Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Human Evolution
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhevol
New geochronological, paleoclimatological, and archaeological data from the
Narmada Valley hominin locality, central India
Rajeev Patnaik a, *, Parth R. Chauhan b, M.R. Rao c, B.A.B. Blackwell d, e, A.R. Skinner d, e, Ashok Sahni a,
M.S. Chauhan c, H.S. Khan e
a
CAS in Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
The Stone Age Institute & CRAFT Research Center, (Indiana University), 1392 W. Dittemore Road, Gosport, IN 47433, USA
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, 53, University Road, Lucknow 226 007, India
d
Department of Chemistry, Williams College, Williamstown, MA, 01267, USA
e
RFK Science Research Institute, Glenwood Landing, NY, 11547, USA
b
c
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 28 October 2007
Accepted 10 August 2008
The oldest known fossil hominin in southern Asia was recovered from Hathnora in the Narmada Basin,
central India in the early 1980’s. Its age and taxonomic affinities, however, have remained uncertain.
Current estimates place its maximum age at >236 ka, but not likely older than the early middle
Pleistocene. The calvaria, however, could be considerably younger. We report recent fieldwork at
Hathnora and associated Quaternary type-sections that has provided new geological and archaeological
insights. The portion of the exposed ‘Boulder Conglomerate’ within the Surajkund Formation, which
forms a relict terrace and has yielded the hominin fossils, contains reworked and stylistically mixed
lithic artifacts and temporally mixed fauna. Three mammalian teeth stratigraphically associated with the
hominin calvaria were dated by standard electron spin resonance (ESR). Assuming an early uranium
uptake (EU) model for the teeth, two samples collected from the reworked surface deposit averaged
49 1 ka (83 2 ka, assuming linear uptake [LU]; 196 7 ka assuming recent uptake [RU]). Another
sample recovered from freshly exposed, crossbedded gravels averaged 93 5 ka (EU), 162 8 ka (LU) or
407 21 ka (RU). While linear uptake models usually provide the most accurate ages for this environment and time range, the EU ages represent the minimum possible age for fossils in the deposit.
Regardless, the fossils are clearly reworked and temporally mixed. Therefore, the current data constrains
the minimum possible age for the calvaria to 49 1 ka, although it could have been reworked and
deposited into the Hathnora deposit any time after 160 ka (given the LU uptake ages) or earlier (given
the RU ages). At Hathnora, carbonaceous clay, bivalve shells, and a bovid tooth recovered from layers
belonging to the overlying Baneta Formation have yielded 14C ages of 35.66 2.54 cal ky BP,
24.28 0.39 cal ky BP, and 13.15 0.34 ky BP, respectively. Additional surveys yielded numerous lithics
and fossils on the surface and within the stratigraphic sequence. At the foot of the Vindhyan Hills 2 km
from the river, we recovered a typologically Early Acheulean assemblage comprised of asymmetrical
bifaces, large cleavers with minimal working, trihedral picks, and flake tools in fresh condition. These
tools may be the oldest Acheulean in the Narmada Valley. Several lithics recovered from the Dhansi
Formation may represent the first unequivocal evidence for an early Pleistocene hominin presence in
India. In situ invertebrate and vertebrate fossils, pollen, and spores indicate a warm, humid climate
during the late middle Pleistocene. High uranium concentrations in the mammalian teeth indicate
exposure to saline water, suggesting highly evaporative conditions in the past. Late Pleistocene sediment
dated between 24.28 0.39 cal ky BP and 13.15 340 ky BP has yielded pollen and spores indicating
cool, dry climatic conditions corresponding to Oxygen Isotope Stage 2 (OIS 2). An early Holocene
palynological assemblage from the type locality at Baneta shows evidence for relatively dry conditions
and a deciduous forest within the region. The Dhansi Formation provisionally replaces the Pilikarar
Formation as the oldest Quaternary formation within the central Narmada Basin. The Baneta Formation,
previously dated at 70 ka to 128 ka, correlates with the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. Our results
highlight the need for further Quaternary geological and paleoanthropological research within the
Narmada Basin, especially because dam construction threatens these deposits.
Keywords:
Fossil hominin site
Quaternary stratigraphy
Paleontology
Prehistoric archaeology
Geochronology
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Patnaik).
0047-2484/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.08.023
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
Introduction
The Narmada River in central India (Fig. 1) flows along an eastwest trending lineament. The Vindhyan Hills in the north and the
Satpura Hills to the south bound the valley. The river rises at
Amarkantak and flows west for approximately 1300 km to the Gulf
of Cambay. Numerous Quaternary geological and archaeological
investigations have been conducted here since the 19th century
(Theobold, 1860; de Terra and Paterson, 1939; Badam, 1979;
Agrawal et al., 1988; Kennedy, 2003). A calvarium, two clavicles,
and a partial rib from Hathnora in the central Narmada Valley;
attributed by different investigators to Homo erectus, archaic H.
sapiens, or H. heidelbergensis, constitutes the only fossil hominin in
India (Sonakia, 1984; Kennedy and Chiment, 1991; Sankhyan, 1997,
2005; Cameron et al., 2004). The Narmada calvaria is probably best
classified as Homo sp. indet. (Athreya, 2007) until more diagnostic
specimens are recovered. Prehistoric hominin occupation associated with the Narmada River appears to have occurred since at least
the Middle Pleistocene, but potentially earlier sites may also exist
(this paper). Numerous sites ranging from the Lower Paleolithic to
the Chalcolithic Periods provide direct evidence for repeated
human occupation (Misra, 1997). Since the late 19th century, many
scientists, both foreign and Indian, have divided the valley into
three major zones, lower, central, and upper (see Sankalia, 1974
:105). Here, we present new multidisciplinary paleoanthropological data from Pleistocene units in the central Narmada Valley,
including additional work at Hathnora. We examine the relative
115
chronology for the stratum that yielded the hominin fossils and for
those yielding lithic and fossil assemblages from surrounding
localities. We also present a revised Quaternary stratigraphy for the
central part of the valley (Chauhan et al., 2006; Chauhan and Patnaik, 2008).
Previous Quaternary investigations
In the later 19th century, C.A. Hacket of the Geological Survey of
India collected the first artifacts and mammalian fossils from the
Narmada Basin at Bhutra (Medlicott, 1873; also see Theobold, 1860;
Foote, 1916). In the 1930’s, following their preliminary work in the
Soan Valley within what is now northern Pakistan, de Terra and
Paterson (1939) conducted the first systematic geological and
archaeological investigations between Hoshangabad and Narsinghpur in the central basin. They were the first to formally divide
the Narmada stratigraphic sequence into Upper and Lower Groups.
Influenced by their Siwalik work, de Terra and Teilhard de Chardin
(1936) compared the Narmada’s Lower Paleolithic artifacts, vertebrate fauna, and the ‘Boulder Conglomerate’ with comparable
deposits in the Siwalik Hills sequence.
Although broad, the observations by de Terra and Paterson
(1939) linked vertebrate fossil assemblages and artifacts with
associated fluvial terrace sequences. Many southern Asian prehistorians later adopted this approach and discovered numerous sites
associated with river valleys throughout India (see Misra, 1997).
Although these included many Paleolithic and paleontological sites
Fig. 1. Locality map of the sections/sites discussed in the paper. The gray areas with the topographic lines indicate the Vindhyan hills and the associated numbers represent meters
above mean sea level.
116
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
(e.g., Zeuner, 1950; Sen and Ghosh, 1963; Wainwright, 1964; Sankalia, 1974; Mohapatra and Karir, 1983), this work resulted in
different and ambiguous stratigraphic interpretations over time
(Sankalia, 1974 :113; Jayaswal, 1978 :47; Salahuddin, 1986–87).
In the late 1950s, T.D. McCown, G. Shkurkin, and K.D. Banerjee
collected approximately 200 lithic specimens from three riverbeds
within the Narmada Valley (Jayaswal, 1978). In studying this
assemblage, Semans (1981) was one of the few who statistically
compared Indian lithic assemblages with others elsewhere in the
Old World. From field observations, McCown and his associates
postulated that the region might be a graben nested between
Gondwana fold belts and Tertiary rift systems (Semans, 1980), and
disagreed with de Terra and Paterson’s proposed stratigraphic
sequence (Sankalia, 1974). At Hoshangabad, McCown and his
associates thought that the conglomerates represented alluvial fan
and deltaic deposits, with the cobbles originating mainly from the
surrounding Vindhyan and Bisawar Formations (Sankalia, 1974;
Semans, 1980). Given the absence of Paleolithic factory sites within
the basin, they proposed that the most extensive occupation or
habitation occurred along the zones peripheral to the ancient
floodplain, closer to the Vindhyan Hills.
