Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan, Vol. 89A, pp. 49--59, 2011.
DOI:10.2151/jmsj.2011-A03
E¤ects of Large-scale Moisture Transport and Mesoscale Processes
on Precipitation Isotope Ratios Observed at Sumatera, Indonesia
Hironori FUDEYASU
Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan
Kimpei ICHIYANAGI
Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
Kei YOSHIMURA
University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan
Shuichi MORI, HAMADA Jun-Ichi
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Yokosuka, Japan
Namiko SAKURAI
National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED), Tsukuba, Japan
Manabu D. YAMANAKA
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Yokosuka, Japan
Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
Jun MATSUMOTO
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Yokosuka, Japan
Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, Japan
and
Fadli SYAMSUDIN
Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT), Jakaruta, Indonesia
(Manuscript received 30 April 2010, in final form 9 September 2010)
Corresponding author: Hironori Fudeyasu, Department of Science Education, Yokohama National
University, 79-1 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama
240-8501, Japan.
E-mail: [email protected]
6 2011, Meteorological Society of Japan
49
Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan
50
Vol. 89A
Abstract
Isotopic and meteorological observations in November 2006 on the west coast of Sumatera, Indonesia during
the intense observation period of the Hydrometeorological ARray for Intraseasonal Variation-Monsoon AUtomonitoring (HARIMAU2006), revealed the impacts of large-scale moisture transport and mesoscale processes
on precipitation isotope ratios. Intraseasonal changes in the precipitation d 2 H in November had large variability
ranging from þ10 to 65 per mil, as a result of the changes in the large-scale moisture transport associated with
the intraseasonal oscillation with a time-scale of 10–15 day over Sumatera. The isotopic composition of precipitation was independent from di¤erence in precipitation type (convective or stratiform precipitation). An isotope
circulation model reproduced the observed isotopic changes, supporting that the isotopic e¤ect of large-scale
moisture transport was the main contributor to intraseasonal isotopic changes.
In high-frequency samples taken over a shorter time scale, isotopic variability was related to event type classified by the analysis of radar observations, although the isotopic e¤ects of mesoscale processes on the isotopic
averages of each precipitation event were almost masked by the isotopic e¤ect of large-scale moisture transport.
The precipitation d 2 H accompanying the well-organized convection type decreased significantly by about 20 per
mil. Drastic changes in isotope ratios could be described by the Rayleigh distillation process. Isotope ratios
of precipitation gently decreased and subsequently increased in the unorganized convection type since the water
vapor in surrounding convectively rising air isotopically enriched the remaining low-isotope water vapor advected
from the precedent clouds. Isotope ratios in the stratiform precipitation remained steady, possibly attributable to
the homogeneous moisture of stratiform clouds.
1. Introduction
Stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratios (d 2 H
and d 18 O) of precipitation undergo temporal
changes at various time scales. Many isotopic
studies have observed long-term isotopic changes
in precipitation in time periods of more than a day
or several hours (e.g., Ichiyanagi et al. 2005). Such
long-term isotopic changes in precipitation may be
controlled by large-scale moisture transport, i.e.,
the water source and transport route. However, the
behavior of precipitation isotope ratios is also intimately linked to precipitation growth mechanisms,
namely precipitation/cloud processes (mesoscale
processes). Isotopic fractionation in clouds occurs
during evaporation and condensation of water
vapor and precipitating particles, with the exception of the sublimation and melting of compact ice
(e.g., Dansgaard 1953). Mesoscale processes may
cause short-term isotopic changes with time scales
of less than few hours.
Drastic decreases in precipitation isotope ratios
have often been observed during individual precipitation events at various sites (e.g., Sugimoto and
Higuchi 1988; Lawrence et al. 1998; Gedzelman
et al. 2003). Sugimoto and Higuchi (1988) reported
large (small) decreases in precipitation isotope
ratios when the precipitation intensity was high
(low). Fudeyasu et al. (2008) found increases in the
isotope ratios of precipitation accompanying a
tropical cyclone eyewall. Dansgaard (1953) ob-
served that isotopic ratios in precipitation did not
vary with time throughout a rain shower. More
recently, Risi et al. (2009) also reported on an isotopic observational campaign and analyzed the
isotope ratios of precipitation accompanying four
squall lines over the Sahel in August 2006. Their
high-frequency sampling (5–10 minutes) of the precipitation showed a systematic evolution of precipitation isotope ratios in di¤erent phases of the squall
lines.
