（ 617 ）１４９
The Practical Use of Metaphors in Business
Communication : A Chronological View
Toshihiro Shimizu
要
旨
本稿は，ビジネスコミュニケーションにおけるメタファの役割を考察し，その配列構造の時
系列的な分析を通じて，ビジネス英語教育の改善を検討するものである。レトリックとしての
メタファの活用意義は広く認識される一方，その重要性の根拠を学習者に「視覚的に例示す
る」ことは容易ではない。そこで本研究では，ビジネスメッセージとメタファの関わりを概観
したうえで，株式会社楽天の CEO メッセージにおける概念メタファの時系列的な推移をメタ
ファグラムで分析した。その結果，時間軸上に記録された概念構造には特徴的な転換現象が見
られ，その変化によって論旨の明快さが支えられる仕組みが示された。ビジネスにおけるメタ
ファの役割を指導する際には，こうした「視覚的な例示」を伴う教育アプローチが，ビジネス
の言葉選びに対する学生の意識を高める手がかりになると考えられる。
Key words : Business speech, Business communication, Conceptual metaphor, Rakuten, Metaphorgram
Contents
Ⅰ Introduction
Ⅱ Research Overview
2. 1 Purpose of the Study
2. 2 Research background
Ⅲ Metaphorgram Analysis
3. 1 Chronological nature
3. 2 Conceptual metaphor groups (CMGs)
3. 3 Pedagogical contribution
Ⅳ Practical use of metaphors : CEO Message of Rakuten Inc.
4. 1 Purpose of the analysis
4. 2 Analytical method
4. 3 Results
4. 4 Discussion
Ⅴ Conclusion
Ⅰ Introduction
Messages in communication should be simple and clear. Particularly in business settings,
where BELF (Business English as a Lingua Franca) and “plain English” (U.S. SEC, 1998) are
practiced, simple and clear messages are truly appreciated. Although Wolf and Kuiper (1989)
discuss the importance from lexical and semantic perspectives, delivering such simple and
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clear messages is not as easy as it appears. Teaching such simplicity in business
communication classes requires convincing illustrations to persuade students.
This article will demonstrate the importance of metaphor applications that shape and
deliver simple and clear messages in business communication. Focusing especially on the
chronological structures of underlying conceptual metaphors (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), this
study will explore practical metaphor applications in business.
This paper has five sections. Following this introduction, Section 2 will introduce the
overview of this research study. Simplicity in business communication will be discussed, while
reviewing the background of the metaphor research. Section 3 will examine the chronological
perspective in business metaphor research and the development of metaphorgram analysis
(Shimizu, 2011 ; 2012). Section 4 will study a practical example of the CEO message
(Mikitani, 2014) of Rakuten Inc. The message will be analyzed with a chronological
perspective by the metaphorgram analysis. Finally, Section 5 will summarize the findings and
pedagogical significance of this study.
Ⅱ Research Overview
2. 1 Purpose of the Study
The main aim of this study is to examine practical metaphor usage to establish the importance
of underlying conceptual metaphors in business communication. This study will propose a
visual method, which educators can use to reiterate the vital roles of concepts behind words to
students. It is hoped that this will encourage prospective business communicators to pay closer
attention to the conceptual structures, and to the conscious choice of words, when creating and
delivering business messages.
2. 2 Research background
2. 2. 1 Shaping simple and clear messages : Why metaphors?
Delivering a message in a simple, clear way is vital in successful communication. Such simple
messages generally consist of short sentences with simple words. They are, in a word, concise.
According to Strunk and White (1959), making a message concise “requires not that the writer
make all sentences short, or avoid all detail and treat subjects only in outline, but that every
word tell” (p.23). To make all words matter in the message requires a sensitive choice of
words.
From a business perspective, Gallo (2010) stresses that the messages should be
The Practical Use of Metaphors in Business Communication（Shimizu）
（ 619 ）１５１
“amazingly zippy” (p.113), perhaps similar to the words of the late Stephen P. Jobs, the
former CEO of Apple Inc. A “zippy” message is simple and clear enough to create distinctive,
memorable impressions. Metaphors play an important role here. As Aristotle (350 B. C. /
1984) states, “Metaphor . . . gives style clearness, charm, and distinction as nothing else can”
(p.168). In fact, even a single metaphor can deliver a clear and broad inference in business
communication. For example, Stephen P. Jobs made the following statement when concluding
the introduction of iPhone 4.
