ATTITUDE TO AND PRACTICE OF MODERN FAMILY PLANNING AMONG
WIDOWS OF REPRODUCTIVE AGE IN LOGO
LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF BENUE STATE
BY
IGBABEE, SAUL SHANUM
PG/M.Ed/ 06/ 41604
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
SUPERVISOR: PROF. C. E. EZEDUM
AUGUST, 2012
Title Page
Attitude to and Practice of Modern Family Planning Methods Among Widows of Reproductive
age in Logo Local Government Area of Benue State
A Project Report Submitted to the Department of Health and Physical Education, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of Masters Degree
(M.Ed.) in Public Health Education
By
Igbabee, Saul Shanum
PG/M.Ed./06/41604
August, 2012
ii
Approval Page
This project has been approved for the Department of Health and Physical Education,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka
By
......................................
Prof. C.E. Ezedum
Supervisor
……………………………
……………………………
Head of Department
……………………………..
Dean of Faculty of Education
Internal Examiner
………………………
External Examiner
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Certification
Igbabee, Saul Shanum, a postgraduate student in the Department of Health and Physical
Education with Registration number PG/M.Ed./06/41604, has satisfactorily completed the
requirements for the Masters degree in Public Health Education. This project report is original
and has not been submitted in part or in full for any diploma or degree of this or any other
University.
…………………………….
Igbabee, Saul S.
Candidate
……………………………
Prof. C.E. Ezedum
Supervisor
………………………………
Date
……………………………
Date
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Dedication
This project report is dedicated to Mrs Grace H. Shanum, Miss Cordelia Ngunan, Master
Allen Orfega and Miss Nguper (The Shanums), my constant source of joy and encouragement.
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Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Almighty God for the success, guidance and protection He accorded me
throughout this trying moment of higher academic endeavour. I wish to express my profound
gratitude to my Supervisor Professor C.E. Ezedum for patiently reading through the manuscripts
and offering useful academic advice and assistance throughout the period of study. I also wish to
acknowledge with gratitude the special academic encouragement offered by Late Professor Tr.
R.U. Okafor while he lived. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Professor O.A. Umeakuka,
Professor Tr. E.S. Samuel, Dr. C.C. Igbokwe, Dr. F.C. Mefoh and Dr. E. Onyezuigbo who
inspite of their crowded schedules validated my questionnaire.
I must not forget to acknowledge with all sincerity my employers, the Benue State
Government and the Local Government Services Commission in particular for my release and
sponsorhip for the programme. I specially appreciate my darling wife Mrs. Grace H. Shanum for
bearing the discomfort of my absence in the home and other nuptial denials caused by this
programme. Finally, I appreciate the excellent services of Miss Eucharia Ogbonna of UK
Computers, UNN who diligently typeset the manuscripts. May the Almighty God richly bless
you all.
Igbabee, S.S.
University of Nigeria,
Nsukka
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Table of Contents
Title Page
i
Approval Page
ii
Certification
iii
Dedication
iv
Acknowledgements
v
Table of Contents
vi
List of Tables
viii
Abstract
x
CHATPER ONE: Introduction
Background of the Study
1
Statement of the Problem
7
Purpose of the Study
8
Research Questions
9
Hypotheses
10
Significance of the Study
10
Scope of the Study
13
CHATPER TWO: Review of Related Literature
Conceptual Framework
Concepts of family planning, attitude, practice, and widow.
14
14
Demographic factors influencing modern family planning attitude and
practice.
20
Theoretical Framework
22
Empirical studies on modern family planning attitude and practice.
Summary of Literature Reviewed
24
35
CHAPTER THREE: Methods
Research Design
38
Population of the Study
38
Sample and Sampling Techniques
38
Instrument for Data Collection
39
vi
vii
Validity of the instrument.
39
Reliability of the instrument.
40
Method of Data Collection
40
Method of Data Analysis
41
CHAPTER FOUR: Results and Discussion
Results
42
Summary of Findings
76
Discussion of Findings
79
CHAPTER FIVE: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
Summary
85
Conclusions
88
Recommendations
91
Suggestions for Further Studies
91
References
92
Appendices
i.
Letter from the Head, Department of Health and Physical Education, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka
ii.
Questionnaire
102
104
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viii
List of Tables
Title
Page
1. Attitude of Widows of Reproductive age to Other Women who Practice
Modern Family Planning
42
2. Attitude of Widows of Reproductive age to Those who Provide Modern
Family Planning Services
43
3. Attitude of Widows of Reproductive age to Their Possible Practice of
Modern Family Planning
44
4. Attitude of Young and Old Widows of Reproductive Age to Modern
Family Planning Methods Based on Their age
46
5. Attitude of Widows of Reproductive age to Modern Family Planning
Methods Based on Their Parity
48
6. Attitude of Widows of Reproductive age to Modern Family Planning
Methods on the Basis of Their Level of Education
50
7. Practice of Non-appliance Methods by Widows of Reproductive age
52
8. Practice of Appliance Method of Modern Family Planning by
Widows of Reproductive age According to age, Parity and Level of Education
(Injectable and Female Condom)
54
9. Practice of Appliance Method of Family Planning by Windows of
Reproductive age According to age, Parity and Level of Education
(Male Condom and IUCD)
56
10. Practice of Surgical Method of Modern Family planning by Widows of
Reproductive age According to age, Parity and Level of Education
58
11. Practice of Modern Family Planning Among the Young and Old Widows of
Reproductive age, Based and Their age
60
12. Practice of Modern Family Planning by Widows of Reproductive age
Based on Their Parity
62
13. Practice of Modern Family Planning by Widows of Reproductive age,
Based on Their Level of Education (Pills, Injectable and Female Condom) 64
14. Practice of Modern Family Planning by Widows of Reproductive age,
Based on Their Level of Education (Male Condom, IUCD and Female
Sterilization)
15. Results of t-test Analysis Testing Differentials in the Attitude of Young
66
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ix
and Old Widows of Reproductive age to Modern Family Planning Methods 68
16. Results of t-test Analysis Verifying Influence of Parity on Attitude of
Widows of Reproductive age to Modern Family Planning Methods
17. Results of one-way ANOVA testing Difference of Level of
Education in the Attitude of Widows of Reproductive age to Modern
Family Planning Methods
18. Results of Chi-square Values Testing Differentials in Young and Old
Widows of Reproductive age‟s Practices of Modern Family Planning
Methods
69
70
71
19. Results of Chi-square Values Testing Difference of Parity on Practice of
Modern Family Planning Methods by Widows of Reproductive age
73
20. Results of Chi-square Values Testing Difference of Education Level in
the Practice of Modern Family Planning Methods by Widows of
Reproductive age
75
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x
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to find out the attitude to and practice of modern family planning methods
among widows of reproductive age in Logo Local Government Area (LGA) of Benue State. To achieve
the purpose of the study, twelve research questions were posed and six hypotheses were postulated to
guide the study. Literature pertinent to the study was reviewed. The study utilized cross-sectional survey
research design. The instrument used for data collection was the researcher designed questionnaire. Data
was collected from 228 respondents and used for the study. To answer the research questions posed for
the study, the data was analysed using percentages and means. The hypotheses were verified using Chisquare, t-test and ANOVA Statistics at .05 level of significance. The following results were obtained:
Attitude of widows of reproductive age to other women who practice modern family planning, and to
those who provide modern family planning services were positive. Attitude of widows of reproductive
age to their possible practice of modern family planning, and attitude of young and old widows of
reproductive age to modern family planning based on their age were negative. Widows of reproductive
_
age with four or less children had positive attitude towards male condom ( x = 2.51) only while those with
_
_
more than four children had positive attitude towards injectables ( x =2.51) and male condom ( x = 2.51)
_
only. Those with primary education had positive attitude towards male condom ( x = 2.52) only. Those
_
with secondary education had positive attitude towards injectables ( x = 2.50) and male condom ( x =
2.52) only. Widows of reproductive age with tertiary education had positive attitude towards male
condom ( x = 2.53) only. Widows of reproductive age with non-formal education had negative attitude
towards all the components of appliance method of modern family planning. Regarding practice of
appliance methods, majority of the respondents (54%) aged 33-49 years had practised male condoms.