Following McCown’s work, Sankalia (1974) and Khatri (1966a)
completed extensive surveys in the central Narmada Valley. Sankalia (1974) proposed that the conglomerates and fine-grained
deposits primarily belonged to the fluvial facies from the Narmada
River, rather than its tributaries. At Peera Nullah and several other
locations along the entire valley, Sankalia (1974 :113–119) interpreted the Narmada sequence as comprising six main depositional
cycles involving aggradation and erosion. He also thought that no
tech-nological transition existed from the non-Acheulian (or early
non-bificial industries) to the Acheulian (or bifacial tradition), but
that they resembled other Middle Pleistocene assemblages in India,
however with relatively different proportions of artifacts. Khatri
(1961, 1966a) revised the stratigraphic interpretations of earlier
workers at Hoshangabad and discovered numerous lithic and fossil
occurrences. At Mahadeo Piparia, Khatri (1962, 1966b; Armand,
1985) proposed that the non-bifacial Mahadevian Industry developed into the Acheulean. Sen and Ghosh (1963), Supekar (1968),
and later Armand (1983) refuted Khatri’s (1962, 1966b) claims for
an indigenous Acheulean from the Narmada Valley. Supekar (1985)
also later reported Middle Paleolithic tool types mixed with the
older Lower Paleolithic industry at Mahadeo Piparia. Nonetheless,
Khatri’s efforts identified many important vertebrate fossil localities and lithic assemblages, often in primary geological contexts.
Guided by Sankalia, Armand (1983) excavated a Lower Paleolithic site within a Narmada conglomerate deposit at Durkadi. This
was the only other attempt besides Khatri’s to propose a Mode 1 to
Mode 2 transition from a predominantly core-and-flake assemblage in peninsular India. Armand (1983) reported several ‘protobifaces’ at Durkadi, in addition to the Mode 1 assemblages, and
suggested that this indicated the indigenous evolution of the
Acheulean in peninsular India. Armand (1983) proposed that Durkadi dated to approximately 1 Ma on geological and typological
grounds, but presented no stratigraphic, paleomagnetic, or biochronological evidence to support this conclusion. Here. we suggest
that, since the entire valley has a complex depositional history, the
conglomerate beds cannot be used as marker horizons. Furthermore, Armand’s Mode 1 to Mode 2 transition is now known to be
unsubstantiated for the indigenous development of the South Asian
Acheulean (see Pappu, 2001). Nonetheless, Durkadi continues to be
a typo-morphological anomaly in the Indian Lower Paleolithic. For
example, the lithic specimens recognized by Armand (1983) as
‘protobifaces’ actually appear to be pointed bifacial cores or core
scrapers/choppers (Chauhan, 2008a), thus, qualifying the assemblages as exclusively core-and-flake without any formal bifacial
elements. Although comparative stratigraphy and general lithic
typology hint at an older age than currently expected, until it can be
dated absolutely, Durkadi should be tentatively regarded as no
older than early Middle Pleistocene.
Between 1977 and 2003, Sharma and Sharma (2005) intermittently surveyed and made some surface collections in the Pilikarar
area. Misra et al. (1990a, b) also recently excavated the Middle
Paleolithic site of Samnapur in the central basin, while Ota (1992)
surveyed the lower area during salvage archaeology work and
documented archaeological sites of various periods. Mishra and
Rajaguru (1993) investigated the Quaternary deposits at Bhedaghat
near Jabalpur. Ghosh (1993) and Mishra (1993) excavated Upper
Paleolithic deposits at Mehtakheri, while Mohapatra and Karir
(1983) and Mishra et al. (1999) conducted geoarchaeological
investigations in the Holocene sediment.
Since 1830, paleontological surveys have explored the Narmada
Basin (Sankalia, 1974), but most have made random surface collections. A few investigators found and excavated in situ stratified
deposits (see Badam, 1979 and Chauhan, 2008b for reviews). Based
predominantly on de Terra and Paterson’s (1939) original stratigraphic units, Biswas (1997) proposed two mammalian faunal zones
in the Narmada Valley. Fauna from the Lower Zone, presumably early
to middle Pleistocene in age, includes Stegodon namadicus, Equus
namadicus, Sus namadicus, Hippopotamus namadicus, Cuon alpinus
tripathii, and the Homo specimens, while the Upper Zone, presumably Late Pleistocene to Early Holocene in age, has yielded Equus
hemionus khur, Hippopotamus palaeindicus, and Hystrix crassidens.
The conglomerates that yielded the hominins at Hathnora have also
yielded Equus namadicus, Hexaprotodon/Hippopotamus namadicus,
Stegodon ganesa, Stegodon insignis, Elephas namadicus, Elephas hysudricus, Bos namadicus, Bos planifrons, Bubalus palaeindicus, Cervus
duvauceli, and Cuon alpinus tripathii (Sonakia, 1984; Biswas, 1997;
Sonakia and Biswas, 1998). Other large mammalian taxa from Narmada Valley deposits include Antilope, Boselephas, Sus, and Ursus
(Biswas, 1997). From the Baneta Formation exposed near Devakachar, the small mammal taxa include Tatera cf. indica, Millardia cf.
meltada, cf. Mus sp., Bandicota sp., Bandicota begalensis, and Gerbillus
sp. (Patnaik et al., 1995). In an exploratory palynological study at
Hathnora and Baneta, Nandi (1997) reported angiosperm pollen,
pteridophytic and fungal spores.
Despite the many stone tools and vertebrate fossils recovered
from the Narmada Valley and elsewhere in India by previous
workers and the current investigators, no bones modified by
hominins, such as those with percussion or cut-marks, have been
reported from units older than the Late Pleistocene in southern Asia
(Chauhan, 2008b). The highest potential for recovering such well
preserved paleoanthropological evidence from dateable units lies
in the extensive Quaternary fine-grained deposits throughout the
valley, including along the Narmada’s tributaries. Future systematic
investigations in this region, including horizontal excavations at
Paleolithic sites in association with optimally preserved vertebrate
fossil assemblages, may yet yield modified bones and hominin
fossils.
The stratigraphic and chronological classification for the Narmada Valley deposits by Tiwari and Bhai (1997) represents the
latest and most comprehensive geological work. Based on the
stratigraphic relationships, erosional unconformities, tephra
deposits, paleomagnetic signatures, pedogenic characteristics,
sedimentary mineralogy, granulometry, and structures, they divide
the Quaternary deposits into seven formations (from oldest to
youngest), these are the Pilikarar, Dhansi, Surajkund, Baneta, Hirdepur, Bauras, and Ramnagar. Tiwari and Bhai (1997; Table 1, Figs. 1
and 2) correlate these formations with the early Pleistocene to the
Holocene.
The Pilikarar Formation, the lowest Quaternary sedimentary
unit recognized by Tiwari and Bhai (1997), is the only formation
that is not exposed along the banks of the Narmada River (Fig. 2),
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
but it occurs as small outcrops elsewhere in the central basin.
Tiwari and Bhai (1997) reported that the Pilikarar Formation
formed the base of the entire Quaternary sequence in the central
Narmada Valley, overlying the Late Cretaceous basalts known as the
Deccan Traps. At the type section, Rao et al. (1997) correlated the
Pilikarar Formation with the Early Pleistocene. The Pilikarar is
exposed along the banks of Kaliadoh Nala, 2 km north from the
Narmada River. At the base, a boulder bed overlies laterite deposits.
Paleosols from the Baneta Formation overlie the boulder bed
(Tiwari and Bhai, 1997).
At Hathnora, the stratigraphy comprises a basal conglomerate
and gravel layer, the ‘Boulder Conglomerate’ (Khan and Sonakia,
1992), which unconformably overlies the Deccan Traps. The ‘Boulder
Conglomerate’, which averages w4 m in thickness, yielded the
hominin fossils and the associated faunal and lithic specimens
(Fig. 2). Tiwari and Bhai (1997) included the ‘‘Boulder Conglomerate’’
in the Surajkund Formation Most workers correlate it with the
Middle Pleistocene (Khan and Sonakia, 1992; Rao et al., 1997; Tiwari
and Bhai, 1997; Sonakia and Biswas, 1998). Based on the magnetostratigraphy in the type section at Surajkund, about 1.5 km upstream
on the south bank from Hathnora, the Surajkund Formation ranges
from about 128 ka to 500 ka (Tiwari and Bhai, 1997; Table 5). Elsewhere, the Surajkund Formation overlies the Early Pleistocene
Dhansi Formation, which is best exposed as the stratotype section at
Dhansi, about 1 km upstream from Surajkund.
At Hathnora, w9 m of clay and sand belonging to the Baneta
Formation overlie the ‘‘Boulder Conglomerate’’ (Tiwari and Bhai,
1997). From the Toba ash deposits and normal polarity detected at
the type section at Baneta, 2 km downstream on the north bank
from Hathnora, the Baneta Formation has been correlated with the
Late Pleistocene at about 70 ka to 128 ka (Rao et al., 1997). Acharyya
and Basu (1993) also reported fission track dates of 74 ka for
samples from the formation.