(1) This is our new baby. I hope you love it as much as we do. (Jobs, 2010)
1
The word baby is an instance of the
HUMAN
conceptual metaphor, which creates a humane
touch in the message. By using this single metaphor, Jobs clearly illuminated the product’s
infinite potential for future growth (Shimizu, 2010, p.169). Without the metaphor of baby, it
would require more words, or even a few sentences, to clearly describe the “infinite potential.”
This is a real example of having “every word tell” (Strunk & White, 1959, p.23). Metaphors
make messages clearer in such a simple way.
Richards (1936) describes the simplifying effect of metaphor as follows. “In the simplest
formulation, when we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together
and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction”
(p.93). Since two thoughts are concentrated in one metaphor, even a single word “baby” can
make a clear impact in the message. This is the rhetorical power of metaphors.
2. 2. 2 Conceptual metaphors in business
In conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), a metaphorical expression is
considered a reflection of an underlying conceptual metaphor. A conceptual metaphor is a clue
for understanding the speaker’s viewpoint about an issue.
As discussed, Jobs (2010) described an Apple product as a baby, an instance of the
HUMAN
conceptual metaphor. This suggests that Jobs regards the product as a part of their
living family rather than as a handy gadget (Shimizu, 2010, p.169). On the other hand, Son
(2010), the CEO at Softbank Mobile Corp. (an official retailer of Apple products), described
an Apple product as a weapon to win in business (Shimizu, 2010, p.174). This expression of
the
WAR
conceptual metaphor, demonstrates a striking contrast when compared with Jobs’
metaphor of baby. In this way, by analyzing conceptual metaphors behind words, the hidden,
────────────
１ In this article, in order to distinguish the conceptual metaphor and its linguistic metaphorical expression,
metaphoric concepts are represented graphically by SMALL CAPITALS.
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embedded concepts and values of the speaker are unveiled.
Charteris-Black (2005) states, “Metaphor influences our beliefs, attitudes and values because
it uses language to activate unconscious emotional associations and it influences the value that
we place on ideas and beliefs on a scale of goodness and badness” (p.13). Particularly in
business communications, “the metaphorical usage of business leaders is both a reflection and
a prime dominant of their intellectual framework and, hence, their actions” (Clancy, 1989,
p.28). In addition, VanOosting (1985) also explains that the metaphor’s function is to explicate
or highlight an embedded meaning in a word or image” (p.138). All these statements stress
the importance of conceptual metaphors that deliver the speaker’s naked values and beliefs
though the metaphorical expressions.
From a rhetorical point of view, McKerrow, Gronbeck, Ehninger, and Monroe (2000) point
out that “good metaphors can create new understanding and uplift an audience” (p.235).
Clancy (1989), on the other hand, warns that “a poor metaphor applied to business can have
enormously harmful effects when actions are based on a mistaken analogy” (p.27). As
linguistic expressions are reflections of the concepts, business communicators should always
be conscious of the choice of words.
2. 2. 3 Chronological perspective in metaphor analysis
Critical metaphor analysis discusses metaphors by referring to the relationships between the
concepts and the linguistic expressions. This is primarily a reasonable approach to metaphor
because the locus of metaphor is not in language itself, but in the way we conceptualize one
mental domain in terms of another (Lakoff, 1993, p.203 ; Lakoff & Johnson 2003, p.244).
Such conventional types of critical metaphor analysis generally look at metaphors as “dots” of
metaphor keywords spreading across the text. This method may not always be reasonable to
analyze business messages, because it can not capture these metaphors from an overall,
chronological point of view.
One solution was proposed by Koller (2008). She analyzed metaphors with a
chronological perspective and displayed a visual output of chronological allocation of
metaphorical expressions (Fig. 1), using VisDis 2.0 (Cameron & Stelma, 2004). By referring
to Fig. 1, Koller (2008) suggested the presence of specific chronological features of metaphors
in the opening and closing sections.