Majority of the respondents (52%) with four or less children had practised male condom. Majority of the
respondents (53% and 55%) with more than four children had practised injectables, and male condoms
respectively. Majority of the respondents (56% and 71%) with secondary education had practised
injectables, and male condoms respectively. There was no significant difference in the attitude of young
and old widows of reproductive age towards modern family planning methods. Parity exerted no
significant difference in the attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning. Level of
education had no significant difference in the attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family
planning. There were significant differences in the practice of pills and injectables between the young and
old widows of reproductive age; there were no significant difference in the practice of injecatable, female
condom, male condom, and IUCD between young and old widows of reproductive age. Parity had
significant difference in the practice of pills, injectables, and surgical method by widows of reproductive
age; parity had no significant difference in the practice of female condom, male condom, and IUCD by
widows of reproductive age. Level of education had significant difference in the practice of pills, male
condom, and surgical method whereas level of education had no significant difference in the practice of
injectables, female condom, and IUCD by widows of reproductive age in Logo Local Government Area.
On the basis of conclusion drawn from the major findings, it was recommended that due to variations in
the attitude to and practice of modern family planning (MFP) by widows of reproductive age,
Government should expand and intensify education on MFP programmes so as to bridge the existing gap.
It was also recommended that non-governmental organization and community based organizations should
embark on behaviour change programmes to educate widows on MFP in order to improve their attitude
to and practice of MFP in the area of study.
_
_
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1
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Background to the Study
Adewale, Umoh, Iwere and Gbadegesin, (2005) opined that attitude and practice
towards modern family planning have attracted much attention in recent times. This is
due to increase in unwanted or unplanned pregnancies, induced or criminal abortion,
maternal mortality, sexually transmitted diseases, human immune-deficiency virus (HIV)
and acquired immune-deficiency syndrome (AIDS) prevalence among women of childbearing age.
There is no one universally acceptable definition of attitude. However, Anderson
(1981) opined that attitude is a moderately intense emotion that prepares or predisposes
individuals to respond consistently in a favourable manner, when confronted with a
particular object. Okafor (1991) stated that attitude is concerned with one‟s feeling
towards an object, person or thing. Cornachia, Station and Irwin (1999) asserted that an
attitude refers to mind-set to action, an internal readiness to behave or act. Simpson and
Weiner (2000) defined attitude as a way of feeling, thinking or behaving. Aitken (2000)
argued that there is no standard definition of attitude, but in general terms, he perceived
the term to imply a learned predisposition or tendency on the part of the individual to
respond positively or negatively to some objects or situation. According to Mann (2002),
attitude implies a relatively enduring organization to internalized belief that describes,
evaluates and advances actions with respect to an object or situation with each belief
having cognitive, affective and behavioural components. He further stated that each one
of these beliefs is a predisposition that suitably activates results in some preferential
response towards the attitude-object or situation or toward the maintenance or
preservation of the attitude itself.
Attitude in the context of the present study is belief, feeling, thinking, ideas or
emotion that predisposes an individual to respond when faced with a particular object.
For instance, what a widow believes, feels or thinks about modern family planning
becomes her attitude towards modern family planning.
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2
Practice, on the other hand, is something done habitually or customarily (Webster,
1980). According to Simpson and Weiner (1991), practice is a habitual action-custom.
Hornby (2001) opined that practice means to do something regularly as part of one‟s
normal behaviour. With regard to the present study therefore, it means using modern
family planning methods regularly, as part of ones normal sexual behaviour. Practice of
modern family planning may not only be beneficial to women whose husbands are living
alone but also to widows of reproductive age.
A widow is defined as a woman whose husband has died and who has not married
again (Hornby, 2001). Okafor (2004) viewed a widow as a woman who is married to a
man and loses him to death. According to Igbudu and Okoro (2010), a widow of
reproductive age is a woman in the age bracket of 15-49 years, whose husband has died
and who has not married again. A young widow of reproductive age is a woman aged
between 15 and 32 years, whose husband has died and who has not married again. An old
widow of reproductive age is a woman aged between 33 and 49 years, whose husband
has died and who has not married again.
The Logo widow of reproductive age in the context of the present study, is a
woman whose husband has died and who has not married again or inherited by the late
husband‟s relation. Widows of reproductive age are chosen for the present study because,
they are thought to be sexually active and are more likely to be prone to unwanted
pregnancy, illegitimate children, abortion, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), human
immune-deficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immune-deficiency syndrome (AIDS) than
their married counterparts whose husbands are alive. In addition, widows are usually
subsumed within the general categorization of women or ever married women in most
studies in family planning, hence the need to study them specially, in the present study.
Furthermore, the researcher‟s personal observation of the death of three
young widows due to criminal or induced abortion in Logo Local Government Area
(LGA), also informed the present study. Besides, a widow was hospitalized for having
abortion complications. In addition, five widows who were not even inherited by their
late husband‟s relation gave birth to children, two years after the death of their
husbands. The situation created a serious social problem as for the paternity of those
children in such families. The children were termed illegitimate children in such families,
2
3
even though they were answering the names of their mother‟s late husbands. OyeAdeniran, Adewole, Umoh, Iwere and Gbadegesin (2006) noted that such children were
said to be vulnerable to abuse, neglect and discrimination, especially those with doubtful
paternity, who would be regarded as bastards. There seems to be need for modern family
planning among widows of reproductive age.
Modern family planning refers to modern contraceptives method other than
traditional or natural family planning methods (NSO, 2004). Park (2007) defined modern
family planning, as preventive methods that help the woman avoid unwanted
pregnancies. They include all temporary and permanent measures to prevent pregnancies
resulting from coitus. Modern family planning methods may be broadly grouped into two
classes, namely: spacing methods and terminal methods. These methods are further
categorized into three sub-categories namely, non-appliance, appliance, and surgical
methods.
Oreachata (2007) referred to non-appliance methods as non-manipulative methods
of family planning such as pills which are taken orally to prevent pregnancy. Nonappliance methods include hormonal methods (oral pills). Okoye and Okoye (2007) noted
that oral pills which are hormone-based contraceptives are the most popular and also the
most effective non-appliance methods of family planning in the World. They further
observed that the first time to start taking your first package of birth-control pill is the day
your period begins.
According to Park (2007), appliance methods refer to any contraceptive
instrument, drug, preparation or thing designed to, prepared or intended to prevent
pregnancy. Spermicides are surface active-agents which attach themselves to
spermatozoa and inhibit oxygen uptake and kill sperms. They include among others:
foams, creams, suppositories, and soluble films.
Okoye and Okoye viewed male condom as a rubber or processed collagenous
tissue sheath that fits over the erect penis and acts as a barrier to the transmission of
semen into the vagina and also prevent the transmission of HIV and other sexually
transmitted infections.
They described female condom as a soft plastic that resembles a diaphragm and
condom combination. It consists of a soft, loose-fitting sheath with two flexible rings
3
4
similar to those of a diaphragm. One of the rings is put into the vagina which serves as
internal anchor and the second ring remains outside the vagina to make it possible for the
man to find the entrance of the vagina which is now covered by a sheath. It is an effective
barrier to sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and semen into the vagina.
The Diaphragm is a vaginal barrier. It is a dome-shaped rubber cap with flexible
rim. It is inserted into the vagina, before intercourse, to cover the cervix. The spermicidal
could be placed on the dome of the diaphragm, to serve as reinforcement. Diaphragm
could be inserted at anytime within the monthly cycle (Okoye & Okoye, 2007).
Intra-uterine contraceptive devices (IUCDs) are small plastic or stainless steel or
flexible polyethylene nylon device, that can be inserted by a doctor through the cervix,
into a woman‟s womb to prevent pregnancy. Almost all brands of IUCDs have one or
two strings or threads tied to them. The rings hang out through the opening of the cervix
into the vagina. The strings which can be felt by a woman help her to check whether the
IUCD is still in place or not. They also aid removal of the device by a health-care
provider (Okoye, 2006).