Methods
In our field methodology, we documented new artifact and fossil
occurrences, made stratigraphic measurements, and collected
samples for geological, paleontological, archaeological, geochronological, paleoecological, and paleoclimatalogical analyses
(Chauhan et al., 2006). During the field surveys, we recorded the
precise locations and altitudes for the major sites using Garmin
GPS-12 Channel and Garmin E-trex Vista global positioning
systems. Macroscopic sedimentological and paleopedological
features were also documented in the field. Microscopic structures
and textures were studied using Leitz petrographic microscopes at
the Department of Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh. For
paleoecological and paleoclimatological analyses, both large
mammals and microfossils were collected, the latter by wet sieving
with 60 and 40 mesh seives. The archaeological work focused
primarily on analyzing the raw materials, site distributions,
assemblage compositions, and their geological contexts. For pollen
analyses, 38 samples, seven from the Dhansi, 26 from the Surajkund, and five from the Baneta Formations, were collected. Pollen
and spores were extracted using conventional pollen acetolysis
(Erdtman, 1943).
The Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany in Lucknow performed the 14C analyses, which were calibrated using the University
of Washington Quaternary Isotope Lab Radiocarbon Calibration
Program REV 4.3 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993) and the calibration
data sets from Stuiver et al. (1998a, b). The 14C samples included
two carbonaceous sediment samples, one bivalve shell, and one
bovid tooth (Table 2). The carbonaceous clasy were treated with
1% HCl, 1% NaOH, and 1% HCl successively for one hour each
at 95 C for remove the calcareous contaminants, to remove
the humic acids, and to neutralize the samples respectively. The
117
sample was dried in an oven at 95 C before processing for CO2,
C2H2, and C6H6.
From the Surajkund Formation at Hathnora, three ungulate
teeth, FT39, FT40, and FT42 (Table 3), were analyzed by standard
ESR methods (Blackwell, 1989). From 13 to 16 homogeneous
aliquots of 30.0 0.2 mg from each purified enamel subsample
were irradiated using a calibrated 60Co g source with added doses of
0–2560 Gy at a rate of 0.1 Gy/s. Annealing the samples for 3 days at
90 C removed any unstable interference signals (Skinner et al.,
2000). ESR signal intensities were measured at room temperature in
a JEOL RE1X ESR spectrometer, with a microwave frequency of
9.445 GHz, at 2.0 mW power, under a 100 kHz field modulation of
0.5 mT, and a 0.1 s time constant. Spectra were scanned over 5 mT
centered at 441.0 mT with 8 minute sweep time, but receiver gain
was varied to maximize the signal/noise ratio. The ESR peak heights
were measured electronically without deconvolution from the first
derivative for the ESR signal using Win-ESR software (Skinner et al.,
2001). Since the site contains a stacked sequence of poorly sorted
fluvial conglomerates and sands, the sediment produces a nonhomogenous external dose field (¼ a lumpy site; sensu Schwarcz,
1994). Therefore, to establish the variation in the sediment dose
rate, several bulk sediment samples were collected along the
exposed section for each stratigraphic unit within 30 cm of
the dated teeth. Sediment attached to the teeth was also analyzed.
The bulk samples, which comprised all sediment particle sizes to
ensure accuracy in the dose rates (Blackwell and Blickstein, 2000),
were powdered to 100–200 mesh and thoroughly mixed before
neutron activation analyses (NAA). All the teeth and sediment
samples were analyzed by NAA and calibrated to NIST standard
1633B (Blackwell, 1989). Accumulated doses and their errors were
calculated with a 1/I2 weighting, fit to a saturating exponential
curve. The ages, all dose rates, and their errors were calculated using
Rosy v. 1.4 (Brennan et al., 1997). Since not enough dental cementum
was present to provide an NAA sample, the internal dentinal U
concentration was used as a proxy for this element. For all the ages,
Rn loss was assumed to be 0.0 0.0 vol%, sedimentary water
concentration, to be 30 5 wt%, and the U uptake parameter p ¼ 10
was used for the RU ages. Isochron analysis (cf., Blackwell et al.,
2002) indicated no significant U leaching from the teeth.
Results
Field observations, palynology, and
14
C age estimates
Pilikarar Formation. In their stratigraphy, Tiwari and Bhai (1997)
placed the Pilikarar Formation disconformably over the basal
laterites, correlating it with the early Quaternary. They also reported paleosols from the Baneta Formation disconformably overlying
a boulder bed within the Pilikarar Formation. They based their
interpretation primarily on stratigraphic observations and soil
morphology of the type section at Pilikarar and compared it with
other sections along the Narmada River. Holocene sediment,
presumably deposited by the Kaliadoh Nala, may also overlie all
these Pleistocene strata (M.A.J. Williams, pers. comm.). In 2004,
excavations for a new bridge over Kaliadoh Nala, a tributary of the
Narmada, exposed the base of the Pilikarar Formation in this area
for the first time (Fig. 2). The basal laterite, which is more than 3 m
thick, represents a weathered facies of the underlying Precambrian
Vindhyan sandstone. A boulder bed ranging from <20 cm to 3 m
overlies the laterite. We traced these boulders to Vindhyan
quartzite outcrops on nearby hillocks at the base of the Vindhyan
Hills. There, the quartzite rock fragments became angular to subrounded and the laterite had developed along the streams and
seasonal pools in the Vindhyan quartzite. This resulting clastic
material is exposed only where it has been incised by seasonal
streams, such as the Kaliadoh Nala, which has also exposed and
118
Table 1
Chronostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, and archaeological correlates of the Narmada Basin formations according to this and previous studies
Litho-Stratigraphy
(Tiwari and Bhai,
1997)
Chrono-Stratigraphy
(Tiwari and Bhai,
1997)
MagnetoStratigraphy
(Rao et al., 1997)
Bio Stratigraphy
Vertebrates (Biswas, 1997;
Sonakia and Biswas, 1998)
Bio Stratigraphy
Vertebrates
Present Work
Ramnagar Formation Holocene
Holocene
Subfossilized and unfossilized
bones of Extinct animals
Bos
Bauras Formation
13 ka
Holocene
Hirdepur Formation
Upper Pleistocene
Brunhes
Normal
Holocene
Baneta Formation
Upper Pleistocene
70 ka to 128 ka
Holocene
8740 450 ka
(BS 2278)
13,150 340 ka
(BS 2240)
24280 310 ka
(BS 2264)
35,660 2540 ka,
(BS 2216)
Later upper Pleistocene
Surajkund Formation Middle Pleistocene early upper Pleistocene
Early Pleistocene
Pilikarar Formation
? Early Pleistocene
Matuyama
Chron
?
?Middle Pleistocene
Bio-Stratigraphy
Pollen and Spores
Present Work
Lithic Typology
Present Work
Flakes
Flakes
Upper assemblage Zone Elephas Bos, Bubalus, Equus, Bos,
cf. namadicus, Hippopotamus
Bubalus, Hippopotamus
palaeindicus, Equus hemionus
Cervidae indet.,
khur
Lamellidens, Indonaia,
Viviparous, Melania,
Corbula, Darwinula
stevensi, Candona
fabaeformis, Ilyocypris
bradyi, Cypridopsis sp
Lower Assemblage Zone Homo
Lamellidens , Indonaia, Cyatheaceae, Osmundaceae, Middle Paleolithic
Viviparous, Melania,
Lycopdiaceae, Polypodiaceae flakes and
Corbula,
Schizaeaceae, Poaceae,
diminutive bifaces
Asteraceae, Chenopodiacea, Late Acheulan
Solanaceae
handaxes,
cleavers, etc.
erectus, Elephas namadicus
61.6 0.9 ka (FT39)
Stegodon namadicus, Cuon
62.8 9 (FT42)
alpinus
131 5 ka (FT40) to
Late middle Pleistocene
Dhansi Formation
Bio-Stratigrahy
Invertebrates
Present Work
Fragmentary mammalian
fossils of Elephas/Stegodon,
Hippopotamus
Elephas hysudricus,
Equus, Hippopotamus,
Bos, Struthio camelus
ArtemesiaMadhuca
Flakes
indica, Terminalia sp.,
Tectona sp., Lannea sp.
Cyperus sp., Grewia.sp.,
Typha latifolia, Diospyros
sp., Polygonum sp,
Chenopodiaceae, Poaceae,
Asteraceae etcCharaophytes.
Core/Chopper,
?Polyhedron,
flakes
Early Acheulan
handaxes, picks,
cleavers, choppers
etc.
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
Chrono-Stratigraphy
Present work
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
119
Fig. 2. Important Quaternary sections exposed around Hathnora.
possibly transported some paleolithic artifacts. Because the boulder
bed is poorly sorted and of variable thickness (see Fig. 1 in the
Supplementary Online Material [SOM]: supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the online version at doi: 10.