Critically speaking, these nine dots, divided by two categories (WAR and
RELATIONSHIP)
in Fig. 1, might be insufficient to determine the overall chronological variations of underlying
concepts in the original text. Nevertheless, this visual output is significantly appealing to
students, as it is very visual.
The Practical Use of Metaphors in Business Communication（Shimizu）
Fig. 1
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Chronological metaphor analysis−Visual Display output : From Koller (2008, p.111)
Fig. 2
Experimental elevation model−first prototype : From Shimizu (2009, p.147)
Metaphorgram of Duke’s (2010) speech : From Shimizu (2012, p.46)
Metaphor Density
Fig. 3
Shimizu (2009) followed the development of the visual, chronological approach to
metaphor analysis. He presented the first prototype of an experimental “elevation model” (Fig.
2), which was designed to both capture the chronological variations of “metaphor density”
(Cameron & Maslen, 2010, p.105) and present them as a single seamless “flow” moving on a
timeline.
2
This prototype has been refined and developed as a “metaphorgram” (Shimizu, 2011 ;
2012) in Fig. 3. A metaphorgram visually depicts the chronological variations of metaphor
density, divided in six conceptual metaphor groups (CMGs), throughout the entire message.
This unique approach to metaphor visually illustrates the chronological conceptual structures
3
embedded in business messages.
────────────
２ “Metaphorgram” is a newly coined term. It was named after a “cardiogram” and an “electro-encephalogram,”
which visually record the chronological variations inside a human. A list of related publications is available at
http : //www.metaphorgram.com
３ A metaphorgram was primarily developed to analyze business executive speeches by CEOs.
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Ⅲ Metaphorgram Analysis
3. 1 Chronological nature
One distinctive feature of a metaphorgram is its chronological nature. Metaphorgram analysis
does not look at the individual dots of metaphors spreading throughout a text. Instead, it
4
captures multiple metaphors appearing in a certain time frame, using “Scope”. This Scope
proceeds on a chronological timeline by each “Step,” to work on another Scope. Fig. 4 is a
larger image of a metaphorgram, which analyzed the CEO message of Tani (2013), quoted
from Shimizu (2013). This figure demonstrates how “Scope & Step” (Shimizu & Shimokura,
2010, pp.332−334) work together to compute the metaphorgram.
The horizontal axis shows the chronological passage indicated by Scopes, while the
vertical axis shows the level of metaphor density, or the number of metaphor keywords
captured in each Scope.
Regarding Fig. 4, Scope was set at 80, and Step at 16. 16 is half the average number of
words per sentence in the text, and 80 is five times the number of the Step value. The first
Scope reads “1−80” at the bottom left (Fig. 4). “1−80” means that the Scope captures the
metaphor keywords appearing between the 1st word and the 80th in the text. As the Step
value is 16, the next Scope will be set at the 17th word, which is 16 words away from the
previous location. The second Scope thus counts keywords between the 17th word and the 96
th. This is how “Scope & Step” work. This unique overlapping behavior of Scope reflects the
hypothesis that frequent metaphorical expressions in the chronological timeline may echo each
Metaphorgram of Tani (2013), Scope 80 & Step 16 : From Shimizu (2013, p.46)
Metaphor Density
Fig. 4
────────────
４ The meaning of this term “Scope” is different from that of Kövecses (2000, pp.80−81).
The Practical Use of Metaphors in Business Communication（Shimizu）
（ 623 ）１５５
other by recurring throughout a text (Koller, 2008, p.111).
3. 2 Conceptual metaphor groups (CMGs)
A single metaphorgram can display multiple flows of metaphor density in six different genres
of conceptual metaphor groups (CMGs). The boldest line moving at the top of all CMG lines
is called “Sum-line,” which represents the chronological flow of the total metaphor density of
all CMGs. Each CMG has a grouping criterion, to which we refer, when categorizing similar
kinds of conceptual metaphors. In Shimizu (2013), the following six CMGs were preset for
the metaphorgram analysis of Tani (2013).