The injectable depoprovera is a contraceptive given every three months as a single
injection to women who want to prevent pregnancy. It contains the hormone, progestin,
similar to the natural hormone that a woman‟s body produces. The injection, when given,
releases the hormone slowly into the woman‟s blood stream up to three months or more.
The injection prevents pregnancy by preventing ovulation from occurring, thickening the
cervical mucus, thereby making it difficult for the sperm to pass through it, and inducing
reduction or thinning of the endometrial lining (inner surface of the womb). By this
action, depoprovera can cause amenorrhea (absence of menstruation) on a long use
(Okoye & Okoye, 2007).
Implant is a subdermal contraceptive capable of preventing a woman from
becoming pregnant for five years.
The commonly used implant is norplant which
consists of six small plastic capsules similar to sticks of matches. The capsules contain
35mg each, of levonorgestrel. Implant is entirely a hospital procedure. The procedure
requires a minor incision and the capsules are implanted beneath the skin of the forearm
or upper arm. After the insertion, the minor incision is closed with gauze and plaster. No
stitches are required and the capsules are not visible on the skin. Both the insertion and
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5
removal, require the expertise of a trained health personnel, mainly doctors. Interestingly,
return of fertility is almost immediately after the device is removed (Okoye & Okoye,
2007).
Abortion simply means termination of pregnancy. World Health Organization,
WHO (1971) defined abortion as termination of pregnancy before the embryo or foetus
attains the age of viability. Okoye(2006) stated that abortion could be spontaneous or
induced. Spontaneous abortion is defined as natural or unaided termination of pregnancy
before foetal maturity. Spontaneous abortion is commonly referred to as miscarriage.
Induced abortion is defined as artificial or intentional termination of pregnancy, using
any of the numerous methods against the laws of the country (Nigeria). This may include
the use of drugs, mechanical devices manipulations or instrumentation. This however
carries the highest risk of complications and maternal death.
Surgical or terminal methods of family planning on the other hand, are simple or
minor surgical operations for permanent contraception. Surgical or terminal methods
comprise of male sterilization (Vasectomy) and female sterilization (tubal ligation). The
present study was concerned with oral pills, injectables, female condom, male condom,
IUCDs, and surgical method. These methods were chosen for the present study because
they were the only family planning methods in use in Logo LGA at the time of the study.
There are various demographic factors that influence widows‟ attitude to and
practice of modern family planning. The present study was concerned with demographic
factors of age, parity, and level of education.
Age has been identified by some studies as one of the strong factors that influence
attitude to and practice of modern family planning. In a study by Chacko (2001) among
married women, in four villages in rural West Bengal, India; it was found that, one of the
factors that most influence a woman‟s use of contraception include her age. Specifically,
Chizororo and Natshalaga (2003), reported that the younger women liked the female
condom more than the older ones. Ngom and Maggwa (2005) postulated that age
significantly increases a woman‟s likelihood of using modern contraception.
Reports from researchers indicate that parity influences a woman‟s chances of
using modern family planning. Chacko (2001) found that the number of living sons a
woman has, greatly influences her use of modern contraception. Oyedokun (2007)
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reported that number of children ever born was also found to be a significant factor that
influences women‟s attitude to and practice of contraceptive.
Studies have revealed that level of education has strong influence on attitude to
and practice of modern family planning. Kaba (2000) pointed out that educational status
of women was found to have an impact on contraceptive use. Those women who have
some level of education were found to have better knowledge and tend to use
contraceptives. Philippines National Demographic and Health Survey, PNDHS (2000)
revealed that women with an elementary school education were more likely than those
with more education or with none at all to want no more children and thus tend to use
modern contraception. These variables were surveyed and some behaviour-change
theories applied, to explain widows, attitude to and practice of modern family planning.
This study was anchored on three theories. These are theory of reasoned action
(TRA), theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and self-efficacy theory. The theory of
reasoned action (TRA) which suggests that a person‟s behaviour-intention depends on the
person‟s attitude about the behaviour and subjective norms, was the theory of anchor for
widows‟ attitude to modern family planning.
Widows who develop negative attitude to certain methods of family planning are
likely not to use such methods, whereas widows who believe that using certain methods
of modern family planning protect them against unplanned pregnancies and sexually
transmitted infections (STIs) will likely use such methods. Similarly, the theory of
planned behaviour (TPB), which states that peoples‟ evaluation of or attitude towards
behaviour, are determined by their accessible belief about the behaviour, was another
theory of anchor for widows of reproductive age‟s attitude to modern family planning.
The intention or belief of widows to use modern contraceptives, predicts contraceptive
use by them. When a widow intends not to use contraceptives, it translates into non-use
of contraceptive. Self-efficacy theory which holds that any change in behaviour must be
preceded by a conviction that one can efficiently carry out the desired behaviour was
applied to verify the findings regarding Logo widows of reproductive age‟s practice of
modern family planning. Logo widows of reproductive age may be more likely to
practice modern family planning when they believe that they are capable of executing
those practices successfully.
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7
The study was conducted in Logo Local Government Area (LGA) of Benue State.
The Local Government located in the North-Eastern part of the State is a typical rural
local government. There are two autonomous communities that make up Logo L.G.A.
They are Gaambe-Tiev and Ugondo, with five council wards each. The culture of wifeinheritance seems to be fast disappearing in the LGA and widows are left alone to carter
for themselves and their children. The task of caring for self and children alone, appears
to be cumbersome among widows in the LGA. In an attempt to find helpers, some of
them may fall victims of some boyfriends who might not be willing to use any device to
protect them from HIV, STIs or unwanted pregnancies. HIV and STIs appear to be on the
increase among Logo widows of reproductive age. Unwanted pregnancies, criminal
abortion and unwanted children seem to be common among widows of reproductive age
in the LGA. It is likely that some widows of reproductive age have died due to criminal
abortion while some are being hospitalized as a result of abortion complications.
Following from the above characteristics of these widows, the study on attitude to and
practice of modern family planning among widows of reproductive age in Logo Local
Government Area (LGA), becomes imperative.
Statement of the Problem
Modern family planning methods are considered a first line of defence against
unwanted pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and human immunedeficiency virus (HIV). The consistent and correct use of modern family planning
methods reduce greatly unwanted pregnancies, STIs and HIV among women of
reproductive age in any nation thus enhancing their health. However, it appears that
attitude and practice of modern family planning among women of reproductive age in
Nigeria is low and it varies by demographic and socio-economic characteristics. This
calls for a study to verify what obtains in Logo LGA.
The use of modern family planning methods among widows of reproductive age
will reduce unwanted pregnancy, mortality and morbidity associated with abortion
among widowss. HIV and STIs incidence among widowss of reproductive age will also
be minimized, thus, enhancing their health.
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8
Studies have been conducted on attitude to and practice of modern family
planning methods among women of reproductive age in many parts of the World
including Nigeria. However, none of such studies, to the best knowledge of the
researcher, has been conducted in Logo Local Government Area (LGA). Following from
this, the need arose to study attitude to and practice of modern family planning methods
among widows of reproductive age in Logo Local Government Area of Benue State.This
is the major problem of the study.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to find out the attitude to and practice of modern
family planning methods among widows of reproductive age in Logo Local Government
Area (LGA) of Benue State. Specifically, the objectives of the study were to find out the
1.
attitude of widows of reproductive age to other women who practice modern
family planning;
2.
attitude of widows of reproductive age to those who provide modern family
planning services;
3.
attitude of widows of reproductive age to their possible practice of modern
family planning;
4.
attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning, based on
their age;
5.
attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning, based on
their parity;
6.
attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning, based on
their level of education; and
7.
practice of non-appliance methods of modern family planning among widows
of reproductive age;
8.
practice of appliance methods of modern family planning among widows of
reproductive age;
9.
practice of surgical methods of family planning among widows of
reproductive age;
8
9
10.
practice of modern family planning among widows of reproductive age, based
on their age;
11.
practice of modern family planning among widows of reproductive age, based
on their parity;
12.
practice of modern family planning among widows of reproductive age, based
on their level of education.