The various mesoscale processes, characterized
by di¤erent precipitation types (convective and
stratiform precipitation) and cloud structures, could
contribute to the variability in short-term isotopic
changes in precipitation. Although previous isotopic observations have provided much information
on individual precipitation events, few studies have
demonstrated how the isotopic e¤ects of large-scale
moisture transport and mesoscale processes simultaneously contribute to the isotope composition
in precipitation. This may reflect the lack of longterm precipitation sampling at high temporal resolutions or the di‰culty of simultaneously capturing
cloud processes, or both. Therefore, we conducted
a 1-month intensive isotopic observation of precipitation samples taken at 1-mm amount intervals and
6-hourly intervals on the west coast of Sumatera,
Indonesia (Fig. 1), in November 2006 during the intense observation period of the Hydrometeorological ARray for Intraseasonal Variation-Monsoon
AUtomonitoring (HARIMAU2006). The compre-
February 2011
H. FUDEYASU et al.
51
2. Isotopic and meteorological observations and
isotope circulation model
Fig. 1. Terrain map of Sumatera Island and
location of observation sites. Altitudes of
500–1,000 m are lightly shaded, while
those above 1,000 m are heavily shaded.
The dot indicates the isotopic and meteorological observation site at Tabing. Crosses
indicate the XDR observation sites at
MIA and Tiku. The open circles show the
MIA-XDR and Tiku-XDR observation
area.
hensive meteorological and radar observations conducted during the HARIMAU2006 were aimed at
better understanding cloud structures. The purpose
of present study is to investigate how large-scale
moisture transport and mesoscale processes influence the variability of precipitation isotope ratios.
Notably, this is the first report to describe the
high-resolution measurement of isotope ratios in
tropical precipitation together with comprehensive
meteorological observations and an isotope circulation model that not only captured the large-scale
moisture transport but also mesoscale processes
over the tropics.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The
next section briefly describes the isotopic and meteorological observations and the isotope circulation
model. Section 3 presents the observed intraseasonal isotopic changes controlled by large-scale
moisture transport. Section 4 discusses the variability of precipitation isotope ratios in several precipitation events. The main findings are summarized in
the last section.
The HARIMAU2006 (Yamanaka et al. 2008),
conducted on the west coast of Sumatera (Fig. 1)
from 26 October to 27 November 2006, consisted
of intensive rawinsonde and surface observations
at Tabing (100.4 E, 0.8 S) and dual X-band Doppler radar (XDR) observations at Tiku (TikuXDR) and Minangkabau International Airport
(MIA-XDR). Surface observations provided 1minute averages of temperature, relative humidity,
winds, pressure, radiation, and accumulated precipitation. Two XDRs collected three-dimensional reflectivity and Doppler velocity data every 6 minutes
in observation ranges 83 km in radius. Reflectivity
was interpolated on a Cartesian coordinate system
with 500-m grid spacing in the horizontal and
the vertical. Dual Doppler analysis, using Doppler
velocity data and a continuity equation (Ray et al.
1980), provided three components of wind. Additionally, the MIA-XDR results were used in algorithms (Steiner et al. 1995) to objectively classify
the precipitation as convective or stratiform (Mori
et al. 2011; Kawashima et al. 2011). We also used
the equivalent black body temperature (TBB ) of satellite images from the geostationary meteorological
satellite (MTSAT), to describe the large-scale
cloud features. These data were defined on a 0.2
horizontal grid.
Intense isotopic observation was conducted at
Tabing from 1 to 27 November 2006. Precipitation
samples were automatically collected for every
1-mm amount, with an auto-precipitation sampler
to describe short-term isotopic changes. Here, we
define ‘‘short term’’ as a period within 6 hours, in
which the isotopic variability is a¤ected by mesoscale processes. We stored precipitation samples
in sealed bottles promptly after the cessation of a
precipitation event to prevent evaporation. In total,
103 complete samples were collected during the
HARIMAU2006. We also collected 25 samples at
6-hour intervals to describe intraseasonal isotopic
changes. The isotopic composition of samples was
analyzed by a MAT-252 analyzer with a water
equilibrium device at the laboratory of the Institute
of Observational Research for Global Change, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC). Analytical errors were less
than G1 per mil for d 2 H and G0.1 per mil for d 18 O.