1) Competition-related conceptual metaphor group ‹CG›, such as :
DEBATE,
GAME, WAR, SPORTS,
etc.
2) Relation-related conceptual metaphor group ‹RG›, such as :
RELATIONSHIP, FRIENDSHIP, COUPLE, CONNECTION,
etc.
3) Structure-related conceptual metaphor group ‹SG›, such as :
PLANT, CONTAINER, SUBSTANCE, MACHINE,
BUILDING, FACTORY,
etc.
4) Human-related conceptual metaphor group ‹HG›, such as :
FEELING, BODILY ACTION,
ROMANCE, MATING,
HEALTH, FOOD, BODY,
etc.
5) Experience-related conceptual metaphor group ‹XG›, such as :
HARDSHIP, ARTISTIC ACTIVITY,
JOURNEY, ADVENTURE,
etc.
6) Moving-force-related conceptual metaphor group ‹MG›, such as :
CAR, SHIP, HORSE, TRAIN, AIRPLANE,
PHYSICAL FORCE,
etc.
From Shimizu (2013, pp.41−42)
The metaphorgram analysis by Shimizu (2013) used the following procedure. (1) All
metaphor keywords in the text were hand-annotated and tagged with one of the CMGs : ‹CG›,
‹RG›, ‹SG›, ‹HG›, ‹XG›, and ‹MG›. (2) “WordSmith Tools” version 5 (Scott, 2008) was used
to obtain precise locations of these tagged metaphor keywords in the text. (3) The
concordance data was imported to “T-Scope” version 2.0 (Shimizu & Shimokura, 2010),
which transferred the concordance output into a usable, chronological data format to compute
the metaphorgram.
As a result, the metaphorgram in Fig. 4 visually demonstrates how these six CMGs are
5
working with, or against, one another in the overall chronological conceptual structure of the
────────────
５ Shimizu (2013) conducted further statistical analysis to prove the correlative features between the CMGs.
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message. Transforming the “dots” of metaphorical expressions to the chronological “flows” of
concepts is a novel approach to metaphor. This is what metaphorgram analysis contributes to
the development of metaphor research in business communication.
3. 3 Pedagogical contribution
Individual metaphors spreading in a message can be analyzed by discourse analysis. This is, of
course, an important way to study the speaker’s concepts. At the same time, such analysis of
the “dots” of metaphors may run the risk of “not seeing the wood for the trees.” On the
contrary, metaphorgrams help to illustrate the wider, overall conceptual structures hidden
behind the message.
In Fig 3, for instance, clear peaks and troughs of the CMG lines are drawn along the
chronological timeline. These elevations indicate : when, what kinds of, and how many
metaphors are used from a chronological viewpoint. Shimizu (2012) stated that the troughs of
the “Sum-line” (Section 3.2) are moments for important literal messages of the speaker, while
the peaks demonstrate the manipulating effect of metaphors to the audience. In fact, Duke
(2010), the speaker in Fig. 3, delivered his core message at the literal period (Scope #9531022)−at the trough of the distinct V−shaped elevation−in the middle of the timeline
(Shimizu 2012, p.46). In classroom instructions, such statement can be made clearer by
showing and sharing the metaphorgram, which visually shows the chronological, visual proof
to the students.
Metaphorgrams help students to open their eyes to the chronological features of
metaphors. By analyzing the metaphorgram of their favorite businessperson, students can
obtain a chronological model of conceptual structures to follow as a practice. They can also
modify their chronological conceptual structures, while referring to the model metaphorgram,
to make the message even simpler and clearer.