1016/j.jhevol.2008.08.023.), it cannot represent a fluvial channel
deposit from the Kaliadoh Nala or Narmada River 2 km away. The
bed most likely represents an alluvial or colluvial fan deriving from
the foothills. In contradiction to Tiwari and Bhai (1997), we did not
find any convincing evidence that paleosol deposits above the socalled early Pleistocene Pilikarar Formation belong to the late
Pleistocene Baneta Formation. These deposits are too spatially and
temporally restricted and poorly dated to be identified as parts of
any recognizable stratigraphic formation. Moreover, the underlying
laterites occur widely throughout the Narmada Valley and are
derived from both the Precambrian Vindhyan Hills and Late
Cretaceous Deccan Traps. Determining the age for these laterites
remains difficult and may even prove to be impossible (Y. Gunnell,
pers. comm.), but they appear to be significantly older than the
early Pleistocene. The best evidence for assigning a tentative relative age to some, but not all, Quaternary sediment at Pilikarar
comes from the associated Early Acheulean assemblage (discussed
below).
Table 2
14
C dates of samples collected from Baneta Formation at Hathnora and Baneta
Sample Number
Sample Type
BSIP No (BS)
Chemical fraction
used for 14C dating
14
C measurement, RC years
Locality
Site
Layer
BS 2216
Bivalve shells
Shell carbonate
Hathnora 2
Baneta Formation
BS 2264
Sample No. 16
Carbonaceous clay
Dating done on the
Calcareous content
Hathnora 2
Baneta Formation
BS 2240
Bovid Tooth dentine
Hathnora 1
Baneta Formation
13,150 340 (Calibrated age cal BP 15,807)
BS 2278
Carbonaceous clay
Dating done on the
Calcareous content
Dating done on the
Organic carbon content
Baneta 1
Baneta Formation
8740 540 (Calibrated age cal BP 9701)
35,660 2540
Calpal Online Radiocarbon Calibration
14
C-age BP: 35,660 2540
Calendric Age calBP: 39,652 2551/39,650 2550
68% range calBP: 37,100–42,203
Calendric age calBC: 37,702 37,702 þ/ 2551
24,280 390
Calpal Online Radiocarbon Calibration
14
C-age BP: 24,280 390
Calendric Age calBP: 29,096 555 /29,100 560
68% range calBP: 28,541–29,651
Calendric age calBC: 27,146 555
120
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
Table 3
Teeth from the Surajkund Formation at Hathnora used for ESR dating
Number
Location
Sample type
Sample
Catalogue
Deccan
Site
Faunal type
Tooth
FT39
FT40
FT42
2005.05
2005.06
2005.11
F-1 HTNBM2
F-5 HTNBM-1
HTNBM3
Hathnora reworked sandy pebbly gravel
Hathnora fresh sandy pebbly gravel
Hathnora reworked boulder conglomerate
Bovid
Bovid
Equid
Fragmentary cheek tooth
Fragmentary cheek tooth
Fragmentary molar
Dhansi Formation. At Dhansi, the Dhansi Formation outcrops in
a section approximately 15 m high and underlies w3 m of the
Surajkund Formation (Tiwari and Bhai, 1997). Here, dark brown and
yellow-orange paleosols may indicate significant oxidation (Tiwari
and Bhai, 1997; Fig. 2). Overall, the Dhansi Formation averages
w50 m in total thickness, but its base is not exposed at the Dhansi
type site. Sediment analyses by Rao et al. (1997) revealed that
although all the sediment in this formation was deposited during
the Matuyama Chron, the Brunhes-Matuyama boundary does not
appear to be preserved. Despite repeated visits to the exposure
during this study, the section yielded only one strongly weathered,
non-diagnostic mammalian molar tooth from a thin gravel horizon.
Sonakia and Biswas (1998) also reported fragmentary fossils from
large mammals in this formation. This formation likely outcrops in
isolated pockets in the central basin, including part of a meandering
paleochannel southeast of Dhansi (Tiwari and Bhai, 1997; Fig. 1).
Surajkund Formation. Known as the most fossiliferous formation in the valley and one that frequently yields stone tools and
vertebrate remains, although not in behavioral association, the
Surajkund Formation yielded the hominin fossils at Hathnora
(Tiwari and Bhai, 1997). At Hathnora 1 (see Fig. 2), in the w4 m
thick boulder gravels and sandy-pebbly beds that yielded the
hominin fossil, we recovered Elephas hysudricus and a Struthio
camelus eggshell fragment (Fig. 3e, f). The ostrich eggshell fragment
represents the first stratified occurrence for such a specimen in the
Narmada Basin, unlike those previously found ex situ at four other
sites in the valley (Badam, 2005). Struthio camelus eggshells from
Upper Paleolithic sites elsewhere in India were 14C dated to 40–
25 ka (Kumar et al., 1988). SEM analyses and comparative studies of
these eggshells indicate an affinity to the East African form S.
camelus molybdophanes (Sahni et al., 1989). From the sandy-pebbly
layer in the Surajkund Formation, we also recovered several tooth
fragments of large mammals and typologically Middle Paleolithic
artifacts in situ. These include a quartzite artifact that appears to
have been flaked and possibly engraved, and which is currently
being analyzed.
At the type section near Surajkund, a 15 m thick composite
section is well exposed. Several exposed sections were examined
over approximately 2 km (see Fig. 2 in SOM). From the grey sandypebbly layer at Surajkund 1, we recovered bovid teeth, relatively
refined Acheulean handaxes, flakes, and blades, all in situ. This
sandy-pebbly layer grades laterally into a pebbly layer cemented by
calcrete at Surajkund 2 (Fig. 2). Just below this cemented pebbly
layer (see Fig. 3 in SOM), a sub-triangular to cordiform Middle/Late
Acheulean handaxe was recovered from a paleosol within finegrained floodplain deposits (Fig. 4a). A smaller and technologically
more refined handaxe was collected from the surface of a similar
paleosol deposit nearby (Fig. 4b). From just below the pebbly layer
Fig. 3. Fossils collected at and near Hathnora: a) an Equus hemionus khur upper molars; b) an upper molar from Hexaprotodon sp.; c) a cervid lower jaw; d) a gastropod colony,
Viviperous sp.; e) an Elephas hysudricus molar; f) an eggshell fragment from Struthio camelus.
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
containing calcrete at Surajkund 3, 2 km downstream from Surajkund 2, we recovered techno-morphologically advanced Acheulean cleavers in situ (Fig. 4c-e). The paleosol layers in which these
typologically Late Acheulean bifaces occurred have also yielded
bivalve, gastropod, and vertebrate fossils (Fig. 3d; Chauhan, 2008b).
At Dhansi, pollen and spore samples were recovered from a dark
brown clay band at the base of Surajkund Formation, just above the
reddish-orange paleosol deposit. The assemblage in the clay
contains mainly pteridophytic spores (Cyatheaceae, Osmundaceae,
Polypodiaceae) and the angiosperms Artemesia, Poaceae, Asteraceae, and Chenopodiaceae (Fig. 5).
Across the river from Hathnora, a gravel beach near the village of
Gurla on the south bank yielded large mammalian fossils, including
an Elephas molar, and numerous lithic artifacts representing several
techno-chronological industries, including Early and Late
121
Acheulean (discussed later). The relatively fresh condition of these
Late Acheulean materials and their homogeneity suggest that
possible primary deposits existed upstream around the meander.
When these primary deposits were eroded and redeposited,
stratified bifaces and fossils resulted at the Surajkund localities.
Baneta Formation. At Hathnora, the Baneta Formation overlies
the Surajkund Formation and comprises all the deposits above the
sandy-pebbly layer. Some exposed sediment from the Baneta
Formation here shows cut-and-fill structures (Khan and Sonakia,
1992; Tiwari and Bhai, 1997). At Hathnora 2, a carbonaceous clay
layer yielded diverse microfossils that include the ostracodes Darwinula, Cypridopsis, Ilyocypris, Candona, Pupillidae indet., Gyraulus
(gastropods), bivalves, cyprinid fish, a crocodile tooth, and charophytes (Patnaik, 2000). Bivalve shells from this layer have yielded
a 14C age of 39.65 2.56 cal ky BP (BS 2216; Table 2).
Fig. 4. Tools typologically assigned to the Late Acheulean from Surajkund: a) a subtriangular to cordate handaxe; b) a miniature handaxe; c-e) three cleavers.
122
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
Fig. 5. Pollen and spore samples: 1-2) Artemesia sp. 3-4) Terminalia sp. 5-6) Lemna sp. 7, 19) Poaceae. 8) Mimosa sp. 9, 23) Zygnema zygospore. 10) Urticaceae. 11-12, 22) Chenopodium
sp. 13) Tubilifloarae. 14) Cyperaceae. 15) Alangium sp. 16) Symplocos sp. 17) Pongamia sp. 18) Holoptelea sp. 20-21) Solanaceae. 24) Polypodiaceae. 25) Pollen? 26) Trapa sp. 27)
Tetraploa sp. 28) Tetrad pollen. 29) Convolvulaceae. 30) Trilete spore. All shown at approximately x 500 magnification.