We used isotopic compositions of precipitation
simulated by the Rayleigh-type Isotope Circulation
52
Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan
Model (ICM) to detect the e¤ect of large-scale
moisture transport (Yoshimura et al. 2003a, b;
Yoshimura et al. 2004). The ICM is a type of atmospheric transport model for water isotopes with a
horizontal resolution of 1.0 and one vertical layer.
The model is driven by global atmospheric analysis
fields from the operational weather forecast system of the Japan Meteorological Agency, and the
model estimates global distributions of vapor and
precipitation isotope ratios at 6-hour intervals.
Note that the ICM only focuses on large-scale
moisture transport and does not include cloud/
precipitation processes.
3. Intraseasonal changes in precipitation isotope
ratios
Figure 2a shows the time series of 6-hourly precipitation observed at Tabing from 1 to 27 November 2006. The active period of precipitation started
in late November, which is consistent with the previously reported climatological change from the dry
to the rainy season (Hamada et al. 2002). Precipitation in late November was also characterized by
developed convective precipitation with diurnal
variation that peaked in the afternoon, which was
consistent with previous studies (Murakami 1983;
Nitta and Sekine 1994; Wu et al. 2003; Mori et al.
2004).
Figure 2b shows the time series of precipitation
d 2 H observed at Tabing. Values of precipitation
d 2 H ranged from þ10 to 65 per mil with an aver-
Vol. 89A
age of 24 per mil. Using the classifications for
convective and stratiform precipitation (Steiner et
al. 1995) derived from the analysis of MIA-XDR
observations, 42 precipitation samples collected for
1-mm amount were taken during stratiform precipitation, while 61 samples were taken during convective precipitation. The di¤erence in average isotope
ratios between stratiform (22 per mil) and convective (27 per mil) precipitation was not statistically
significant. It means that the isotopic composition
of precipitation was independent from di¤erence in
precipitation type.
The precipitation d 2 H ranged from þ5 to 0 per
mil in early November, whereas low precipitation
d 2 H of around 40 per mil was observed on 13
November (Fig. 2b). In the following several days,
the precipitation d 2 H remained relatively low at
around 15 per mil. The precipitation d 2 H from
21 through 25 November decreased day by day,
with a large variability ranging from 0 to 65 per
mil. Intraseasonal changes in the precipitation d 2 H
featured decreases in middle and late November.
Figure 3 shows the time-height section of winds
and relative humidity derived from upper air
sounding and surface observations at Tabing. At
the surface, throughout the entire observation period, south or southwest winds dominated during
the day at Tabing. On 13 November, easterlies
with high relative humidity of more than 80%
started to appear in the mid-troposphere. After
several days of inactive precipitation in middle No-
Fig. 2. Time series of observed (a) 6-hourly precipitation and (b) 6-hourly precipitation d 2 H (dashed line),
1-mm precipitation d 2 H (circle), and simulated 6-hourly precipitation d 2 H (solid line). Numerals in (a)
indicate the event number shown in Table 1.
February 2011
H. FUDEYASU et al.
53
Fig. 3. Time-height section of winds (arrows, scale at bottom) and relative humidity (shaded). Regions with greater than 80
and 90% relative humidity are lightly and
heavily shaded, respectively. Surface wind
is added at the bottom.
vember, strong easterlies were dominant in the midlower troposphere above 2-km height. Figure 4
shows the time-longitude cross-section of MTSAT
TBB zonally averaged for 0.5–1.5 S. There were organized cloud clusters at 100 E longitude which
corresponded to the precipitation observed at Tabing. In early November, cloud clusters with time
scales shorter than a day intermittently appeared
around 100 E. In middle and late November, cloud
clusters developed around 105–115 E and moved
westward to 100 E with time scales exceeding a few
days, typical features in the westward-propagating
mesoscale cloud clusters associated with the intraseasonal oscillation (Shibagaki et al. 2006a, b).