Shimizu (2013) demonstrated such revision of a business message, using the
metaphorgram. Through a closer investigation of Tani’s metaphorgram in Fig. 4, Shimizu
made the major concepts in the corporate philosophy (FFG, 2013) reflect more clearly in
Tani’s CEO message. Shimizu found that the corporate philosophy’s major concepts were
‹SG› and ‹XG›. However, these concepts were overlapping with each other at the peak period
of ‹XG› in the dotted circle in Fig. 5. Therefore, the metaphorical expressions of ‹SG›,
appearing in the peak period of ‹XG›, were literalized to make ‹XG› stand out. As a result,
‹SG› and ‹XG› appeared in turns making clear transitions (Fig. 6). This revision enhanced a
correlative, contrasting behavior between ‹SG› and ‹XG›, and the effect was statistically
The Practical Use of Metaphors in Business Communication（Shimizu）
Metaphorgram of Tani (2013) BEFORE revision : From Shimizu (2013, p.47)
Metaphor Density
Fig. 5
（ 625 ）１５７
Metaphorgram of Tani (2013) AFTER revision : From Shimizu (2013, p.48)
Metaphor Density
Fig. 6
6
verified.
These visualized, clear illustrations of concepts behind words will encourage students to
become more conscious about the words they use. A Metaphorgram is an able assistant in
7
business English classes, which awakens students’ sense of language. This awareness will
eventually help make the important concepts properly reflected in the message.
Ⅳ Practical use of metaphors : CEO Message of Rakuten Inc.
4. 1 Purpose of the analysis
The purpose of this section is to investigate another CEO message, following the preceding
────────────
６ The correlation coefficient between ‹SG› and ‹XG› used to be r＝−.410 (ns) before the revision, but it changed
to r＝−.833 (p＜.01) after the revision.
７ Teaching using metaphorgrams was conducted by the author in the business English courses in the faculty of
commerce at Doshisha University (Kyoto), and at Kansai University (Osaka).
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study by Shimizu (2013), which was reviewed in Section 3. The previous section suggested
that a clear business message can be supported by the clear transitions of different genres of
underlying concepts. In order to explore further patterns of such transitions, this section will
study the CEO message of Mikitani (2014) and the corporate philosophy of Rakuten (2014).
4. 2 Analytical method
In this section, metaphorgram analysis will be conducted to observe the chronological
structures of conceptual metaphors in the CEO message (Mikitani, 2014). The metaphorgram
will be investigated to verify the clear reflection of the corporate philosophy’s major concepts
in the CEO message. Time series analysis will follow next, to depict the chronological
transitions of multiple concepts embedded in the message.
4. 2. 1 Sample texts
The following texts will be analyzed in this section. The original texts are available on
Rakuten’s official website, as of February 1, 2014. Rakuten’s texts were sampled for this
study because Rakuten is one of the most famous, global companies in Japan, which has made
English an internal official language. An analysis of Rakuten will, therefore, interest and
stimulate the students of business English.
Company :
Rakuten Inc., Tokyo, Japan
CEO :
Hiroshi Mikitani, Chairman and CEO
Philosophy : “Empowerment” of individuals and society through the Internet
http : //global.rakuten.com/corp/about/philosophy/
(Rakuten, 2014 : Retrieved February 1, 2014)
Message :
Message from CEO
http : //global.rakuten.com/corp/about/message.html
(Mikitani, 2014 : Retrieved February 1, 2014)
314 words, 10 sentences (31.4 words per sentence)
4. 2. 2 Major concepts in the corporate philosophy
As the title says, the vital word in the corporate philosophy (Rakuten, 2014) is
“empowerment.” This metaphor keyword illustrates the figurative “force” that makes the
impossible possible. The word, “empowerment,” in their usage does not literally mean that a
legal right is given to someone. As Rakuten clearly explains, the “empowerment” means
8
“giving new power”. The underlying POWER metaphor, an instance of ‹MG›, successfully
────────────
８ The meaning is explained in the Japanese version of the CEO message. Retrieved February 1, 2014, from http :
//corp.rakuten.co.jp/about/message.html
The Practical Use of Metaphors in Business Communication（Shimizu）
（ 627 ）１５９
highlights Rakuten’s invisible “powerful force” to generate new changes.
4. 2. 3 Metaphorgram analysis
The metaphorgram analysis of Mikitani’s message will undergo the same procedure as that in
the preceding study by Shimizu (2013). A brief outline was reviewed in Section 3.
