which
were created by
the Commission on
the Status of Women (CSW). The CSW
was established in 1946 by the Economic
and Social Council (ECOSOC), and is
still considered “the principal global
intergovernmental body exclusively
dedicated to the promotion of gender
equality and the empowerment of
women.”1 Over the years, the UN
established multiple bodies to address
various aspects of gender equality.
The Division for the Advancement of
Women (DAW) engaged with NGOs
and academia2; the International
Research and Training Institute for the
Advancement of Women (INSTRAW)
was “devoted to research, training and
knowledge”3; the Office of the Special
Adviser to the Secretary-General on
Gender Issues and the Advancement
of Women (OSAGI) focused on the
Millennium Declaration4; the UN
1 “Commission on the Status of
Women,” UN Women, 9 June 2016,
2 Lopa Banerjee,“Division for the
Advancement of Women (DAW). UN NonGovernmental Liaison Service. 9 June
2016.
3 “UN-INSTRAW,” UN Foundations, 9
June 2016.
4 “About OSAGI,” UN Women, 9 June
2016.
Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)
was a development fund for programs to
promote women.5
In 2010, the UN General Assembly
created the UN Entity for Gender Equality
and the Empowerment of Women (UN
Women). UN Women absorbed the
four aforementioned entities, and today
supports the work of the CSW and other
inter-governmental bodies.
Before the establishment of those
groups, the UN push for gender equality
started with the CSW and the World
Conferences on Women. The UN
declared 1975 International Women’s
Year, and in response the CSW called
for the first World Conference on
Women. It was hosted in Mexico City and
culminated in the Declaration of Mexico
on the Equality of Women and their
Contribution to Development and Peace.
The first World Conference on Women in
Mexico City. Source: http://www.unsceb.org/
5 “UN Development Fund for Women,”
UN Foundation, 9 June 2016.
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
The CSW called again in 1980 for a
mid-decade World Conference in
Copenhagen, which reviewed progress,
called for promotion of property rights,
and focused on “employment, health
and education.”6 In 1985, the CSW called
for a final World Conference in Nairobi;
1,900 delegates from 157 states attended
and adopted the Nairobi ForwardLooking Strategies for the Advancement
of Women, which established concrete
measures for gender equality at the
national level.
In 1995, the CSW organized another
World Conference on Women to be
hosted in Beijing. This conference
culminated in the unanimous adoption of
the Beijing Declaration for the Platform
for Action, an agenda “considered the
key global policy document on gender
equality.”7 Four subsequent reviews of
Beijing occurred in 2000, 2005, 2010
and 2015. The 2015 session, nicknamed
Beijing+20, aimed to reevaluate the
Beijing Declaration in the context of the
2015 Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), which replaced the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). The SDGs
established a new modus operandi
for development that focused on the
sovereignty and capability of developing
states, and the importance for sustainable
forms of development rather than
6 “World Conferences on Women,” UN
Women, 9 June 2016.
7 Ibid.
unequal, dependent practices.
Our 2016 World Conference on Women
will give us an opportunity to not just
re-evaluate the effectiveness of Beijing,
but to create resolutions for specific
gender equality goals named in the SDGs.
Think about the purpose of the CSW,
UN Women, the SDGs and its related
declarations and documents and how
they can all be used together to empower
women. Through this lens, we can have
a productive, realistic weekend and
contribute to gender equality in our own
way.
This wheel graphic shows the main components
of the concept of Sustainable Development.
Source: http://lusaka.sites.unicnetwork.org/
T
he violence and
discrimination
Topic I:
women face today
Female Feticide starts before many
and Infanticide female children
are beyond
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
infancy or even the womb. Female
feticide and infanticide, also described
as “gendercide,” are the practices of sex
selection of children. Though the practice
appears to be most prevalent in China
and India, the practice has been reported
in the Middle East, North Africa, East
Africa and several South Asian states.8
There are a variety of reasons why male
children are generally considered more
valuable than female children in these
societies. From a purely economic
standpoint, in societies where gendercide
is practiced men are typically in the role
of breadwinner and thus have a higher
earning potential than women, so male
children are considered of higher value.
Other reasons for gendercide, though,
are buried in cultural and social norms
surrounding marriage and lineage.
“Wedding Procession: Bride Under a Canopy
with Gifts” India, West Bengal, Murshidabad, ca.
1800. Source: Los Angeles County Museum of
Art.
8 Ashley Younger, “Female Feticide
in India: Ultrasound Technology and
Cultural Traditions,” Ethos, 2008.