Therefore, the intraseasonal changes in the precipitation isotope ratios can be considered as a result
of the changes in the large-scale environment associated with the intraseasonal oscillation with a
time-scale of 10–15 day over Sumatera.
Figure 2b also shows the ICM-simulated precipitation d 2 H at the grid point (100.5 E, 0.5 S) near
Tabing. Although there is systematic model underestimation in the simulation values due to the lower
isotope ratio of evaporation from the sea surface
(Yoshimura et al. 2004), the model reproduced the
intraseasonal changes with a time-scale of 10–15
day in the observed precipitation d 2 H well. The
biases between observed and ICM-simulated precipitation d 2 H in late November decreased when
the amount of observed precipitation increased
(Fig. 2a) but the modeled precipitation did not increase so much (not shown). The ICM using under-
Fig. 4. Time-longitude section of equivalent
black body temperature (TBB ) zonally averaged in 0.5–1.5 S. Regions with TBB of
220–260 K are lightly shaded, while those
with TBB smaller than 220 K are heavily
shaded. The broken line indicates the longitude of 100 E.
estimated modeled precipitation simulated gentle
decreases in precipitation d 2 H in late November
due to the lack of amount e¤ect on precipitation
isotopes (Lee and Fung 2008). The isotopic changes
simulated by the ICM were only a¤ected by largescale moisture transport, suggesting that the isotopic e¤ect of mesoscale processes on the isotopic
averages of each precipitation event was almost
masked and only the isotopic e¤ect of large-scale
moisture transport became apparent in this time
scale.
4. Short-term isotopic variability in precipitation
events
Ten precipitation events exceeding 3 mm were
observed at Tabing (Table 1 and Fig. 2a). From
precipitation types and cloud structures derived
54
Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan
Vol. 89A
Fig. 5. Horizontal pattern of objective precipitation classification derived from MIAXDR observations at (a) 2142 LT (local
time) on 19 November 2006, Event 3;
(b) 1554 LT on 23 November, Event 6;
and (c) 0212 LT on 24 November, Event
7. The regions with convective and stratiform precipitation are heavily and lightly
shaded, respectively. The cross indicates
the isotope observation site at Tabing.
Dots indicate the XDR observation sites
at MIA and Tiku. The open circle shows
the MIA-XDR observation area.
from the analysis of XDR observations, these ten
precipitation events were divided into three types:
the well-organized convection type, unorganized
convection type, and stratiform type. In Event 3,
on 19 November, the cloud structure was characterized by an organized convective line developed
in the front side of the system with a trailing broad
stratiform area (Fig. 5a), referred to as the wellorganized convection type. Several convective
clouds developed around the region during Event 6
on 23 November (Fig. 5b). These convective clouds
were not organized and intermittently passed over
Tabing. We refer to this event as the unorganized
convection type. In Event 7, on 24 November,
widespread stratiform clouds covered the area
around Tabing (Fig. 5c), representing the stratiform type.
The average precipitation d 2 H values in each precipitation event were related to the intraseasonal
isotopic changes as described in Section 3 and
Table 1. It means that the mesoscale isotopic e¤ect
of event types on the averaged precipitation d 2 H
was masked. However, the di¤erences in the precipitation d 2 H between the first and last samples in
each event were related to event types (Table 1).
The di¤erence was larger in the well-organized convection type and smaller in the stratiform type.
Figure 6 shows the time tendency of precipitation
d 2 H from the first samples in each event. The duration of precipitation in the well-organized convection type had short period about 30 minutes, while
those in the stratiform and unorganized convection
types were relatively long. The precipitation d 2 H
in the well-organized convection type decreased significantly by about 20 per mil within first 20 minutes, whereas that in the stratiform type remained
steady. The precipitation d 2 H in the unorganized
convection type decreased at the beginning, followed by increases and finally decreases. The rates
were here defined as the changes in precipitation
February 2011
H. FUDEYASU et al.
55
Table 1. Summary of the features of ten precipitation events. These events were divided into three types of precipitation processes. O: well-organized convection type; U: unorganized convection type; and S: stratiform type. Di¤erence represents the changes in precipitation d 2 H between the first and last samples in each event.
Event
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Date in
Nov.