Of the 26 sediment samples collected for pollen analysis from
the Baneta Formation at Hathnora, three (16, 20, and 26) yielded
pollen assemblages. Sample (16, BS 2264) yielded a 14C date of
24.3 0.3 ka (BS 2264). This sample also yielded microgastropods,
bivalves, and cyprinid fish. If one assumes a constant sedimentation
rate of 10 cm/ka for the floodplain deposit, the thickness of the
pollen sequence would span approximately between 24 ka and
20 ka. Among the pollen, Poaceae predominated together with
other herbaceous elements, such as Tubiliflorae, Polygonum, and
some tricolporate pollen (Fig. 5). Algal remains included Zygnema
and Spirogyra zygospores, while Podocarpus was the only gymnosperm. Samples younger than 24 ka contained abundant herbs,
Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Urticaceae, Tubiliflorae, Liguliflorae, and
Polygonum. The arboreal species, such as Symplocos, Alangium, and
Holoptelea, have extremely low abundances, as do the aquatic taxa,
such as Typha and Potamogeton. Pteridophytic spores, including
Selaginella, Polypodiaceae, and other trilete/monolete spores were
also present (Fig. 5).
At the Baneta type section, a sample from the carbonaceous clay
layer (BS 2278) yielded a calibrated 14C age of 9.7 ka (cf., Stuiver
et al., 1998a). From this horizon, the palynological assemblage
included Lemna, Artemesia, Terminalia, Pongamia, Mimosa, Trapa,
Typa, Potamogeton, Chenopodium, Solanaceae, Polygonum Convolvulaceae, Poaceae, trilete and monolete fern spores, zygopspores
from Zygnema, Tetraploa, and fungal spores (Fig. 5). In addition to
these diverse pollen assemblages, the Baneta Formation at
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
123
230
Th/234U-ESR analyses. Nonetheless, the EU ages represent the
minimum possible ages for these teeth.
Although the dates here relied on relatively few sediment
samples, the site is a fluvial system, in which the sediment in any
one layer in laterally contiguous locations tends to have very similar
geochemistry, especially when well mixed by a large river, such as
the Narmada. Since the sediment samples used here likely capture
the maximum variation in the external dose rate, Dext(t), they
should also capture the maximum variation in the age ranges.
Therefore, the minimum age presented here for each tooth does
indeed represent the minimum possible age given the data available. To assess how Dext(t) affects the calculated ages, the ages were
recalculated using 0 mGy/y Dext(t) 4 mGy/y (Fig. 6).
Khidiaghat also yielded fragmentary Equus, Bos, Bubalus, Hexaprotodon, and Cervidae fossils.
ESR Dating Results
Two teeth, FT39 and FT42, were geochemically similar, with
enamel U concentrations averaging 5–7 ppm, and dentinal U
averaging 113 to 119 ppm (Table 4). In the third tooth, FT40,
however, U in the enamel averaged 17.81 2.62 ppm and U in the
dentine 53.99 13.90 ppm, which suggests that FT40 experienced
a different depositional history than the others. The high U
concentrations also mean that the U uptake model significantly
affects the calculated ages and, therefore, choosing the correct U
uptake model becomes important (see Fig. 6).
Both the accumulated doses and ages for FT39 and FT42 did not
differ statistically from one another (Table 5), while those for FT40
are about twice as high. Again, this suggests that FT40 experienced
a very different depositional history from the others, hinting that at
least one tooth has been reworked. FT39 and FT42 averaged
49 ka 1 ka assuming early U uptake (EU), 83 2 ka assuming
linear U uptake (LU), and 196 7 ka, assuming recent U uptake
(RU). At the 95% confidence limit, FT40 differs significantly, with
mean ages at 93 5 ka (EU), 162 8 ka (LU), and 407 21 ka (RU).
Generally, for sites in this time range, LU ages prove more reliable
(Blackwell, 2001, 2006), but the ages depend strongly on the
assumed U uptake model. Accurate ages require coupled
Discussion
Stratigraphy and chronology at Hathnora and comparable localities
Among its large pebbles and cobbles, the layer that yielded
the hominin calvaria also yielded fragmentary bovid crania,
Elephas molars (Biswas, 1997; Sonakia and Biswas, 1998;
present work), and Late Acheulean bifaces (Sonakia, 1984; de
Lumley and Sonakia, 1985a,b; Salahuddin, 1986–87). At Hathnora, the gravel beds fine upwards over 4 m suggesting that the
overlying younger sandy-pebbly beds were deposited in a lower
energy environment than the underlying bed that yielded the
calvaria. Figure 7 shows a possible depositional setting in which
Table 4
Sedimentary component radioactivity and dose rates.
Concentrationsa
Sample
U
Th
(ppm)
H1
bulk sediment
H2
bulk sediment
H3
bulk sediment
H4
bulk sediment
H1-H4 mean
bulk sediment
FT39sed
attached sediment
FT40den+sed1e
attached sediment
FT40den+sed25
attached sediment
FT40den+sed3e
attached sediment
FT40den+sed mean
attached sediment
FT42den3
(dentine proxy)
FT40en1
(enamel proxy)
FT42en1
(enamel proxy)
FT39en7
(enamel proxy)
Enamel mean
(enamel proxy)
a
External Dose Ratesb
K
DBG
ðtÞ
ext;b
c
DBG
ext;g ðtÞ
(ppm)
(wt%)
(mGy/y)
(mGy/y)
1.84
0.02
1.64
0.02
1.81
0.02
1.98
0.02
1.82
0.14
9.40
0.40
8.80
0.60
11.10
0.70
11.40
0.70
10.18
1.27
1.00
0.03
2.09
0.06
1.22
0.03
0.59
0.02
1.23
0.63
0.250
0.021
0.403
0.035
0.291
0.021
0.204
0.017
0.288
0.097
0.836
0.028
1.022
0.040
0.958
0.041
0.854
0.039
0.919
0.150
15.68
0.02
60.16
0.02
38.11
0.02
63.70
0.02
12.40
0.08
0.51
0.24
0.23
0.24
0.17
0.26
0.44
0.03
0.19
0.01
0.19
0.01
0.15
0.01
0.759
0.052
2.347
0.225
1.500
0.144
2.472
0.238
2.540
0.043
6.152
0.382
3.908
0.243
6.485
0.402
53.99
13.90
101.52
0.02
15.77
0.02
3.76
0.02
0.30
0.18
0.21
0.58
0.00
0.12
0.00
0.12
0.18
0.02
0.06
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
2.106
0.529
2.148
0.213
0.335
0.032
0.080
0.007
5.515
1.402
7.792
0.605
1.211
0.094
0.290
0.023
8.01
0.02
9.18
6.09
0.19
0.26
0.06
0.20
0.05
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.175
0.018
0.197
0.130
0.628
0.050
0.710
0.469
d
Typical NAA detection limits depend on sample mass and mineralogy.
b
Sedimentary dose rates were determined from bulk geochemistry. Abbreviations: DBG
ðtÞ ¼ external sediment dose rate derived from b sources DBG
ext;g ðtÞ ¼ external
ext;b
sediment dose rate derived from g sources Calculated assuming sediment density, rsed ¼ 2.65 0.02g/cm3 sedimentary water concentration, Wsed ¼ 10.5.wt%
c
Calculated assuming enamel density, ren ¼ 2.95 0.02 g/cm3 enamel water concentration, Wen ¼ 2. 2.wt%
d
Calculated assuming cosmic dose rate, Dcos(t) ¼ 0.000 0.000mGy/y
e
Dentine contaminated with a small amount of sediment.
124
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
Fig. 6. The effects from changing Dext(t), external dose rates on the calculated ages for FT42 from Hathnora, India. As the external dose rate, Dext(t), increases, the calculated ages for
FT42en2 decrease: a) 0 mGy/y Dext(t) 4000 mGy/y. b) 600 mGy/y Dext(t) 1400 mGy/y. At the 95% confidence limit (2 s errors), no change in Dext(t) produces any significant
change in the EU ages for Dext(t) 4000 mGy/y. The LU ages change significantly, if Dext(t) exceeds 1850 mGy/y, or if Dext(t) falls below 425 mGy/y. For the RU ages, however,
a significant change in the calculated age occurs, if Dext(t) exceeds 1110 mGy/y or Dext(t) drops below 920 mGy/y. Other subsamples showed similar effects.
the river reworked both younger and older paleontological and
lithic material before the layer was cemented. A tributary that
meets the Narmada River at this point (see Fig. 4 in SOM) may
have contributed to mixing material in the reworked zone as
well.