First, the same six conceptual metaphor groups (CMGs) are set. All metaphorical
expressions will be hand-annotated and manually verified. An expression is annotated
metaphorical if : (1) it is an instance of a conceptual metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), (2)
it creates semantic and/or cognitive tension (Charteris-Black, 2004, p.21), and (3) it has a
“value-added projection” (Shimizu, 2010, p.174).
Second, WordSmith Tools will be used to pinpoint the precise locations (word numbers)
of all the metaphor keywords. The concordance output will be exported to T-Scope. The
“Scope & Step” (Section 3.1) are set : Scope at 79 (Scope value×5) and Step at 16 (15.7 :
half the average number of words per sentence, 31.4).
Third, time-series analysis will be conducted, using “SPSS” version 20 (IBM Corp.) In
addition to the metaphorgram, the auto-correlogram and the cross-correlogram will disclose
the hidden chronological features of conceptual metaphors behind the message.
4. 3 Results
Tables 1 and 2, and Figs. 7−12 are results of the analysis. Table 1 is a list of 26 metaphor
keywords, manually identified in the first process. The names of CMGs and the word numbers
are also displayed on the right.
Fig. 7 is a concordance output, displaying Hits (number of metaphor keywords in each
CMG), Dispersion (how evenly metaphor keywords disperse in the text), and the Plot (visual
image of chronological locations of metaphor keywords).
Table 2 is a T-Scope output, the chronological numerical data set of metaphor density
indicated by Scopes. This data is used for drawing the metaphorgram of Mikitani (2014) in
Fig 8, and for the time series analysis that follows.
Fig. 9 is an auto-correlogram of the chronological variation of “Sum-line” (Section 3. 2),
moving at the top of all lines in the metaphorgram. The autocorrelation, or lagged correlation,
helps to determine how the values of the time series in its own past correlate with its future
values. Auto-correlograms graphically show a cyclic behavior, if any, in the time series. This
time series analysis was based on the numerical values listed in the “Sum” column on the
right in Table 2. One “lag” in the correlograms corresponds to the size of one “Step”
equivalent to 16 words in this analysis.
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Table 1
第６５巻 第５号（２０１４年３月）
Identified metaphor keywords in Mikitani (2014)
N
Concordance
CMG
Word #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Since our ‹SG› foundation in 1997 it has been our corporate mi
our foundation in 1997 it has been our corporate ‹CG›mission to empower people and society through
tion in 1997 it has been our corporate mission to ‹MG›empower people and society through the Interne
ld. Many online shopping sites at the time of our ‹SG›foundation were little more than online web ca
n the Internet. It was during such a time that we ‹XG›launched the Internet shopping mall Rakuten Ic
hopping mall Rakuten Ichiba. Our site was created ‹SG›based on the concept of not having ’system-sav
on the concept of not having ’system-savvy people ‹MG›run the business’ but creating a platform that
tem-savvy people run the business’ but creating a ‹SG›platform that enabled ’ordinary people skilled
ir own online shops. Rakuten Ichiba is the global ‹XG›pioneer of the B2B2C marketplace, which provid
e B2B2C marketplace, which provides the platform, ‹SG›traffic and expertise to empower even small-sc
neer of the B2B2C marketplace, which provides the ‹SG›platform, traffic and expertise to empower eve
h provides the platform, traffic and expertise to ‹MG›empower even small-scale retailers to set up t
akuten aims to introduce consumers to“the joy of ‹XG›discovery”through Internet shopping and to cr
an environment where merchants and consumers can ‹RG›interact in the same way they might in a realreal-world marketplace, where transactions can be ‹RG›engaging, exciting, informative, and personal.
exciting, informative, and personal. Beyond our ‹CG›flagship e-commerce business Rakuten Ichiba, t
ce business Rakuten Ichiba, the Rakuten Group has ‹MG›expanded into a diverse array of online servic
ba, the Rakuten Group has expanded into a diverse ‹CG›array of online services, including eBooks & e
The integration of all of our services, which are ‹SG›anchored around our membership loyalty program
per Points, is the Rakuten Ecosystem and the core ‹CG›strategy of our international expansion. At Ra
system and the core strategy of our international ‹MG›expansion. At Rakuten, we are currently accele
rnational expansion. At Rakuten, we are currently ‹MG›accelerating the global expansion of the Rakut
Rakuten, we are currently accelerating the global ‹MG›expansion of the Rakuten Ecosystem into the Am
By introducing our unique corporate philosophy of ‹MG›empowering people and society through the Inte
ciety through the Internet we hope to continue to ‹HG›grow the Rakuten Group globally and to eventua
uten Group globally and to eventually realize our ‹HG›vision of a global Rakuten Ecosystem.