Event
type
Duration
(min)
Total number
of samples
Average of
d 2 H (per mil)
Di¤erence
(per mil)
13
19
19
22
23
23
24
25
26
27
O
S
O
U
U
U
S
U
U
S
40
30
25
73
50
103
81
15
29
85
13
3
8
24
5
14
5
6
5
4
40.5
3.9
21.5
6.9
4.9
28.3
43.1
46.5
45.4
51.1
12.3
0.6
15.6
10.3
5.8
12.2
3.2
5.6
13.3
1.7
Fig. 6. Time tendency of changes in precipitation d 2 H from the first sample for (a) well-organized convection
and stratiform types and (b) unorganized convection type.
d 2 H divided by the duration of precipitation. The
averaged rate in the well-organized convection
type was the largest (0.47 per mil minute1 ),
whereas that in the stratiform type was the smallest
(0.03 per mil minute1 ).
In Event 3, the organized convective clouds
quickly moved westward at about 30 km hour1
(Fig. 5a), causing heavy precipitation for 30 minutes and subsequently weak stratiform precipitation at Tabing (Fig. 7). The precipitation d 2 H
quickly decreased from 11 to 30 per mil. Figure
8 shows a scatter plot of d 18 O and d 2 H values. Samples from Event 3 were plotted above the meteoric
water line (MWL; Craig 1961) and decreased over
a wide range parallel to the MWL. At the cloud
scale, previous isotopic models using Rayleigh’s
equation (e.g., Taylor 1972) have attempted to clarify the relationship between d 18 O and d 2 H. Taylor
(1972) showed that the isotopic composition of
subsequent precipitation decreases parallel to the
MWL, assuming that the isotopic equilibrium fractionation described by Rayleigh’s equation prevails
in atmospheric condensation processes, and that
the condensed phase is immediately removed from
the cloud system without causing isotope exchange
between the falling droplets and ambient water
vapor, i.e., the kinetic isotopic e¤ect. Therefore,
the drastic changes in precipitation isotopic ratios
in the well-organized convection type can be interpreted by Rayleigh’s distillation process.
56
Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan
Vol. 89A
Fig. 7. Time (local time) series of observational results for Events 3, 6, and 7. (a) Reflectivity and systemrelative wind (scale at lower right in Event 3), (b) 6-minutes precipitation, and (c) precipitation d 2 H over
Tabing. Regions of 10–20 dBZ reflectivity are lightly shaded, while those more than 20 dBZ are heavily
shaded.
Fig. 8. Scatterplot showing d 18 O and d 2 H
for Events 3, 6, and 7. The dashed line denotes the meteoric water line.
Figure 7a shows the reflectivity over Tabing derived from MIA-XDR and system-relative winds
derived from dual Doppler analysis. Unfortunately,
wind data over Tabing were not complete because
of deficiencies in the Doppler velocity observed
by Tiku-XDR due to precipitation attenuation. At
2148 local time (LT), system-relative winds in convective cloud showed an upward-motion trend
beginning in the lower troposphere and then extending into the trailing stratiform region in the
mid-troposphere after 2200 LT. Therefore, the continuous depletion of water vapor isotopes in saturated rising air decreased isotope ratios in the convective precipitation. Stratiform precipitation then
formed from the remaining water vapor with lower
isotope ratios, leading to the lowest precipitation
isotope ratios. The three-dimensional wind field
over Tabing derived from dual Doppler analysis revealed the isotopic e¤ect of quasi two-dimensional
processes. The quick propagation of the squall line
over the observation site also caused quick decreases in the precipitation isotope ratios. The
same situation appeared in Event 1 (not shown).
On the other hand, in the unorganized convection type in Event 6, the precipitation d 2 H gently
decreased and subsequently increased around 25
per mil until 1718 LT (Fig. 7). The unorganized
convection type should be three-dimensional system
and the water vapor was entrained to the subsequent clouds over Tabing from various directions.