In many traditional, lineage-based
societies, the family of the bride is
expected to pay a dowry or give
expensive gifts to the family of the
groom.9 For poor families or families with
multiple daughters, this dowry becomes
a severe financial burden. Beyond the
wedding, girls represent a loss for their
parents since women essentially leave
their families to join their husbands’
families when they marry. Female
children therefore are viewed as a
resource drain that does not bear benefits
for parents in old age, while male children
bring additional resources and will care
for their parents. Thus, widespread
factors like poverty and overpopulation,
compounded with state-level factors
such as China’s One Child Policy, create
incentives for gendercide.
The practice of female feticide can
occur through sex selective abortion, in
which an ultrasound is used to determine
the sex of the fetus and, if the fetus is
female, the pregnancy is terminated.
There are also incidents of husbands or
male family members inflicting abuse
upon pregnant women in attempts to
kill the fetus and force a miscarriage.10
In India, the government banned the
use of ultrasounds to determine the sex
9 “Female Infanticide,” BBC Ethics, 2014.
10 Manisha Sharma, “Killing the little
girls of the world – the lingering problem
of female infanticide,” The Socjournal, 24
June 2013.
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
of a fetus with the Prenatal Diagnostics
Techniques (Regulation and Prevention
of Misuse) Act in 1994, and abortion is
banned except for cases of rape, incest,
or serious abnormalities that threaten
the mother’s life.11 However, because of
serious poverty and overpopulation, the
practice of sex-selective abortion persists
through underground and black market
ultrasound and abortion practices.
Several sources report that underground
clinics with ultrasound technology in India
advertise using such catchlines as “spend
600 rupees now and save 50,000 rupees
later” to entice families to practice sexselective abortion.12
An unlicensed clinic shut down for reportedly
practicing sex-selective abortion. Source: Wall
Street Journal.
These clinics act as two-in-one
operations where women can learn
the sex of their fetus and terminate the
pregnancy right away. Practitioners
11 Ashley Younger, “Female Feticide
in India: Ultrasound Technology and
Cultural Traditions,” Ethos, 2008.
12 “Abortion, Female Infanticide,
Foeticide, Son Preference in India.” Indian
Child, Accessed 11 June 2016.
are usually not licensed medical
professionals, a problem that seriously
threatens the lives of women who seek
abortions regardless of whether or
not they are intentionally committing
gendercide. A recent report stated that
this form of feticide was a US$244 million
industry in India.13
The phenomenon of female infanticide
can take a broader range of forms and
often includes serious consequences
for the mother as well. Women who bear
girl children are often under the control
of their husband or other male relatives
and can face abuse and abandonment
if they attempt to keep the child.14 It
is not uncommon for the pressure to
produce male children and be generally
subservient in these societies to manifest
in abuse, as in cases of sexual abuse,
honor killings, and acid attacks.15 Abuse
of female infants can take many different
forms, from strangulation to shaking to
drowning to neglect and abandonment.16
13 Alka Gupta, “Female foeticide in
India,” UNICEF India.
14 “Discrimination Against the Girl Child,”
Youth Advocate Program International,
Accessed 11 June 2016.
15 Marie Vlachovà and Lea Biason
(eds.), “Women in an Insecure World:
Violence against Women Facts, Figures
and Analysis,” Geneva Centre for the
Democratic Control of Armed Forces,
2005.
16 Department of Reproductive Health
and Research, “Preventing gender-biased
sex selection: An interagency statement
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
The practice of female infanticide by
drowning was apparently widespread
in ancient China, where the Confucian
system placed great value on age and
lineage and the term ni nü (“to drown
girls”) is prevalent in Qing texts.17
A Chinese anti-infanticide tract from 1800.
Source: University of California - San Diego
China Resources
It should be noted, however, that
anthropologist Laila Williamson
concluded in 1978 that “Infanticide has
been practiced on every continent and
by people on every level of cultural
complexity,” and that the methods and
extremity used by different peoples
varies.
The negative consequences of
gendercide impact not just the women
OHCHR, UNFPA, UNICEF, UN Women
and WHO,” World Health Organization,
2011.