*‹SG›*
*‹CG›*
*‹MG›*
*‹SG›*
*‹XG›*
*‹SG›*
*‹MG›*
*‹SG›*
*‹XG›*
*‹SG›*
*‹SG›*
*‹MG›*
*‹XG›*
*‹RG›*
*‹RG›*
*‹CG›*
*‹MG›*
*‹CG›*
*‹SG›*
*‹CG›*
*‹MG›*
*‹MG›*
*‹MG›*
*‹MG›*
*‹HG›*
*‹HG›*
3
11
13
42
69
80
89
95
114
122
123
127
150
164
179
186
195
199
229
245
249
255
258
287
299
309
Fig. 7
Table 2
Concordance analysis of Mikitani (2014) : Summary
Chronological numerical data set of Mikitani (2014) : Computed by T-Scope (Scope 79 & Step 16)
Conceptual Metaphor Groups
Scope#
1−79
17−95
33−111
49−127
65−143
81−159
97−175
113−191
129−207
145−223
161−239
177−255
193−271
209−287
225−303
241−314
Sum
CG
RG
SG
HG
XG
MG
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
2
2
3
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
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The Practical Use of Metaphors in Business Communication（Shimizu）
Metaphorgram of Mikitani (2014) : Scope 79 & Step 16
Metaphor Density
Fig. 8
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Fig. 9
Metaphor Density
Fig. 10
Auto-correlogram of Mikitani’s (2014) Sum values
Metaphorgram of Mikitani (2014) : With limited CMGs (SG, RG, MG, and Sum)
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Fig. 11
Cross-correlogram of Mikitani (2014) : ‹SG› with ‹RG›
Fig. 12
Cross-correlogram of Mikitani (2014) : ‹RG› with ‹MG›
Fig. 10 is a simplified version of the same metaphorgram of Mikitani (Fig. 8). Fig. 10 is
prepared to focus on ‹SG›, ‹RG›, and ‹MG›. These three CMGs demonstrate the
chronological, clear transitions in Mikitani’s metaphorgram.
Figs. 11 and 12 are cross-correlograms (Gulledge & Willis, 1985, pp.233−234). They
suggest the chronological clear transitions between ‹SG› and ‹RG› (Fig. 11), and between
‹RG› and ‹MG› (Fig. 12). Cross-correlation analysis will estimate the degree to which two
time series of different CMGs are chronologically correlated. The cross-correlograms (Figs. 11
& 12) are calculated using the data in Table 2.
4. 4 Discussion
In the corporate philosophy (Rakuten, 2014), the major concept is ‹MG›. The role of ‹MG› is
also dominant in the CEO message (Mikitani, 2014). The Hits and Dispersion values of ‹MG›
The Practical Use of Metaphors in Business Communication（Shimizu）
（ 631 ）１６３
measure the highest in Fig. 7. The metaphorgram in Fig. 10 also demonstrates the continuous
presence of MG metaphors from the beginning to the end. They represent the reflection of
‹MG›, the corporate philosophy’s core concept, in the CEO message.
The Sum-line in Mikitani’s metaphorgram (Fig. 8) stays at similar elevations throughout
the text. This implies that Mikitani maintained his metaphor density at the same level,
although the six CMGs demonstrate complex chronological variations with individual rises
and declines. This is very unique when compared with the Sum-lines in other metaphorgrams
(cf. Figs. 3 & 4). The auto-correlogram in Fig. 9 also suggests that the chronological
elevations of Mikitani’s Sum-line show no extreme cyclic behavior.