Although Khan and Sonakia (1992) classified the ‘Boulder
Conglomerate’ as a marker horizon, defined it as a formation, and
erroneously correlated it with the Boulder Conglomerate Formation in the Siwalik Group (de Terra and Paterson, 1939; Khan, 1984),
the Narmada conglomerate deposits are neither a formation nor
spatially widespread in the valley. At Narmada, if the boulder
conglomerates were one stratigraphic unit (i.e., a true formation),
they do not occur where they should stratigraphically. For example,
they should then occur at the base of the Surajkund Formation or
above the Dhansi Formation at the type site at Surajkund. We
observed that conglomerates frequently occurred as sandy-pebbly
deposits cemented by calcium carbonate (i.e., containing calcrete,
locally known as ‘bhatar’). Moreover, these are often cross-bedded
horizons, suggesting that they represent cut-and-fill structures
deposited by the river as gravel lags in laterally migrating stream
channels. Such strata often contained calcareous concretions
(kankar in Hindi), probably derived from a nearby paleosol unit or
developed pedogenically in situ after the sediment has been
deposited. The conglomerates also occur within gravel beaches
along the river, such as at Gurla, and as fan facies away from the
river, such as at Pilikarar. At Netankheri, we observed a conglomeratic deposit with partially formed calcrete horizons containing
both young and older fossils showing variable degrees of remineralization. The strongest evidence against using the Boulder
Conglomerate as a marker bed or true formation comes from Khidiaghat, where the lithified sandy-pebbly layer containing
conglomerate does not, apparently, extend laterally beneath the
older alluvium. This geological situation may also be true for other
such conglomerate deposits, for example, in pockets along the river,
that formed through seasonal fluctuations in water levels combined
with processes such as calcification, colluvial action, and tectonic
uplift upstream.
In their geological map, Tiwari and Bhai (1997, their Fig. 4) show
paleosols that occur widely across the Narmada floodplain. Our
observations at Baneta and other locations, however, suggest that
soil formation is generally confined to the vertical sections along
the river banks and does not occur away from the river where
instead the paleosols laterally grades into finely-bedded sediment.
For example, seasonal gullies seasonal gullies into older sediment
reveal no significant soil formation away from the river. Therefore,
the floodplain deposits, when in contact with fluctuating water
levels, gradually become pedogenically altered when calcium
carbonate precipitates to form calcrete nodules and rhizoconcretions around roots.
At Hathnora, we found that the surface of the exposed level that
yielded the hominin appears to be considerably reworked. A bovid
bone from this level yielded a 230Th/234U date of >236 ka, and
indicated that the bone had experienced at least two periods of
uranium uptake (Cameron et al., 2004). Our ESR results for
a mammalian tooth (FT42) embedded in the same level (Fig. 8)
yielded dates of 84 2 ka (LU), with a minimum possible age of
48 1 ka (EU). Another tooth (FT39) found lying on the surface of
the sandy pebbly layer w2 m above the level that yielded the
calvaria gave identical ages, whereas a third tooth (FT40) from the
freshly exposed sandy-pebbly layer yielded an LU age nearly double
those for FT39 and FT42. These results suggest that one, and possibly
all the teeth, were reworked. Ages calculated with the EU model
represent the minimum possible ages for teeth using the standard
method, the ages depend strongly on the assumed U uptake model,
and accurate ages require coupled 230Th/234U-ESR analyses.
Without actual 230Th/234U data, however, any coupled date remains
purely speculative. For sites in this time range, LU ages are usually
the most reliable (Blackwell et al., 2001; Blackwell, 2006).
In dynamic fluvial systems, like those at Hathnora in which the
river cuts into its own previously deposited banks, fossil reworking
is the norm rather than the exception (Miall, 1992). Reworking can
expose fossils to different external radiation sources, thereby
changing the external dose rate experienced. In such systems, ESR
dating of several teeth from one unit can assess the degree of
reworking. If samples fail to yield consistent dates, then reworking
must have affected the deposit (Blackwell, 1994). The U concentrations and accumulated doses for the three teeth dated here
corroborate this conclusion. Although our results suggest that FT40
was redeposited at Hathnora, its redeposition could not have
occurred before w407 ka given its RU age. Given its LU age and the
age difference between FT40 and the other two teeth, redeposition
of FT40 at Hathnora likely occurred well after 160 ka, and could
have been much later. Whether FT39 and FT40 were originally
deposited at Hathnora and never reworked, then the Hathnora
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
125
Table 5
ESR dates for the Lower Paleolithic layer, Hathnora.
Sample
FT39en1
FT39en2
FT39en3
FT39en4
FT39en5
FT39en6
FT39en7
Mean
FT42en1
FT42en2
FT42en3
FT42en4
FT42en5
FT42en6
Mean
FT40en1
FT40en2
FT40en3
Mean
Accumulated
Standard ESR Agesa,b
Dose, AS
EU
LU
RU(10)
RU(20)
(Gray)
(ka)
(ka)
(ka)
(ka)
78.9
7.3
78.3
4.2
76.6
4.1
81.8
4.6
88.8
5.1
82.0
4.8
92.5
5.7
182.9
21.4
184.0
16.3
178.7
16.2
191.5
17.2
206.6
18.6
182.9
17.4
214.9
20.0
231.9
30.9
235.7
25.7
226.8
25.1
245.9
27.0
264.4
29.2
227.7
26.1
274.8
31.0
48.4
1.0
2.05%
40.6
1.9
52.2
2.7
48.3
2.0
48.3
2.3
61.2
3.0
45.5
2.3
82.6
1.9
2.24
70.2
3.6
90.7
5.0
81.6
5.5
81.7
4.5
102.6
5.8
76.8
4.4
192.1
6.8
3.55
169.8
14.9
260.1
23.9
182.8
18.4
185.3
17.5
223.2
21.5
171.3
16.5
244.4
10.5
4.30%
218.2
23.7
329.1
36.7
228.3
27.2
230.5
26.4
274.2
31.8
211.9
24.6
337.2
3.4
1.00%
834.4
25.6
853.7
14.9
768.9
21.7
49.1
1.0
1.94%
98.6
7.6
101.1
9.8
81.6
6.5
83.6
1.9
2.31%
171.3
13.1
175.6
16.1
142.7
11.1
198.9
7.7
3.85%
426.6
38.1
436.3
40.8
362.0
32.2
249.2
11.6
4.66%
567.8
61.2
580.6
61.7
495.9
51.5
831.1
11.1
1.33%
93.0
4.5
4.81%
162.0
7.6
4.69%
407.3
21.3
5.23%
547.1
33.5
6.12%
313.5
24.2
323.4
6.2
306.8
6.8
338.3
7.7
362.1
8.1
298.6
7.2
375.3
11.8
46.3
4.1
45.7
2.2
44.8
2.2
47.7
2.5
51.9
2.7
48.6
2.5
54.2
3.1
330.4
3.1
0.93%
301.6
6.8
444.1
10.8
300.4
12.6
302.6
7.6
352.8
6.5
275.7
7.6
a
Abbreviations: EU ¼ assuming early U uptake, p ¼ -1; LU ¼ assuming linear (continuous) U uptake, p ¼ 0; RU(10) ¼ assuming recent U uptake, p ¼ 10; RU(20) ¼ assuming
recent U uptake, p ¼ 20; Calculated using a efficiency factor, ka ¼ 0.15 ± 0.02;initial U activity ratio, (234U/238U)0 ¼ 1.20 ± 0.20; enamel water concentration, Wen ¼ 2. ± 2. wt%;
dentine water concentration, Wden ¼ 5. ± 2. wt%; enamel density, ren ¼ 2.95 ± 0.02 g/cm3; dentine density, rden ¼ 2.85 ± 0.02 g/cm3; radon loss from the tooth, Rntooth ¼ 0. 0.
vol%; cosmic dose rate, Dcos(t) ¼ 0.223 0.005 mGy/y
b
Volumetrically averaged sedimentary dose rates using assumptions listed in Table 3.
deposit could be as young as 48 ka, given their EU ages. If FT42 and
FT39 have not been redeposited, the Hathnora deposit more likely
dates to about 80–90 ka (their LU ages). Only further dating from
these units will clarify whether FT40 represents one of the few
redeposited teeth in the Hathnora deposit or if all the Hathnora
teeth are reworked. Until this issue is clarified, we must consider
that the hominin calvaria may have been reworked from another
deposit as well. Therefore, its age remains uncertain.
The archaeological evidence
The lithic specimens we collected from nine localities occurred
in both surface and stratigraphic contexts along the banks of the
river, as well as away from the main channel. As expected, most of
the lithic materials in the high-energy gravels have been rolled,
whereas assemblages >1 km from the river show minimal rolling.
Fresh artifacts were also occasionally found in the gravel beds.
Many fresh specimens also showed some evidence for use-wear
along their working edges. Lower and Middle Paleolithic assemblages here and elsewhere in India were made mostly on quartzite,
whereas younger assemblages, such as Upper Paleolithic and
Mesolithic, were produced on chert, chalcedony, or quartz (Sankalia, 1974). Fine-grained or siliceous raw material generally
occurred as rounded clasts sparsely distributed throughout the
basin, and the coarse-grained harder materials outcrop at the foot
of the nearby Vindhyan Hills and as bedrock outcrops throughout
the valley.