17 Mungello, D. E., “Drowning Girls in
China: Female Infanticide in China since
1650,” Rowman & Littlefield, 2008.
and girls in danger, but the wellbeing of
societies as a whole. A serious imbalance
of the male-female ratio in children and
adults is increasingly prominent in South,
East and Central Asia, where some report
ratios as high as 130 boys for every 100
girls.18 This means that marriageable
women are increasingly scarce, which
sometimes results in women being
trafficked long distances and forced
to become brides in male-dominated
areas.19
Despite numerous legislative steps
in India, China and elsewhere,
gendercide persists because of deeply
entrenched norms, extreme poverty
and overpopulation. A recent joint report
from WHO, UN Women, UNICEF and
others insisted that the solution would lie
in “policies in areas such as inheritance
laws, dowries and financial and other
social protection in old age…that reflect a
commitment to human rights and gender
equality.”20 Our goal is to utilize these
kinds of tools and others to overcome
18 Department of Reproductive Health
and Research, “Preventing gender-biased
sex selection: An interagency statement
OHCHR, UNFPA, UNICEF, UN Women
and WHO,” World Health Organization,
2011.
19 Department of Reproductive Health
and Research, “Preventing gender-biased
sex selection: An interagency statement
OHCHR, UNFPA, UNICEF, UN Women
and WHO,” World Health Organization,
2011.
20 Ibid.
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
gendercide by addressing not just
short-term solutions, but steps to create
development opportunities that sustain
growth and lift families out of poverty
towards a society of greater equality and
security for all.
1. Does your
country have
a history of
Questions to
gendercide or
Consider:
other forms of
discrimination
against girl
children? What are the underlying
causes of that, and what steps have been
effective in addressing that?
2. In some poor areas, technology has
become a tool to perpetuate gendercide.
What steps can be taken to return
technology to good uses that empower
women’s health, wellbeing, and agency?
3. What kinds of social policies will be
useful in reducing the son preference
and allowing families to consider girls to
have equal economic potential?
L
and ownership
may seem
like one relatively
Topic II:
arbitrary form of
Land
Ownership
empowerment
out of a myriad of
different economic
means, but it actually represents
a potentially very powerful right to
independence and agency. Women’s
access to and agency over land have
long been challenged by patriarchal
conceptions of family and society, even
though in many cultures the majority
small farmers are women.
Cassava farming in Liberia. Source:
www.un.org/africanrenewal
The compromised state of land rights
for women is, in many cases, a historical
phenomenon. In Africa, for instance, land
ownership took many different forms
but often was rooted in familial lineages
where men held the power.21 Familybased communal forms of landownership
existed in Latin America as well. In the
United States, it was not until 1900 that all
states passed legislation allowing married
women to own land and act as economic
individuals.22 However, this disparity in
land rights did not always exist; in Ancient
Egypt, for example, women held equal
21 Mary Kimani, “Women struggle to
secure land rights,” AfricaRenewal Special
Edition on Women, 6 Sep 2012.
22 Suzanne McGee & Heidi Moore,
“Women’s rights and their money:
a timeline from Cleopatra to Lilly
Ledbetter,” The Guardian, 11 August 2014.
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
financial rights with men even though
they did not always exercise them.23
In many countries that are developing
today, the introduction of colonial land
titling institutions and economic systems
resulted in privatization, individual
ownership, and reduced legal access for
women.
That legal legacy continues today,
even though traditional gender roles
in culture mean that women are still
very often responsible for reproduction
and production in the home and on the
land. In Africa, for example, women are
responsible for 70% of food production.24
However, men typically hold land rights,
and women often only have access
through a male relative or spouse. This
means that women are forced to transfer
not only products but also proceeds from
sales to men, who have control over how
that money is used.
In addition to being an unfair devaluation
of women’s productive capabilities and
activities, this creates a serious risk for
women’s income and security. When
women have compromised authority
in household decision-making, as UN
Women explains, they are at greater
risk for poverty, domestic violence,
23 Janet H. Johnson, “Women’s Legal
Rights in Ancient Egypt,” Fathom Archive,
The University of Chicago, 2002.
24 Mary Kimani, “Women struggle to
secure land rights,” AfricaRenewal Special
Edition on Women, 6 Sep 2012.
and HIV/AIDS. These consequences
impact families, too; research indicates
that countries where women lack
land ownership rights have 85% more
malnourished children.25 In areas of
conflict especially, the number of
women-headed households is much
higher since men are often killed or
absent, but women risk losing access to
their land and providing for their families
when men deny them the authority to
maintain use of the land.
In addition to these women-specific
challenges, there is a need for a new
understanding of land ownership
throughout the world. Land is
individualized and primarily considered
a commodity. It is understood solely
as a productive resource, even though
women and other small farmers use land
in reproductive ways as well. Traditional,
collective and indigenous interpretations
of landholding are largely ignored in favor
of new forms of distribution: in the past
10 years, 80 million hectares of land were
leased to corporations in large-scale land
acquisitions.26
Returning to alternative interpretations
25 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
Development Centre, “Gender equality
and the MDGs: what are the missing
dimensions?”, 2010.