Research Questions
The following research questions were formulated to guide the study.
1.
What is the attitude of widows of reproductive age to other women who
practice modern family planning?
2.
What is the attitude of widows of reproductive age to those who provide
modern family planning services?
3.
What is the attitude of widows of reproductive age to their possible practice of
modern family planning?
4.
What is the attitude of young and old widows of reproductive age to modern
family planning?
5.
What is the attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning
based on their parity?
6.
What are widows of reproductive age‟s attitude to modern family planning
based on their level of education?
7.
What are widows of reproductive age‟s practice of non-appliance methods of
modern family planning?
8.
What are widowss of reproductive age‟s practice of appliance methods of
modern family planning?
9.
What are widowss of reproductive age‟s practice of surgical methods of
family planning?
10.
What is the practice of modern family planning by the young and old widows
of reproductive age?
11.
What are widows of reproductive age‟s practice of modern family planning
based on their parity?
9
10
12.
What are widows of reproductive age‟s practice of modern family planning
based on their level of education?
Hypotheses
The present study postulates the following null hypotheses which were tested at
.05 level of significance.
Ho1:
There is no statistically significant difference between the attitude of young and
old widows of reproductive age towards modern family planning methods.
Ho2:
There is no statistically significant difference in the attitude of widows of
reproductive age to modern family planning methods according to parity status.
Ho3:
There is no statistically significant difference in the attitude of widows of
reproductive age to modern family planning according to level of education.
Ho4:
There is no statistically significant difference between the practice of young and
old widows of reproductive age towards modern family planning methods.
Ho5:
There is no statistically significant difference in the practice of modern family
planning methods by widows of reproductive age according to parity status.
Ho6:
There is no statistically significant difference in the practice of modern family
planning methods by widows of reproductive age according to level of education.
Significance of the Study
The result of this study may be useful to widows of reproductive age, modern
family planning service providers, health educators, counsellors, policy makers, medical
doctors, teachers and researchers among others. Specifically, data generated by
determining the attitude to other women who practise modern family planning was
positive. The findings may be beneficial to Logo widows because it is hoped that it will
help them to understand the right attitude to exhibit to other women who practice modern
family planning.
The result generated on attitude of widows of reproductive age to those who
provide modern family planning services, which is positive may enable service providers
to determine the need and techniques of persuading widows to maintain their positive
attitude towards the modern family planning service providers.
10
11
The result generated on the attitude of widows of reproductive age to their
possible practice of modern family planning which is negative may enable service
providers, health educators and counsellors to develop appropriate health talks to
persuade and convince the widows to adopt positive attitude to modern family planning
and subsequently use the methods.
Furthermore, the result generated on practice of non-appliance method of family
planning among widows of reproductive age which revealed low practices may be useful
to service providers, health educators and counsellors in their various places of work. The
service providers may use the findings during health talk to step up the practice of nonappliance, while health educators may use the results to organize workshops and
seminars to give correct and adequate information; in order to encourage positive
practices of non-appliance method and discourage negative ones. Counsellors may use
the findings to guide counselling of their clients.
Similarly, the results obtained on practice of appliance methods of modern family
planning among widows of reproductive age revealed both positive and negative
practices. The information may be helpful to women, service providers, health educators
and counsellors in their various offices. Other women may also become aware of the
prevailing appliance methods in practice and tend to use them. The service providers
during health talk may use the information to reinforce the use or practice of the methods
and also introduce other appliance methods not used by them. It is hoped that health
educators will use the information to organize seminars, conferences, workshops and also
compose jingles to enlighten the general public on the benefits of practice of appliance
methods while discouraging negative practices of the method. The counsellors may use
the findings to counsel for positive action with regard to practice of appliance method.
The results generated on the practice of surgical method did not indicate much
practice of this method among widows of reproductive age in Logo. Medical doctors may
benefit from this finding by using the data to plan for surgical method of family planning.
The information on the attitude of young and old widows of reproductive age to
modern family planning revealed negative attitude to all the components of modern
family planning. The health educators and service providers may benefit from these
information. It is hoped that health educators will use the information and target the age
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groups that develop negative attitude so as to provide them with correct information that
will enable them develop positive attitude to modern family planning even at such ages.
The service providers may use the information to give age-appropriate health talk to
stimulate positive attitude and discourage negative ones.
Findings on practice of modern family planning among the young and old widows
will show the extent to which modern family planning methods have been practised by
the young and old widows of reproductive age. Health educators may benefit from these
findings by using the data to plan and give age-appropriate family planning education to
enhance high level practices.
The result on attitudes of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning
based on their parity revealed less positive but much negative attitude. Counsellors and
health educators may benefit from these findings. Counselors may use the information to
advise widows with negative family planning attitudes to develop positive attitude to
modern family planning in spite of the number of children they have, while those with
positive attitude will be encouraged to maintain them.
Health educators may use the
information to plan for focus-groups discussion and family visits to encourage those with
positive attitude to family planning and persuade those with negative attitude to adopt
positive attitudes to family planning.
Policy makers may benefit from the findings by using the information to make
policies that will guarantee high level practice of modern family planning, thus limiting
the number of children to a woman and allowing freedom of use of modern family
planning for all.
The results generated on widows‟ attitude to modern family planning, on the basis
of their level of education, have helped in exposing the negative and positive attitudes of
widows of reproductive age with regard to their level of education. Health educators may
benefit immensely from these findings by using the information to plan for family
planning education that will be appropriate to individual level of education, to enhance
positive attitude and discourage negative ones.
Findings on the widows‟ practice of modern family planning, based on their level
of education have helped in revealing the extent to which level of education has affected
the practice of modern family planning, among widows of reproductive age. Health
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educators, teachers and researchers may benefit from these findings. Health educators
may use the findings to plan and give accurate information on practice of modern family
planning based on level of education. Teachers may use the findings by identifying
practice-gaps to be filled, based on level of education and will guide students, parents and
non-teaching staff, on how to improve upon their practice of family planning.
Researchers, it is hoped will use the findings as reference material.
Scope of the Study
The study was delimited to Logo Local Government Area (LGA), comprising ten
council wards namely, Mbadyul, Mbagber, Mbater, Mbavuur, Mbayam, Nenzev, Tombu,
Turan, Ukemberagya/Tswarev and Yonov. The local government located in the NorthEastern part of Benue State is a typical rural local government which is bounded by
Wukari Local Government Area in the North, Katsina Ala Local Government Area in the
South, Guma Local Government Area in the West and Ukum Local Government Area in
the East. The study was concerned with finding out the attitude of widows of
reproductive age to and practice of modern family planning. The study was delimited to
such modern methods of family planning as pills, injectables, female condom, male
condom, Intrauterine Contraceptive Devices (IUCDs) and surgical methods.The
demographic factors of age, parity and level of education as they appear to affect attitude
to and practice of modern family planning among widows of reproductive age was
explored. The study
involved only widows of reproductive age in Logo Local
Government Area of Benue State.
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CHAPTER TWO
Review of Related Literature
Literature on attitude and practice of modern family planning methods are
relatively available locally but are more concentrated in developed countries. However,
most of the available literature subsume widows within the general categorization of
women or ever married women, with only few recognizing widows as such.
Nevertheless, literatures on related areas were equally reviewed, to supplement the
available information and are hereby presented under the following headings:
1. Conceptual framework;
Family planning
Modern family planning
Attitude
Practice
Widow
2. Theoretical framework;
Theory of reasoned action
Theory of planned behavior
Self-efficacy theory
3. Empirical studies on modern family planning attitude and practice
4. Summary of literature Review
Conceptual Framework
This section presents the concepts of family planning, attitude, practice, and
widows. These concepts have been defined by many and in varied ways. A few of such
definitions relevant to this work is hereby reviewed.
