C H A P T E R
5
Competition
and Cooperation
Chapter 5: Competition and Cooperation
Competition and Cooperation Defined
(Coakley, 1994)
•  Competition: A social process that occurs
when rewards are given to people for how their
performance compares with the performances
of others during the same task or when
participating in the same event.
•  Cooperation: A social process through which
performance is evaluated and rewarded in
terms of the collective achievement of a group
of people working together to reach a particular
goal.
The Competition Process
•  Stage 1: An objective competitive situation
is a situation in which performance is compared
with some standard of excellence in the
presence of at least one other person who is
aware of the comparison.
•  Stage 2: The subjective competitive
situation is how the person perceives, accepts,
and appraises the objective competitive
situation (influenced by personality factors such
as competitiveness).
(continued)
The Competition Process (continued)
•  Stage 3: Response is whether a person
approaches or avoids an objective competitive
situation (at the behavioral, physiological, and
psychological levels).
•  Stage 4: Consequences is whether a person
approaches or avoids an objective competitive
situation (at the behavioral, physiological, and
psychological levels)
Psychological Studies
of Competition and Cooperation
•  Triplett’s cyclists: Cyclists were faster in
competition than alone racing against the clock.
•  Deutsch’s puzzles: Competition-group
students were self-centered, directed efforts at
beating others, had closed communication, and
exhibited group conflict and distrust;
cooperation-group students communicated
openly, shared information, developed
friendships, and solved more puzzles.
Psychological Studies
of Competition and Aggression
•  Competition is not good or bad; it is neutral.
•  Whether it leads to aggression or
cooperation depends on the social
environment and the way the performers
view competition.
Psychological Studies
of Competition and Cooperation
•  Cooperation as opposed to competition
produces superior performance, although
results may depend on the nature of the
task.
•  Competition can serve as a positive source
of motivation to improve and refine skills.
Psychological Studies
on Experimental Games
•  Prisoner’s dilemma: Competitors draw
cooperators into competition
•  Sherif and Sherif (1969) summer camp
studies: Competition can be reduced
through cooperative efforts to achieve
superordinate goals.
Psychological Studies on Competitive
Sport and Success in Life
•  Athletes in educational programs have
higher educational aspirations than
nonathletes.
•  Athletes have no more or less career
success than nonathletes.
•  Athletes are no more or less deviant than
nonathletes.
Determining Whether Competition is
Good or Bad?
•  Competition is neither inherently good nor
bad.
•  It is neither productive nor destructive.
•  It is a neutral process; the environment
determines its effects to a great degree.
Competition and Cooperation
as Complementary Concepts
•  Competition and cooperation are not polar
opposites.
•  The dynamics of how competition and
cooperation complement one another
should be taught.
•  Top performers employ a blend of
competition and cooperation strategies.
Attributes Related to Both
Competition and Cooperation
•  A sense of mission
•  Strong work ethic
•  Use of resources
•  A strong preparation ethic
•  A love of challenge and change
•  Great teamwork
(Garfield, 1986)
Enhancing Cooperation:
Component Structure of Games
•  Competitive means—competitive ends: For
example, King of the Mountain, 100-yard
dash
•  Cooperative means—competitive ends: For
example, soccer, basketball
(continued)
Enhancing Cooperation: Component
Structure of Games (continued)
•  Individual means—individual ends: For
example, calisthenics, cross-country skiing
•  Cooperative means—individual ends: For
example, helping each other individually
improve
•  Cooperative means—cooperative ends: For
example, keeping a volleyball from hitting
ground
Enhancing Cooperation:
Cooperative Games
•  Cooperative games emphasize both
cooperative means and cooperative ends.
•  Cooperation can be taught through
cooperative games.
•  Cooperative games can be devised by
changing the rules of traditional games.
Enhancing Cooperation:
General Principles of Cooperative
Games
•  Maximize participation.
•  Maximize opportunities to learn sport and
movement skills.
•  Do not keep score.
•  Maximize opportunities for success.
•  Give positive feedback.
•  Provide opportunities for youngsters to play
different positions.
Guidelines for Balancing
Competition and Cooperation
•  Blend competition and cooperation when
teaching and coaching physical skills.
•  Individualize instruction to meet each
person’s needs.
•  Structure games for children to include both
competitive and cooperative elements.
(continued)
Guidelines for Balancing Competition
and Cooperation (continued)
•  When competition leads to fierce rivalry,
use superordinate goals to get the groups
together.
•  Provide positive feedback and
encouragement to students and athletes
regardless of the outcomes of the
competition.
(continued)
Guidelines for Balancing Competition
and Cooperation (continued)
•  Stress cooperation to produce trust and
open communication.
•  Provide opportunities for both the learning
of sport skills and the practice of these
skills in competition.