26 Oxfam International, “Land grabs”.
Available from www.oxfam.org/en/
grow/issues/land-grabs (accessed 12
June 2013)
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
of land ownership and fully opening
legal access to women would allow for
equalized development in a way that is
sustainable to the rural poor. Thankfully,
recent trends show signs of progress
towards gender equality in land access.
Women are often instrumental in protests
against land concessions and resource
extractions in Latin America. Source:
latincorrespondent.com
Over the past several decades, many
nations have incorporated reforms using
gender-neutral language, recognizing
women’s rights and prohibiting
discrimination into constitutions and
civil codes.27 International agreements
represent a canon of agreements
reiterating the importance of women’s
land rights, from Beijing to the Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
27 World Bank, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
and International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IFAD), Agriculture and
Rural Development: Gender in Agriculture
– Sourcebook (Washington, D.C., World
Bank, 2009), module 4: Gender issues in
land policy and administration.
to the MDGs and SDGs.28
However, major challenges still exist for
women due to the lack of distributive
or regulatory governance to implement
existing land rights equality legislation.
Women often do not exercise their rights
due to cultural norms, intimidation, or a
lack of awareness about their rights.29
Male-dominated political and legal
systems often force women to remain in
traditional roles and ignore their claims
and the value of their reproductive
work in relation to land. However, the
remaining challenge lies in administration
and regulation. As a recent UN World
Survey reported, “Continued efforts are
needed to promote gender-sensitive
legislation, enforce existing legislation,
make judicial systems more accessible
and responsive to women, and provide
legal aid to women seeking to claim their
rights.”30
28 UN Women, “Women’s Land &
Property Rights,” UN Women: Asia and
the Pacific.
29 2009 World Survey on the Role
of Women in Development: Women’s
Control over Economic Resources and
Access to Financial Resources, including
Microfinance (United Nations publication,
Sales No. E.09.IV.7).
30 2009 World Survey on the Role
of Women in Development: Women’s
Control over Economic Resources and
Access to Financial Resources, including
Microfinance (United Nations publication,
Sales No. E.09.IV.7).
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
1. What are the
major hindrances
to women’s
Questions
land ownership,
to Consider:
or economic
empowerment
in general in your
country? How have social, political and
cultural traditions there contributed to
those issues?
2. What kind of international legal
framework can we advocate for that will
empower women in a healthy way while
still respecting unique, diverse traditional
conceptions of land ownership and use
in developing states?
A
pril 12, 2016
was Equal Pay
Day in the United
Topic III:
States, where
Equal Pay
women earn on
average 79 cents
for every $1 men
earn.31 Equal pay for equal work is a
widely discussed and fairly contentious
issue for us in the U.S., but it impacts
women around the world and in
countries of all income levels as well.
Although the gender wage gap appears
to be reducing worldwide, a 2016
International Labor Organization (ILO)
report estimated the global gap to be
23%, or 77 cents for every $1 men earn.
3. How can we ensure our interventions
will be successful in creating a
framework for continued sustainable
development for men and women in the
developing world?
Sources to Utilize:
• The FAO’s amazing Gender and Land
Rights Database (http://www.fao.org/
gender-landrights-database/en/) is a
detailed source where you will be able
to find country-specific information on
legislation, ownership and use in your
country and others.
• Land Portal (http://landportal.info/) is
a vast source where you may be able
to find information on traditional and
alternative land ownership and use
practices.
The gender pay gap in the U.S.
Source: University of Missouri Eurokulture.
This economic disparity expresses
itself in a myriad of different statistics
and phenomena. Women are far more
likely to be unemployed than men;
in 2014, the employed-to-population
ratio for men was 72.2% and the ratio
for women was 47.1%.32 In addition to
31 Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, “Equal
pay matters,” UN Women, 12 April 2016
32 International Labour Organization,
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
general discrimination against women,
this disparity is fueled by laws that restrict
the types of jobs that women can do in 79
countries or that allow women’s husbands
to prevent them from seeking work in 15
countries.33 Women are also often viewed
as financial liabilities, since they are more
likely to face employment interruptions or
leave full-time jobs in pursuit of part-time
jobs.34
The gender inequity in employment and
wages is also represented in disparate
access to social protection such as
pensions, unemployment benefit or
maternity protection. Since women
have lower formal wages and rates
of salaried employment, and often
must work fewer hours or years, their
careers may be shorter. This results in
a difficulty reaching seniority premiums
and ensuring coverage for pensions and
other contributory schemes.35 Worldwide,
the proportion of employed women who
have a pension arrangement is 2.3% lower
than that of men.36 That lack of social
protection extends to maternity, as well;
nearly 60% of women worldwide do not
“Global Employment Trends 2014: Risk of
a jobless recovery?”, 2014.