The World Health Organization, WHO (1971) defines family planning as a way
of thinking and living that is adopted voluntarily, upon the basis of knowledge, attitudes
and responsible decisions by individuals and couples, in order to promote the health and
welfare of the family group and thus contribute effectively to the social development of a
country. Weiner (1999) conceptualized family planning as having the number of children
you want, when you want them. Delano (1990) posits that family planning is a means by
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which individuals or couples space the process of conception, pregnancy and childbirth at
intervals mutually determined by both husband and wife, in order to have the desired
number of children that they can conveniently maintain. Family planning also assists
couples who have difficulty in having children. Dixon-Meller and Germain (1992)
conceived family planning as not only the ability to avoid childbearing when it is not
wanted but also the ability to ensure childbearing when it is wanted. According to Lucas
and Gilles (2006), family planning is to encourage couples to take responsible decisions
about pregnancy and enable them to achieve their wishes with regard to preventing
unwanted pregnancies, securing desired pregnancies, spacing of pregnancies and limiting
the size of the family. Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, NDHS (2003) defined
family planning as the use of modern contraceptives or natural techniques, to limit or
space pregnancies. Okoye and Okoye (2007) conceptualized family planning as couples
conscious effort to regulate the number of the children they would have. Wikipedia
(2008) viewed family planning as a regimen of one or more actions, devices, or
medications followed in order to deliberately prevent or reduce the likelihood of
pregnancy or childbirth.
Modern family planning methods refer to contraceptive methods of family
planning other than traditional or natural family planning (NFP) methods. Contraceptive
methods are by definition, preventive methods that help the woman avoid unwanted
pregnancies resulting from coitus (Park, 2007). The modern contraceptive devices are
nothing but a modification of the old, with clearer understanding of their mode of actions
and adverse effects, if any. They are safe and more reliable than the formerly accepted
traditional methods (Okoye and Okoye, 2007). Modern family planning methods may be
broadly grouped into two classes namely; spacing methods and terminal methods. These
methods are further categorized into three sub-categories which include: non-appliance
methods, appliance methods, and surgical methods.
Oreachata (2007) referred to non-appliance methods as non-manipulative methods
of family planning such as pills which are taken orally to prevent pregnancy, whereas
appliance methods according to Park (2007), refer to any contraceptive instrument, drug,
preparation or thing designed, prepared or intended to prevent pregnancy, resulting
between human beings. Appliance methods include spermicides, condoms, diaphragm,
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intra-uterine contraceptive devices (IUCDs),
depoprovera, implant, and abortion.
Surgical methods of family planning on the other hand are simple or minor surgical
operations for permanent contraception. They include: tubal ligation (female sterilization)
and vasectomy (male sterilization). Tubal ligation and vasectomy are irreversible family
planning methods which once done, the woman or man can not have children again. The
presence of all these family planning methods elicits some attitudes towards them which
may be either positive or negative.
Anderson (1981) opined that attitude is a moderately intense emotion that
prepares or predisposes individuals to respond consistently in a favourable or
unfavourable manner when confronted with a particular object. Bolan (1981) asserted
that attitudes about health-related behaviour help to determine what an individual does in
a given situation. Murdary (1983) viewed attitude as a feeling tone directed towards a
person, object or ideas. Okafor (1991) observed that attitude is concerned with ones
feeling towards an object, person or thing. Dieghton (1991) considered attitude as a
predisposition to classify objects or events, and to reach to them with some degree of
evaluative consistency.
Kerlinger (1992) perceived attitude as an organized
predisposition to think, feel, perceive and behave towards a referent or cognitive object.
According to Adebajo (1992), attitude refers to the sum total of the people‟s inclinations
and feelings, prejudices or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats and
convictions. Allport (1995) stated that attitude is a mental or neural state of readiness,
organized through experience, exerting dynamic influence upon the individual‟s response
to all objects and situations with which it is related. He added that attitudes are
hypothetical constructs, that is, they are inferred but not objectively observable, it is
manifested in conscious experience, verbal reports, gross behaviour and psychological
symptoms. Osarenren (1996) defined attitude as a mental and neural state of readiness
organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the
individual‟s response to all objects and situations which it is related.
Karavas-Donkase (1996) observed that positive attitude leads to greater interest
and performance. Nixon, Lance and Fredricks (1997) defined attitude as a general
condition or process, which results in readiness of an individual to reach or act in a
specific manner, and acts as base for many specific ways of behaving. Moghaddam
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(1998) deemed attitude as evaluations of other people, events, issues and material things,
with some degree of favour or disfavour. Cornacchia, Staton and Irwin (1999) asserted
that an attitude refers to mind- sets to action, an internal readiness to behave or act.
Simpson and Weiner (2000) defined attitude as a way of feeling, thinking or behaving.
Morgan (2000) stated that attitude formed through interaction in social class, social
group, school and family towards issues, objects or ideas is usually the same.
Aitken (2000) argued that there is no standard definition of attitude, but in general
terms, he perceived the term to imply a learned predisposition or tendency on the part of
an individual to respond positively or negatively to some objects or situations. He further
stated that the attitude of people towards a particular object, belief, saying or culture in a
way gives an insight into their opinion of the objective or culture. An observer of these
attitudes or behaviour may use them as the yardstick for measuring how dearly or
detestably they regard the culture or tradition. According to Mann (2002), attitude implies
a relatively enduring organization to internalized belief that describes, evaluates and
advances actions with respect to an object or situation with each belief having cognitive,
affective and behavioural components. He further stated that each one of these beliefs is a
predisposition that suitably activates results in some preferential response towards the
attitude object or situation or toward the maintenance or preservation of the attitude itself.
In the opinion of Ademuwagun, Ajala, Oke, Moronkola and Jegede (2002),
attitude is best viewed as a set of affective reactions towards an object that predisposes
the individual to behave in a certain manner towards the object. It then follows that the
quality of one‟s attitude is judged from the observable evaluative responses one tends to
make, in this case towards modern family planning methods. Attitudes have the tendency
to determine practices in some cases (Opara, 1993). He further stated that attitudes that
are positive are usually encouraged to continue and are reinforced while negative ones
are usually discouraged. Attitude as used in this study means belief, feeling, thinking,
ideas or emotion that predisposes an individual to respond either positively or negatively
when faced with a particular object, in this case modern family planning methods.
When attitudes are related to modern family planning, they are termed modern
family planning attitudes. Such attitudes could be attitudes related to non-appliance,
appliance and surgical methods of family planning. The type of attitude widows have to
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modern family planning may positively or negatively influence their practice of these
family planning methods. Liverton (1990) defined attitude to modern contraception, as
the sum total of our habits and ideas, our likes and dislikes and our practices of choosing
and using modern contraceptive methods. He observed that attitude to modern
contraceptive is positive when we have likings and are willing to use one or more modern
methods of contraception. Karavas-Donkase (1996) noted that positive attitude leads to
greater interest and performance. Negative attitude to modern contraceptive means we
use the natural family planning methods (NFPM) or, no method at all. Dada (2002)
commented that if positive attitude to modern contraception are adopted and put to
practice, morbidity and mortality associated with pregnancy and sexually transmitted
infections (STIs) including human immune-deficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunedeficiency syndrome (AIDS) will be greatly minimized. In the context of this study,
attitudes are conceptualized as habits, behaviour, feelings, the likes and dislikes of a
particular method of family planning; in this case modern family planning. It is generally
assumed that attitude influences behaviour or practice.
Practices of a group mean their ways of life. Webster (1980) defined practice as
something done habitually or customarily. According to Rundell (1990), practice is a
repeated, habitual or standard act or course of action. Lau, Quadrel and Hartman (1990)
stated that practice endures as long as the social influences remain the same over a period
of time. Gove (1993) considered practice as the actual performance or application of
knowledge; it is a repeated customary action. Brown (1993) viewed practice as carrying
out or performing an act habitually or constantly. Akinsola (1993) documented that some
socio-cultural practices can cause ill-health. Conversely, in the context of health and
disease, many practices are beneficial (Ejifugha, 1999). Robinson and Davsidson (1998)
observed that practice is a habit, activity, procedure, or custom. Simpson and Weiner
(2000) posited that practice is a habitual action-custom. Hornby (2001) conceptualized
practice as doing something regularly as part of one‟s normal behaviour. Ademuwagun et
al. (2002) stated that the ultimate goal of health education is practice or action. To
reinforce the above statement, they further stated that the goal of health education is
positive health-practice and not mere health-knowledge. Positive health practices are
usually encouraged to continue and are reinforced while negative ones are discouraged.