The rarity of early Pleistocene sediment in India may explain the
absence of early Pleistocene archaeological sites in peninsular India
(Misra, 2001; Chauhan, in press). Alternatively, hominins may not
have occupied this part of South Asia until the early Middle Pleistocene (Dennell, 2007), although this appears appears unlikely,
however, given the tentative evidence for possible early Quaternary
hominin occupations in northern Pakistan and southern India (e.g.,
Rendell et al., 1989; Paddayya et al., 2002; Dennell, 2004), and the
geographic position of the Indian subcontinent between East Africa
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R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
Fig. 7. A) The right bank of the Narmada River at Hathnora showing the locations where various fossils and dating samples were recovered. B) A section of the bank showing the
possible scenario for the redeposition for reworking artifacts and teeth. ESR ages assume an early uptake (EU) model and are minimum ages. See text for discussion.
and Southeast Asia. Preliminary archaeological observations at
Dhansi during the 2006–2007 field season may also support such
an Early Quaternary occupation. At Dhansi, several Paleolithic
artifacts in relatively fresh condition and a strongly weathered
fossil herbivore tooth (see above) were observed in situ and appear
to derive from a thin gravel horizon at the bottom of the 15 m type
section deposited during the Matuyama Chron (Rao et al., 1997;
Fig. 9). Due to the implications for hominin presence during the
Early Pleistocene, we are currently reanalyzing sediment from the
entire Dhansi section paleomagnetically to confirm the formation’s
age, as well as the stratigraphic context for the lithic and fossil
specimens. If the section does indeed show only reversed magnetic
polarity (Rao et al., 1997), the associated lithics may represent the
first unequivocal evidence for a human presence in India prior to
the Middle Pleistocene, especially as they appear to occur well
below the Brunhes-Matuyama boundary. Elsewhere along the
Narmada River, other exposures, possibly also belonging to the
Dhansi Formation given their soil morphology, archaeology, and
stratigraphy, also warrant careful archaeological and paleontological investigations.
All the observed lithic specimens from Pilikarar (Sharma and
Sharma, 2005: 87–94) are (typologically) Early Acheulean picks,
cleavers, handaxes, large cores, and flakes (Fig. 10). These artifacts
occur either on the surface and buried at the base of the Vindhyan
Hills, in association with bedrock which served as a raw material
source (Fig. 11), or on and within a boulder horizon that forms part
of a large alluvial deposit downslope from the Vindhyan Hills.
Based on general typological and geochronological data from
other Acheulean sites in South Asia (Pappu, 2001; Chauhan, 2004;
Petraglia, 2006), the Pilikarar artifacts tentatively appear to be
at least 350 ka, although they may be considerably older. Moreover,
since many associated artifacts are in fresh condition, the boulder
horizon within the alluvial fan may have served as a location for
stone tool manufacture during its formation. The rolled specimens
from this boulder horizon may indicate that some artifacts were
transported colluvially and/or fluvially from the base of the hills.
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
Fig. 8. An herbivore tooth in situ at Hathnora in the conglomerate layer which yielded
the hominin remains. The inset shows the same tooth.
Many artifacts resting on the boulder horizon appear to have been
exposed by recent gully erosion from the Kaliadoh Nala that floods
seasonally. Some artifacts found above the gravel include: handaxes, many of which are asymmetrical with thick midsections,
cleavers (Fig. 10c), trihedral picks, discoidal cores, large unretouched flakes, and debitage. Prepared core techniques were rarely
used at Pilikarar. Lithic industries younger than the Acheulean
Fig. 9. Project member Matt Sisk points to at a fresh core/chopper found in the gravel
horizon at the bottom of the 15 m section of the exposed Dhansi Formation. The
topmost figure is standing on the overlying Middle Pleistocene Surajkund Formation.
127
appear to be absent at the site, except for occasional microliths
found on the surface. Material from the boulder horizon comprises
cores, choppers, and a large unifacial cleaver on a large side-struck
flake, among others, that is not as reduced nor refined as the
younger Acheulean cleavers near the river. Typologically, the
bifaces broadly resemble other Early Acheulean assemblages in
their lack of general morphological refinement. For example, unlike
Late Acheulean bifaces, they are not as symmetrical, possess thick
mid-sections and large flake scars, and were exclusively produced
by hard-hammer percussion (Misra, 1987; Chauhan, 2004; Petraglia, 2006). All collected artifacts from Pilikarar are currently being
analyzed in greater detail (Chauhan and Patnaik, 2008).
At Surajkund, artifacts occur in low densities and appear to
represent a mixture of types. The artifacts include a small, refined
pointed biface (Fig. 12) similar to that from Sardarnagar, a subtriangular to cordate handaxe, a bifacial semi-discoidal core, an
angular fragment, flakes, and blades, all made on quartzite, chert, or
chalcedony. Only the bifacial core and the handaxes, all in fresh
condition, were recovered from within the exposed sections, while
the others occurred on the surface at and around Surajkund.
The artifacts previously recovered at Hathnora have often been
interpreted as being Lower Paleolithic and contemporaneous with
the Homo calvaria recovered in the 1980’s (de Lumley and Sonakia,
1985a,b; Salahuddin, 1986–87; Badam, 1989). Our investigations
suggest that the basal w4 m at Hathnora represents an environment deposited by a rapidly flowing river which reworked and
mixed artifacts and vertebrate fossils of varying ages into its
deposits. The quartzite, chert, and chalcedony artifacts which we
collected appear to be Middle and Upper Paleolithic in general
typology. At least 15 artifacts occurred in situ within the exposed
sections at Hathnora, most as isolated finds rather than within
artifact clusters. Almost all the specimens showed low to moderate
damage on their edges due to rolling, but a few showed no abrasion.
Since almost all artifacts are flakes, blades, or angular debitage, the
absence of larger artifacts is notable. This suggests that reworking
deposited the smaller pieces here. These observations stress that
the artifacts and faunal elements from the boulder conglomerate at
Hathnora cannot be contemporaneous with the hominin fossils
since the latter appear to have been reworked (Cameron et al.,
2004; Chauhan et al., 2006; contra Sonakia, 1984; de Lumley and
Sonakia, 1985a, nb; Salahuddin, 1986–87; Badam, 1989; Khan and
Sonakia, 1992; Sankhyan, 2005). Most other paleoanthropological
finds in conglomerate or gravel deposits within the basin may also
have been reworked.
Netankheri, near Sardarnagar, also yielded a few surface artifacts, including two discoidal cores, a thick flake, a chopper/scraper,
an irregular biface, and a parallel-sided cleaver with a convex butt.
Although these quartzite artifacts of varying colours show minimal
evidence for rolling, only three were in fresh condition. The exposures have conglomerate deposits from which the surface artifacts
may have eroded.
At Sardarnagar, most specimens appear to be geologically in situ
(i.e., buried in the conglomerate, but visible on the surface),
although most material has been rolled during fluvial redeposition.
Only eight artifacts were recovered. Four of these were in relatively
fresh condition with only moderate abrasion, suggesting minimal
fluvial transport. The artifacts are mostly Lower to Middle Paleolithic: Younger types are absent. The types include choppers, a core,
flakes from prepared cores, and a very thin and symmetrical
miniature biface in mint condition that may be Late Acheulean or
early Middle Paleolithic (Fig. 13).
Gurla is one of the few localities that yielded a wide variety of
lithic industries, ranging from Acheulean bifaces to later Paleolithic blades, predominantly found mixed on the surface. Almost
20 diverse cleavers, both parallel and divergent, were recovered
from this extensive gravel beach (Fig. 14). Based on their general
128
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
Fig. 10. A selection of typologically Early Acheulean tools from Pilikarar Formation. a,b) handaxe; c) cleaver on a Kombewa flake.
condition, dimensions, and typological observations, most of
these distinctly purplish, fine-grained quartzite bifaces appear to
form part of a broadly contemporaneous Late Acheulean assemblage. Since most appear to have experienced the same degree of
abrasion, these bifaces and flakes may have originally derived
from a single primary site nearby, such as the Surajkund exposures. At least three handaxes from Gurla Beach, however, were
asymmetrical and possessed thick mid-sections or butts, which
are Early Acheulian traits. Thus, may have derived from older
deposits elsewhere. Younger artifacts, mainly Upper Paleolithic
flake and blade types made on chert and chalcedony, also
occurred at Gurla. At least 11 artifacts showed variable degrees of
retouch.
At Baneta, the artifacts were surface finds that resemble those
from Shahganj (see below). The finds include cores, flakes, blades,
small scrapers, angular fragments, and micro-debitage. Some
artifacts were made on quartz, as well as on the other rock types
found at Shahganj. The small bulbs and thin breadths of some chert
blades suggest the use of soft-hammer and pressure-flaking techniques. Again, all artifacts possessed similar amounts of abrasion
and at least nine showed considerable edge damage. Many flake
types from both Shahganj and Baneta had dorsal ridges/flake scars,
indicating variable core preparation methods.