Fig. 10 shows the collaborative, clear transitions performed by ‹SG›, ‹RG›, and ‹MG› in
Mikitani’s message. Six phrases, containing SG, RG, and MG metaphors (in italics), are
quoted below in the chronological order of occurrence.
(N 1) ‹SG› Since our foundation in 1997 it has been our . . .
(N 6) ‹SG› Our site was created based on the concept of . . .
(N 14) ‹RG› . . . where merchants and consumers can interact in the same way . . .
(N 15) ‹RG› . . . where transactions can be engaging, exciting, informative, . . .
(N 22) ‹MG› At Rakuten, we are currently accelerating the global . . .
(N 24) ‹MG› . . . our unique corporate philosophy of empowering people and . . .
(Edited from Table 1)
The transitions from ‹SG› through ‹MG› in the message can be interpreted as follows. In
the earlier part of the message, Mikitani mainly uses SG metaphors to highlight the solid, bold
impression of the company. This is followed by RG metaphors in the middle, which create the
unity and rapport with clients. In the final part of the message, the MG metaphors, reflecting
the same concept of the corporate philosophy, play a dominant role at the continuous, highest
elevation through the end of the message. The MG metaphors in the conclusion leave
powerful, vigorous visions of Rakuten.
These collaborative transitions can be verified by the time series analysis. The crosscorrelogram in Fig. 11 shows the cross-correlation between ‹SG› and ‹RG›, and Fig 12 is for
‹RG› and ‹MG›. Remarkably, these two cross-correlograms look similar. This similarity
suggests similar intervals appearing between ‹SG›, ‹RG›, and ‹MG›. In fact, Fig. 11 indicates
that ‹SG› precedes ‹RG› by 5 Steps (lags), and Fig. 12 also indicates that ‹RG› precedes ‹MG›
by 5 Steps. These visual proofs reveal the secrets of the clear and simple conceptual structures
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that make Mikitani’s message easy to follow and remember.
This observation will become even more clear, if we compare Mikitani’s clear transitions
in his metaphorgram (Fig. 10) with those in Tani’s revised metaphorgram (Fig. 6). They
resemble each other. They both share clear transitions. This surprises us, because Mikitani
originally performed such clear conceptual structures without any revision. Mikitani’s example
is one ideal style for students to follow, and for educators to demonstrate.
All discussions above became possible owing to the visual aid of metaphorgrams. From a
pedagogical perspective, visual illustrations often tell more than verbal descriptions. Once the
chronological structure of underlying concepts are disclosed by metaphorgrams, students can
imitate the structure, while considering which metaphorical word would properly reflect the
concept. Such a chronological, visual approach to metaphor will encourage students to create a
clearer conceptual image in the message, while using a thoughtful choice of words in their
future business communications.
Ⅴ Conclusion
In this study, the research background and the roles of metaphors have been examined. In
addition, the chronological perspective was proposed through the metaphorgram analysis. This
research study stated that metaphorgrams will help students to find a clue to make their
message clearer. In order to create a simple and clear business message, transitions between
concepts behind words should also be clear.
Coincidently, Mikitani’s message and Tani’s revised message share similar chronological
structures in the metaphorgrams. This fact reminds us of the importance of simplicity in
designing the overall conceptual structures. In classrooms, teaching how to make the message
simple is not always simple. One reason for this is the lack of visual illustrations, in which the
teaching aid itself tells a great deal to the students. This paper thus proposed the visual and
chronological approaches, using metaphorgrams.
Since this article has focused mainly on the quantitative aspects of the research, the
qualitative features of metaphors were not discussed in detail. In classrooms, of course,
qualitative instructions about metaphors are necessary. The most important thing, however, is
to let students open their eyes and minds to the vital roles of metaphors, with a chronological
perspective. If we closely look at metaphorgrams, we can find the peaks and troughs, the
collaborative features between concepts, and the chronological variations of each conceptual
metaphor group. In business English education, when students can see−instead of hear−the
The Practical Use of Metaphors in Business Communication（Shimizu）
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practical use of metaphors in business communication, the students will recognize, appreciate,
and enjoy the power of language.
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