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Attitudes have the tendency to determine practices in some cases (Opara, 1993).
When practices are related to modern family planning, they are termed modern family
planning practices. Such practices could be related to non-appliance, appliance and
surgical methods of family planning. Dada (2002) defined modern family planning
practice as a habit of using modern family planning method(s) regularly. Okoye and
Okoye (2007) refer to modern family planning practice as a habitual way of applying
modern contraceptives consistently. They further observed that practice may be
influenced by knowledge and attitude, although the possession of the accurate health
knowledge and attitude does not guarantee the right behaviour, knowing the right thing to
do may lead to positive attitude and appropriate behaviour. One fact remains that since
the positive attitude is there, there are chances that one day the correct health behaviour
will be put to practice.
It is generally assumed that practice may be either positive or negative. Positive
practice of modern family planning could lead to improved health, low maternal
morbidity and mortality as well as low transmission of STIs and HIV. Conversely,
negative practice of modern family planning may lead to poor health, high maternal
morbidity and mortality as well as high transmission of STIs and HIV. Practice, as used
in this study means behaviour or habits that are carried out consistently by widows in
relation to modern family planning.
A widow is defined as a woman whose husband has died and who has not married
again (Hornby, 2001). Okafor (2004) viewed a widow as a woman who is married to a
man and loses him to death.
According to Igbudu and Okoro (2010), a widow of
reproductive age is a woman in the age bracket of 15-49 years whose husband has died
and who has not married again. A young widow of reproductive age is a woman aged
between 15 and 32 years, whose husband has died and who has not married again or
inherited by the late husband‟s relation. An old widow of reproductive age is a woman
aged between 33 and 49 years, whose husband has died and who has not married again or
inherited by the late husband‟s relation. A widow of reproductive age in the context of
the present study, is a woman aged between 15 and 49 years whose husband has died and
who has not married again or inherited by the late husband‟s relation. Widows of
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reproductive ages‟ attitudes and practices of modern family planning may be influenced
by demographic factors.
Demographic factors influencing modern family planning attitude and
practice.
There are many demographic factors that influence modern family planning
attitude and practice. Those related to the present study were reviewed. The present
study is interested in the demographic factors of age, parity and level of education.
Age has been identified as one of the strong factors that influence attitude to and
practice of modern family planning. Even though Alakija (2000) reported that age among
adults in this part of the world is not reliable due to absence of birth registration in the
past. Kaba (2000) noted that ages of women were found to have an impact on
contraceptive use. The younger women tend to use contraceptives more than the older
ones. In a study by Chacko (2001) among married women, in four villages in rural West
Bengal, India, it was found that, one of the factors that most influence a woman‟s use of
contraception include her age. Specifically, Chizororo and Natshalaga (2003) observed
that the younger women liked the female condom more than the older ones. Tawye, Jotie,
Shiegu, Ngom and Maggwa (2005) asserted that age significantly increased a woman‟s
likelihood of using modern contraception. Kocken, Dorst and Schaalma (2006) opined
that older women between 31 and 50 years of age were more inclined to use condoms
than the young.
Parity, meaning the number of children born and kept by a person, influences a
woman‟s chances of using modern family planning. Roper (2005) viewed parity as status
of a woman with regard to the number of children she has born. Underwood (2000)
noted that contraceptive practice was highest among women with three children and
lowest among women with none. Chacko (2001) found out that the number of living sons
a woman has greatly influence her attitude and use of modern contraception. According
to Gupta, Katende and Blessing (2003), women with 1-3 children were more likely to
report contraceptive practice than those with no children. Tawye (2005) was of the view
that the desire for additional children increases a woman‟s likelihood of using modern
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contraception. Oyedokun (2007) revealed that children ever born were also found to be a
significant factor that influences women‟s attitude and practice of contraceptive.
Studies conducted in different parts of the world, including Nigeria, have
indicated that level of education has a strong influence on attitude to and practice of
modern family planning. Kaba (2000) pointed out that educational status of women was
found to have an influence on attitude and contraceptive use. Those women, who have
some level of education, were found to have had better knowledge and tend to use
contraceptives. Philippines National Demographic and Health Survey, PNDHS (2000)
revealed that women with an elementary school education were more likely than those
with more education or with none at all to want no more children and thus tend to use
modern contraception. Koc (2000) found a positive association between the educational
level of women and the use of contraceptive methods in Turkey. A woman‟s education
was found to be a stronger predictor of method-use and method-choice than other factors.
Chizororo and Natshalaga (2003) disclosed that family planning programme will enable
educated young women to plan their productive and reproductive goals without fear of
having unplanned pregnancy, HIV and AIDS. National Population Commission, NPC
(2004) viewed female education as a key determinant of contraceptive use. Bettereducated women are argued to be more willing to engage in innovative behaviour than
are less educated women, and in many third world contexts, the use of contraception
remains innovative. Towye (2005) also found education to have significantly increased a
woman‟s likelihood of using modern contraception. Keele, Forste and Flake (2005)
established that education was positively associated with contraceptive use in Matenwe.
One third of contraceptive users in Matenwe had completed high school, whereas a much
smaller percentage of women in the village had high school education. Kocken, Dorst
and Schaalma (2006) opined that the higher educated, more often expressed intention to
use condoms than the lower educated. Oye-Ademiran et al (2006) posit that contraceptive
use is also believed to be directly associated with the educational status. This was the
case in their study as those in the urban areas were significantly more educated and had a
higher contraceptive use than those in the rural areas. Oyedokun (2007) asserted that
better educated women are argued to have more knowledge of modern methods of family
planning and how to acquire and use them than are less educated women because of their
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literacy, greater familiarity with modern institutions and greater likelihood of rejecting a
fatalistic attitude towards life. There is good evidence that for whatever reason, women‟s
education does indeed promote the use of contraception in most developing countries.
These demographic factors were surveyed to establish what is obtainable in Logo local
government area of Benue State, in relation to widows of reproductive ages‟ attitude to
and practice of modern family planning.
Theoretical Framework
Theories are significant in any Health education research. According to
Nwachukwu (1988), a scholarly grouping of concepts and principles creates a theory. A
theory presents in a formal manner interrelated principles. Luthans (1988) asserts that the
purpose of any theory is to explain and predict the phenomena in question; theories allow
the researcher to deduce logical propositions or hypotheses that can be tested by
acceptable designs. DeBarr (2004) argued that theories and models are among the most
useful tools utilized by health educators in their quest to tackle challenges of health
problems. Babbie (2003) defined theory as a systematic explanation for the observations
that relate to a particular aspect of life. Many theories in health education are used to seek
answers to the fundamental question of why people behave the way they do. Specifically,
theories are used to understand and predict how and why people change their unhealthy
behaviours to healthy ones. Behaviour change theories assume that all behaviour is
learned and can also be unlearned and adaptive behaviour substituted. Theories are ever
changing on the basis of the research results. Thus, theory and research go hand in hand.
There are many behavioural theories applicable to health education. A few of those
related to this study were reviewed. Those reviewed are theory of reasoned action
(TRA), theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and self-efficacy theory.
The theory of reasoned action (TRA) was propounded by Ajzen and Fishbein
(1975 & 1980) to show how attitude impact on behaviour. TRA suggests that a person‟s
behaviour intention depends on the person‟s attitude about the behaviour and subjective
norms. To put the definition into simple terms, a person‟s volitional (Voluntary)
behaviour, is predicted by his or her attitude toward the behaviour and how he or she
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thinks other people would view them, if they performed the behaviour (Ajzen &
Fishgerbein, 1975).