Since water vapor from the lower troposphere has
relatively high isotope ratios (e.g., Dansgaard
1953), surrounding convectively rising air originating from the lower troposphere isotopically en-
February 2011
H. FUDEYASU et al.
riched the remaining low-isotope water vapor
advected from the precedent cloud, slowing the decrease in isotope ratios in subsequent precipitation
(Fig. 7c). After convective clouds passed, the precipitation d 2 H in the subsequent stratiform precipitation after 1730 LT significantly decreased from
27 to 36 per mil, as described by Rayleigh’s distillation process, because of the isotopic changes
parallel to the MWL (Fig. 8).
In event 7, the widespread stratiform clouds
slowly moved westward (Fig. 5c), causing precipitation for 2 hours at Tabing (Fig. 7). The precipitation d 2 H also remained steady at around 43
per mil. Dual Doppler observations revealed weak
winds in the stratiform clouds and the absence
of convective updrafts. Therefore, the steadiness of
the isotope ratios in the stratiform precipitation
may be attributable to the homogeneous moisture
of stratiform clouds.
There were no remarkable changes in deuterium excess (d-excess, d-excess ¼ d 2 H 8d 18 O)
during each precipitation event (not shown). The
main physical process causing changes in d-excess
is the kinetic isotopic e¤ect, while the production
of precipitation from water vapor essentially conserves the d-excess (e.g., Craig 1961). From our observation, the kinetic isotopic e¤ect on the shortterm isotopic changes in precipitation was insignificant, compared with the isotopic e¤ects of precipitation/cloud processes. Due to limitations of the
observational data, quantitative understanding of
these isotopic e¤ects on short-term changes in precipitation isotope ratios remains unclear. Examination of these isotopic e¤ects should be considered
for future study.
5. Summary
This study has described the isotopic variability
in response to isotopic e¤ects of large-scale moisture transport and mesoscale processes, observed
on the west coast of Sumatera, Indonesia, from 1
to 27 November 2006. The precipitation d 2 H had
large variability, ranging from þ10 per mil to 65
per mil. Intraseasonal changes in the precipitation
d 2 H in November were resulted from the changes
in the large-scale environment associated with the
intraseasonal oscillation with a time-scale of 10–15
day over Sumatera, namely the large-scale moisture
transport. Isotopic composition of precipitation
was independent from di¤erence in precipitation
type. The ICM-simulated precipitation d 2 H at the
point near Tabing reproduced the observed intra-
57
seasonal isotopic changes, supporting the premise
that the isotopic e¤ect of large-scale moisture transport was the main contributory factor of the intraseasonal isotopic changes.
High-frequency sampling of precipitation and radar observations revealed the short-term isotopic
variability in precipitation in several precipitation
events. Isotopic ratios of precipitation accompanying the well-organized convection type decreased
significantly by about 20 per mil, resulting from
the continuous depletion of water vapor isotopes
in the convectively rising air. Isotope ratios in organized convective precipitation underwent drastic
changes which could be described by Rayleigh’s
distillation process. In the unorganized convection
type, the precipitation d 2 H gently decreased and
then increased since the water vapor in surrounding
convectively rising air isotopically enriched the remaining low-isotope water vapor advected from
the precedent clouds. Isotope ratios in the stratiform precipitation remained steady, which could
be attributable to the homogeneous moisture of
stratiform clouds.
The findings suggest that the isotopic e¤ect of
mesoscale processes on the isotopic average of
each precipitation event was almost masked by the
isotopic e¤ect of large-scale moisture transport.
However, the short-term isotopic variability, with
the exception of intraseasonal isotopic changes,
was related to event type classified by the analysis
of radar observations. The study results are very
encouraging since the short-term isotopic frequency
can capture the features of mesoscale processes.
Therefore, high-frequency isotopic observation can
be applied as a diagnostic tool to understand the
precipitation type and cloud structure in individual
precipitation events.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Drs. Naoyuki
Kurita and Shingo Shimizu for their helpful comments and supports of data analysis. The authors
are also grateful for the assistance of sta¤ members
of the Agency for the Assessment and Application
of Technology (BPPT) and the Indonesian Meteorological and Geophysical Agency (BMG; now
the Indonesian Meteorological Climatological and
Geophysical Agency, BMKG) on the Indonesian
side and of JAMSTEC, Hokkaido University, and
Kyoto University on the Japanese side. This work
was supported by the Japan Earth Observation System Promotion Program (JEPP) of the Ministry of
Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan
58
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, (MEXT), Japan.
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