33 Ibid.
34 Damian Grimshaw and Jill Rubery,
“The motherhood pay gap: A review of the
issues, theory and international evidence,”
International Labour Organization, 2015.
35 International Labour Office, “Women
at Work: Trends 2016,” International
Labour Organization, 2016.
36 Ibid.
have a statutory right to maternity leave,
and 66% have no mandatory coverage
for income replacement.37 This is harmful
since it prevents women from achieving
income equality, but it also disincentivizes
the reproductive work that is extremely
valuable and absolutely necessary to
achieve sustainable development.
Despite the necessity of reproductive
work for sustainable development,
women and mothers continue to be
devalued and pigeonholed in labor
markets around the world. One reason for
the income gap is that women are more
likely to be excluded from the formal/
public sector (outside the home), and
more likely to work as wage workers
or unpaid caregivers. Women who are
wage workers are also more likely to
work in unorganized sectors that are not
represented by unions, or are more likely
to face intimidation and be prevented
from seeking labor protections.38
Women workers in Mexico’s maquiladoras
often face an inability to unionize and spend
adequate time with children and at work.
Source: The Nation
37 Ibid.
38 International Labour Organization,
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
Additionally, and in spite of a lack of
maternity protections, women bear
a disproportionate responsibility for
unpaid care work; a 2012 World Bank
Development Report stated that women
devote 2 to 10 times the amount of time
per day to child, elderly, or sick care than
men, and 1 to 4 hours less to market
activities.39 On top of all these factors,
a global social conception of men as
breadwinners and women as dependents
permeates workplace culture and,
whether consciously or implicitly, keeps
employers from giving women equal
opportunities and feeling a responsibility
to ensure equal wages. This income
disparity results in disproportionate
levels of poverty experienced by women;
in the European Union, for example,
elderly women are 37% more likely to be
impoverished than men.40
Although these disparities exist, because
of their brevity, there is already a global
conversation about their sources and
potential solutions. On Equal Pay Day
in 2016, UN Women Executive Director
Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka delivered
a press release detailing a variety of
disturbing statistics and pushing for
“Global Employment Trends 2014: Risk of
a jobless recovery?”, 2014
39 The World Bank, “World
Development Report 2012: Gender
Equality and Development,” The World
Bank, 2012.
40 Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, “Equal
pay matters,” UN Women, 12 April 2016.
greater action by national governments.
Earlier in the year, leaders from around
the world were selected to join the UN
Secretary-General’s High Level Panel
on Women’s Economic Empowerment,
which focuses on the gender pay gap,
the care economy, and four other major
targets. Also this year, Prime Minister
Justin Trudeau met with MlamboNgcuka to host an event on Gender
Equality and a Global Call to Action
on Equal Pay, highlighting the lack of
women in parliamentary positions and
lower pay level of women worldwide.
Equal pay legislation exists in many
countries around the world, and although
the gender pay gap still exists virtually
everywhere, in some countries it is as low
as a 12% disparity.41
When considering reasons for and
ways to close the gender pay gap, it
is important to keep in mind that pay
disparity has negative repercussions for
men and women alike. The gender pay
gap isn’t just an inconvenience to women
workers; it represents a devaluation of
unpaid reproductive labor, such as child
care and subsistence farming, that is
absolutely necessary for any developed
or developing economy to function. As
Mlambo-Ngcuka explains, “Contemporary
economies need a workforce that draws
in both men and women, but workplaces
41 World Economic Forum, “The Global
Gender Gap Index 2015,” World Economic
Forum, 2016.
World Conference on Women 2016 // WMHSMUN 30
are still designed as if workers have no
domestic responsibilities.”42 Reevaluating
and redesigning pay structures,
employment opportunities and gender
roles around the world, and allowing
ourselves to reconsider what it means
to be a woman in the workplace or a
laborer with domestic responsibilities, will
allow us to close the gender pay gap and
promote greater equality worldwide.
1. How wide are the
gender pay and
unemployment
Questions
gaps in your
to Consider:
country? In what
industries are
they especially
prevalent, and what legal or political
customs contribute to that status?
2. What are the underlying reasons for
the devaluation of women’s labor? How
is that devaluation related to men who
work in formal or informal (public or
private; market or domestic) jobs?
3. How can we encourage governments
to take steps towards gender pay
inequality in national economies that
are largely based on agriculture or other
informal sectors?
42 Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, “Equal
pay matters,” UN Women, 12 April 2016.