According to Taylor (2003), TRA stresses that one‟s attitudes toward a particular
behaviour are influenced by belief outcome of the behaviour and one‟s evaluation of the
potential outcome. This theory, by extension, can be used to analyze the attitude of Logo
widows of reproductive age towards modern family planning methods. Widows of
reproductive age who develop negative attitude to particular methods of modern family
planning are likely not to use such methods, whereas those who believe that using certain
methods of modern family planning protect them against unplanned pregnancies and
sexually transmitted infections will likely use such methods. On this basis, the Logo
widows of reproductive ages‟ attitude to modern family planning will be anchored on the
theory of reasoned action (TRA).
Similarly, the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) was also propounded by Ajzen
and Fishbein (1975). The TPB is another theory about the link between attitudes and
behaviour. The TPB states that people‟s evaluation of, or attitudes toward behaviour are
determined by their accessible belief about the behaviour, where a belief is defined as the
subjective probability that the behaviour will produce a certain outcome. Specifically, the
evaluation of each outcome contributes to the attitude in direct proportion to the persons
subjective possibility that the behaviour produces the outcome in question. Ogdem,
Karim, Choudry and Brown (2007) concurred that the intention to perform a behaviour
can be translated into actual behaviour. For example, the intention to use modern
contraceptives, predicts contraceptive use. The intention to exercise correlates with this
behaviour, and the intention to go for cervical or breast screening practices predicts actual
attendance. Therefore, the cognition „I intend to…‟ seems to translate into I did. When a
person intends not to do it, it translates into no performance or no action. On the basis of
this, the Logo widows of reproductive ages‟ attitude to modern family planning methods
were also anchored on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB).
Regarding practice, self-efficacy theory was adopted. The theory holds the belief
that one is able to control one‟s practice of a particular behaviour (Bandura, 1986).
Schwarzer (1992) and Owie (2003) posit that self-efficacy refers to one‟s belief that one
can successfully execute a particular action. Taylor (2003) asserts that people are more
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likely to engage in certain practice when they believe that they are capable of executing
those practices successfully. This suggests that they will have high self-efficacy. Simply
put, self-efficacy could be looked at as self confidence towards action. In analyzing this,
individuals tend to choose activities they will do successfully and they tend to direct more
efforts to activities and behaviours they consider they could achieve successfully. A
person may believe, for example, that he or she can stop particular negative health
practices. This means that the Logo widow of reproductive age who engages in
inconsistent practice of a modern method of family planning can stop such a behaviour
and adopt a consistent and successful practice of modern methods of family planning.
This will then imply that such a widow of reproductive age has high self-efficacy. On the
basis of this, the theory of self-efficacy was the theory of anchor in ascertaining Logo
widows of reproductive ages‟ practice of modern methods of family planning.
In summary, the theory of reasoned action (TRA), the theory of planned
behaviour (TPB), and self-efficacy theories were the theories of anchor for this study.
Empirical Studies on Modern Family Planning Attitude and Practice
Other researches have been conducted on attitude to and practice of modern
family planning. Those related to this study are hereby reviewed and presented. Bauni
and Jarabi (2000) conducted a study on family planning and sexual behaviour in the era
of HIV and AIDS in Nkuru district, Kenya, using 480 women of reproductive age. It was
established from the result of the study that acceptability and use of male condom was
not so wide spread. HIV and STIs were very likely to spread in the study area.
Underwood (2000) in his study on Islamic precepts and family planning in
Jordan, comprising 630 respondents reported that among women of reproductive age
reporting on the acceptability of specific modern methods, 65% said the pill was
acceptable, 70% the IUCD, 16% tubal ligation and 63% injectables. Among women who
were not using a contraceptive method at the time of the survey, only 1% cited difficulty
of obtaining a method or cost as a reason for non-use. It can be inferred from result of the
study that barrier methods of modern family planning were not practised in the study area
even though contraceptive practice was appreciable.
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In a related study, Olenicks (2000) surveyed Filipino women who use a modern
contraceptive. A sample of 560 women was drawn for the study. The result indicated that
a total of 69% of married women had ever practised modern contraception; the pill and
the male condom were the method reported by the largest proportion of woman (36% and
14% respectively). At the time of the survey, 28% of women were using a modern
method. The most widely used methods were female sterilization and the pill (each
mentioned by 10% of women). No other method was relied on by more than 4% of
women.
Furthermore, women with at least some formal education were much more likely
than women with no formal schooling to rely on such methods (21-35% vs 9%). When
family size was considered, contraceptive practice was highest among women with three
children (40%) and lowest among women with none (1%). Overall, 41% of women
practicing contraception discontinued use of their method within 12 months. Among
women not currently practicing contraception, 33% intended to use a method in the next
12 months and 8% planned to use a method later. The pill was the preferred method of
40% of women intending to practice contraception at sometime in the future. Fifty-four
per cent of non-users did not intend to practice modern contraception in the future. It can
be deduced from the result of the study that with time most women would practice
modern contraception in the study area.
Onuzuruike and Uzochukwu (2001) carried out a study on knowledge, attitude
and practice (KAP) among women in a high density low income urban of Enugu, Nigeria,
comprising 334 non-pregnant women of reproductive age as study sample. Results
showed that about 97.6% of the respondents were found literate. Knowledge and
approval of modern family planning was high, 81.7% and 86.2% respectively, but the
practice of family planning was low, as only 20% of the women were on a family
planning method. The commonest methods for ever use and current use were condom,
IUCD and injectables. With the level of literacy, knowledge and approval of modern
family planning seen from the result of the study, the women were most likely to be using
natural methods of family planning.
Yahaya (2002) analyzed women‟s reproductive health situation in Bida, Niger
state, Nigeria. The study comprised 1,200 women sample. The results of the study
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reveled that only 71% of females who were sexually experienced had ever used modern
contraceptives. Result of the study further showed that the use of contraception was not
significantly influenced by age or education of the respondents. The study also found that
women‟s attitude to modern family planning was influenced by their personal and social
characteristics.
Dada (2002) surveyed family planning in Nigeria. The result of the study
indicated that the percentage of women using contraception in Benue state was 15.3%.
There was low contraceptive practice in the state. However, the result of the study did not
reveal the practice of contraception in the Local Government Areas of the state.
Gupta, Katende and Blessing (2003) assessed modern contraceptive use among
women of reproductive age in Uganda, using a sample of 2300 women. The results of the
study should substantial increase over time in the use of modern contraceptives among
women of reproductive age. Twenty per cent (20%) of the woman were currently using a
modern contraceptive. Injectables were, by far, the most popular method choice among
the women followed by male condom ant pills.
Women in their middle reproductive years (ages 20-29 and 30-39) were more
likely to report current contraceptive use then were the older ones (ages 40-49). Formerly
married women were less likely than their married or single counterpart to use
contraceptives because they perceived that they had a relatively low risk of pregnancy
due to less frequent sexual activity or lower fecundity.
Contraceptive use was found to increase with parity. Women with 1-3 children
were more than two and a half times more likely to report contraceptive use than were
their counterparts with no children, whereas those with four or more children were about
four times more likely to do so under lining their motivation for family size limitation.
Not surprisingly, more educated women were more likely than others to use modern
contraceptives. Likewise, the likelihood that a women would be practicing contraception
was more than two and a half times as high for those with at least some primary
schooling and more than four times as high for those with secondary schooling, compared
with that of their uneducated counterparts. It can be inferred from the studie‟s result that
women having more education may better appreciate the health and economic advantages
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of smaller family sizes and be more likely to protect themselves against unplanned
pregnancy, STIs including HIV and AIDS through the use of modern contraceptives.
Chizororo and Natshalaga (2003) conducted a survey on female condom
acceptability and perception among rural woman in Zimbabwe. The study comprised 520
sample of women of reproductive age. The study revealed that ever use of modern
contraceptive methods was reported by 74.8% of respondents. Of the women current
contraceptive users, the pill was the most commonly used (46.4%), followed by the
injectable (27.3%) and the male condom, (17.8%). The study sought to find out if
respondents had ever used condoms before and whether consistently or inconsistently.