Most artifacts collected from Shahganj mainly occurred at the
surface. They exhibited Upper Palaeolithic typological characteristics. This assemblage comprises small cores, flakes, blades, and
debitage, all made on fine-grained raw material, such as varigated
chert or chalcedony. Very few specimens were made from
quartzite. Most artifacts showed little abrasion and probably
experienced little fluvial transport. Additional post-deposi-tional
processes, such as trampling, probably had a major effect on
assemblage disturbance and artifact condition. The absence of
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
129
Fig. 11. The bedrock outcrops and seasonal stream bed at the foot of the Vindhyan Hills at Pilikarar. Acheulean artifacts frequently occur in fresh condition in association with this
raw material source. The inset shows a nearby excavated test trench with artifacts in situ in seasonal overburden.
Middle Palaeolithic and older tool types suggests that the deposits
at Shahganj may date to the late Upper Pleistocene.
The paleoclimatic evidence
The mammalian assemblage from the Surajkund Formation (i.e.,
Stegodon namadicus, Equus namadicus, Hippopotamus namadicus,
Sus namadicus, and Cuon alpinus, suggests a warm climate with
intermittent arid phases in the late Middle Pleistocene. Early to
Middle Pleistocene vertebrate assemblages, including cyprinid
fish, crocodiles, Hippopotamus palaeindicus, and Elephas hysudricus
may indicate a warm climate, but the terminal part of the Late
Pleistocene may have become drier, as suggested by the presence
of wild ass (Equus hemionus khur) and ostrich (Struthio camelus).
High enamel U concentrations in FT40 and the high dentinal U
concentrations in FT39 and FT40 from Surajkund Formation at
Hathnora indicate that they all were probably exposed to saline or
hypersaline water under highly evaporative conditions (Blackwell
et al., 2002).
The palynologic record for the lower Surajkund Formation at
Dhansi clarifies its late middle Pleistocene paleoclimate. Sparse
grassland vegetation, chiefly constituting Poaceae, Asteraceae,
Chenopodiaceae, and Artemesia covered the region, suggesting arid
climatic conditions. The abundant monolete and trilete spores in
the cores suggest that fern beds may have occupied restricted moist
or swampy habitats along the rivers and tributaries.
The Baneta Formation’s palynology suggests that, between w 24
and 20 ka, during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM ¼ OIS 2, see
Bradely, 1999), open vegetation covered the area. The grasses,
Chenopodiaceae/Amaranathaceae and Asteraceae, along with sparse
trees, including Symplocos and Holoptelea, indicate a cool, dry
climate. Plants adapted to marshy conditions, such as the sedges
Cyperaceae and Polygonum, together with the aquatic Potamogeton
and Typha, and algae, such as Spirogyra and Zygnema), indicate that
small water ponds or lakes existed close to Hathnora, probably
along the river and its abandoned channels. In peat deposits in the
Nilgiri Hills, southern India, Sukumar et al. (1993) also found
Fig. 12. An in situ handaxe or small pointed biface from the Surajkund Formation.
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R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
Fig. 13. A diminutive refined handaxe found in surface context at Sardarnagar.
evidence for arid conditions during the LGM. A drastic decline in
the vertebrate faunal diversity in the Late Pleistocene Kurnool Cave
deposits from southern India has also been attributed to such an
arid phase (Patnaik et al., 2008). In the early Holocene (at w9 ka;
OIS 1), a relatively dry deciduous forest represented by Terminalia,
Mimosa, Pongamia, and Artemesia may have covered the Narmada
area due to greater precipitation - than evident in the earlier
formations. Aquatic taxa (e.g., Potamogeton), and abundant algae
also indicate nearby swamps or lakes.
Conclusions
Our field and laboratory observations indicate the Quaternary
stratigraphy and geochronology for deposits in the Narmada Valley
requires considerable revision. The ‘‘boulder conglomerate,’’ or
gravel beds at Hathnora contain reworked fossils and lithic artifacts
of different ages that range from w 48 ka to >236 ka. This makes
the age for the Narmada hominin fossil(s) uncertain at best. The
minimum possible age for these Hathnora deposits and, hence, the
calverium, is w48 1 ka. If the calvaria was not reworked, then its
age could range from 93 5 ka to >236 ka. An accurate age for the
calverium could only be determined by dating it directly, preferably
by three independent laboratories. Since it likely exceeds the 14C
dating limit (40–50 ka), g spectrometric 230Th/234U dating may be
the only applicable method. The fact that the ‘boulder conglomerate’ deposits contain reworked fossils and lithics indicates that it
cannot be considered to be a reliable regional stratigraphic marker
horizon. The conglomerate deposits containing calcrete (‘bhatar’)
along the entire Narmada River represent a mixture of young and
old sediment, with clasts of transported rocks, artifacts, and fossils.
R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
131
Fig. 14. A selection of Acheulean cleavers and cleaver-like flakes from Gurla beach. Note the fresh condition of some, as well as their morphological diversity.
For more accurate paleoanthropological and geochronological
interpretations, one must excavate away from the river and its
abandoned channels to increase the chances of recovering
unworked fossils and lithic material. Indeed, the extensive Pleistocene deposits in the basin hold ample opportunity to recover
paleoanthropological evidence in primary context.
The Narmada Valley lithic assemblages demonstrate direct
evidence for hominin adaptive strategies throughout much of the
Pleistocene, including changing raw material exploitation and
transport, as well as stone tool production, utilization, and discard.
The Dhansi Formation, which appears to have been deposited
entirely during the Matuyama Chron, likely represents the oldest
Quaternary deposits in the Narmada Valley. Artifacts from the
Dhansi Formation may provide the first definitive evidence for
Early Pleistocene lithics in India. The boulder beds in the alluvial fan
deposits at Pilikarar contain Early Acheulean tool types and could
date to the Middle Pleistocene instead of the Early Pleistocene as
proposed by Tiwari and Bhai (1997). Most bifaces from the Surajkund Formation were derived in situ from pedogenically altered
floodplain deposits. These are Late Acheulian typologically, with
some showing soft-hammer percussion. Such artifacts and occasional vertebrate fossils consistently occur between calcretized or
cemented horizons and well developed palaeosol horizons. This
indicates that hominins transported and discarded bifaces widely
across the paleo-floodplain during the Late Pleistocene. Within the
Surajkund Formation, some Late Acheulian artifacts have been
recovered associated with Middle Paleolithic artifacts in sandypebbly layers. The invertebrate, vertebrate, and palynological
assemblages suggest that the Surajkund Formation, which broadly
correlates with the late Middle Pleistocene to early Late Pleistocene,
was deposited under warm, humid conditions, whereas palynologically, the upper late Late Pleistocene Baneta Formation indicates cool, dry conditions similar to the Last Glacial Maximum.
Future work will include a comprehensive survey of the main
channel and its tributaries, GIS mapping and excavations to document all the paleoanthropological localities, and geochrono-logical
studies at Dhansi, Pilikarar, Mahadeo Piparia, Murgkhera, Surajkund, Hathnora, Durkadi, and other key sites. The Narmada Basin
offers scientists diverse and multidisciplinary evidence to understand human evolution and behavior in relation to changing paleoenvironments within a geographically restricted landmass with
a seasonal monsoon climate.
Acknowledgements
RP and MRR thank the Department of Science and Technology,
New Delhi, for financing their projects (SR/S4/ES-138/2005; SR/S4/
ES-171/2005). We would like to thank the National Geographic
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R. Patnaik et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 114–133
Society (Grant 7386-02 to RP) and the Wenner-Gren Foundation for
Anthropological Research (Grant 7541 to PC) for funding various
phases of this work. We thank Pat Sarma who generously funded
the second field season (2004–05) and Sheela Athreya, who also
assisted in the field. Excavations at Hathnora were carried out
under the Government of India, Archaeological Survey of India
Permit 1/11/2004-EE and PC received his research visa from the
Ministry of Secondary and Higher Education, GOI. We thank the
Director, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow, for
permission to process the 14C dates and the scientists at the Wadia
Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehra Dun, for their kind help, and
Sileshi Semaw for suggesting the stratigraphy format. We thank
Williams College, McMaster University Nuclear Reactor, and the
RFK Science Research Institute for funding the ESR dating. Jean
Johnson, McMaster University Nuclear Reactor, performed the NAA.
M.M. Hasan, J.I.B. Blickstein, A. Montoya, S. Teng, K. Mangal, R.
Mangal, C. Nicholls, and A. Mian assisted with some ESR sample
preparation. We thank Susan Antón, Thomas Stafford, and the
anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments. Stanley
Ambrose and Martin Williams offered valuable observations in the
field and critically read an earlier draft of this paper, thus improving
the manuscript considerably. PC thanks Nicholas Toth and Kathy
Schick for their support. Finally, we thank Prahlad Singh for
a comfortable and memorable stay at the Shahganj Resthouse and
Gyarsa, Chunni Lal, Laxmi Naryana, and Ramdas for their extensive
help in the field, without whom this work would have been
impossible.
Supplementary data
Supplementary material for this article may be found, in the
online version, at doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.08.023.
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