About 76% of the women stated that they had ever used the condom prior to the study. Of
these an overwhelming majority (98.1%) used the male condom, 0.8% female condom
and the remaining 1.1% used both. Over half (52.4%) of the women who had used
condom before were inconsistent users.
On whether they liked or disliked the female condom after having used it, an
overwhelming majority (93%), said they liked it. Cross-tabulation showed that there was
no significant difference between condom acceptability and background characteristics of
respondents except for age. Young women aged 20-29 years (47%), liked the condom
more than the older women aged 40 years and above (11%). It can be inferred from the
result of the study that the high percentage of inconsistent condom users was likely to
pose a health risk to such users.
The Philippines National Demographic and Health survey, PNDHS (2004)
released the result of the survey carried out in 2003 on use of modern family planning
among ever married women up in rural areas. The study sample comprised 2800 ever
married women. Findings showed any method 33.4%, female sterilization 10.5%, pill
13.2%, IUCD 4.1%, injectables 3.1%, and male condom 1.9%. The pill remained as the
most commonly used contraceptive method by the Philippine women 14% in 2003.
Contraceptive use was low in the study area.
Giman (2005) conducted a study on knowledge, attitude and practice of modern
family planning among married women of reproductive age in Cambodia using a sample
of 140 married women of reproductive age. The result of the survey revealed that
regardless of socio-economic status, respondents showed positive attitude towards
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modern family panning methods. About 68% of respondents had previously used some
modern contraceptive methods and 56% were using contraception at the time of the
study. Among the current users, the majority were pill users (44.6%) and only 8% were
using male condom as a method of family planning. Implant, intra-uterine contraceptive
device (IUCD) and female sterilization all were used by less than 1.5%. Among all
respondents, 56% were using some methods of modern contraceptives while 44% were
not using any method. Among the non-users, 32% did not intend to use them in the future
either. Twenty-nine per cent (29%) of current users were concerned about using modern
methods to their rumored side effects. However, there is likely no other choice or
methods which do not have side effects. About 8% adopted modern family planning to
avoid a lower standard of living brought about by the cost of child-bearing and difficulty
in looking after many children among others.
It can be inferred from the study‟s findings that women were likely to desire a
small family size in order to stay healthy, with more time to look after their children and
to participate in the work force.
In a similar study, Keele, Forste, and Flake (2005) surveyed contraceptive use in
Matemwe village. The sample for the study was 200 women of reproductive age. The
results of the study indicated that Matomwe women had low rate of contraceptive use;
less than 2% of village women participated in modern family planning. Of al village
women using some form of modern contraception, almost two-thirds used oral
contraceptives. Only about one- third of women participation in family planning in
Matemwe received depoprovera injections. Condom use in Matemwe was very minimal.
The result showed that Matemwe women were using very minimal barrier method of
family planning and were likely to be prone to sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and
Humand minimum-deficiency virus (HIV) infection.
In a survey study conducted by Osei, Birungi, Addico, Askew and Gyapong
(2005) on contraceptive use among married women in Ghana using a sample of 2,500
women of reproductive age, the results of the study showed use of contraceptives in the
following proportion: IUCD, 1.9%, combined pills 22.3%, mini pills2%, male condom
11.1%, female condom 1.2%, injectables 54.7%, foaming tablets 4.1%, female
sterilization 0.2%, and implant 1.0%. The injectable was the most commonly used
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contraceptive method followed by combined pills, male condom, foaming tablets, mini
pills, IUCD, female condom and implant, respectively. These findings generally indicated
low use of modern contraception in Ghana.
Oye-Adeniran et al. (2006) conducted investigation on community based
contraceptive behaviour in Nigeria, using 2001 female respondents. The results
established that of 2001 respondents, only 22.1% had ever used a contraceptive. Among
those who had heard of ways of preventing or avoiding pregnancy, only 32.9% had ever
used a method. Specifically, among those who have known about contraception, 73.7%
in Southeast, 64.2% in Northeast, 58.1% in Northwest and 53.5% in Southwest had never
used or tried any method. Among those who had ever used contraceptives, the most
common method was the pill.
Because of risk of pregnancy among those who were within reproductive age and
were sexually active, contraceptive use was further evaluated among this group. Among
the methods currently used by the group, the most common ones were the IUCD (18.4%),
condoms (18.4%), injectables (13.1%) and the pills (12.3%).
Among those who were using a method but stopped, 54.6% intended to use it
again in future, whereas among those who had never used a method, 42.7% intended to
use it later. There was a significant difference, P<0.05, in the proportion of respondents
intending to resume the use of a modern family planning method and the health zones
they were in. Majority of the respondents in the Northeast, 26.3% and Southwest, 32.5%
had the intention of resuming the use, whereas majority of the respondents, those in
Southeast, 28.9% and Northwest, 32.6% had no intention to resume the use of a method
in future. It can be inferred from the finings of the study that modern contractive use was
low among women of reproductive age who were sexually active. The intention not to
resume the use of modern contraceptives in future was dangerous since the attitude was
likely to increase the spread of STI‟s and HIV in the study area.
In a related study, Sedgh et al. (2006) surveyed unwanted pregnancy and
associated factors among women of reproductive age in Nigeria comprising 3,200
respondents. The result indicated that among women who had ever sought an abortion,
overall, 16% reported that they had been using a modern contraceptive method at the
time the pregnancy was conceived. This proportion generally increased with age, from
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9% among women younger than 20 to 33%, among women aged 40 or above. Women
with a University education were also relatively likely to have used a modern method (19
-22%), suggesting that certain groups were more likely than the others to practice
contraception. Overall, 78% of women who had attempted to terminate an unwanted
pregnancy reported that they had not been practicing contraception when the pregnancy
they last attempted to terminate was conceived. The overall percentage (78%) of women
who attempted to terminate an unwanted pregnancy and had not been practising any
contraception was high. That was very dangerous in a country where unsafe abortion
with its consequences is a serious problem.
In another related study, Kochan, Dorst and Schaalma (2006) surveyed cultural
factors in predicting condom use intentions among female immigrants who were within
reproductive age from the Netherlands using a sample of 280. The result of the study
revealed that the intention to use condom with a new sexual partner in the future was
positive among 66.2% of the respondents, 33.9% was not yet convinced of their intention
to have safe sex. Those women who were not yet convinced of their intention to have
safe sex were probably not using condom and were likely to be regularly exposed to the
risk of pregnancy, STIs and HIV.
Georgis (2006) carried out a survey study on assessment of factors influencing the
utilization of modern contraceptive methods among women of reproductive age group in
Anambra State. A sample of 570 women was drawn for the study. The result of the
study indicated that 27% of users of modern contraception and 21% of non-users were in
the age range of 25- 29 years.
The association between age of a woman and
contraceptive use was found to increase with age until it reaches a peak of 80% at the age
of 30 – 34 and it remains high at the age of 35 – 39 and then decline.
Women in the age range of 25 – 29 years were more likely to practice modern
contraception than the others. This could be reflected by the reality that women at the
older age could feel either approaching menopause hence, no need for using modern
contraception or because of different reasons they may not satisfy their desired child
number.
Among the variables analysed, respondents age showed significant difference in
the practice of modern contraception between young and old women of reproductive age
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(P < 0.05).
The study also found significant difference in the practice of modern
contraception between women with four or less children and those with more than four
children (P < 0.05). The result of the study like some other studies, did not show
statistically significant different in the practice of modern contraceptives based on
educational status. The study further found statistically significant difference between
young and old women of reproductive age regarding some attitude questions about
modern contraceptives. Planned information education communication (IEC) can change
the attitude of other women and widows of reproductive age towards use of modern
contraceptives.
Ayedokun (2007) studied determinants of contraceptive usage; lessons from
women in Osun State, Nigeria, 408 women of reproductive age comprised the sample.
The result of the study showed that 56.2% of the women approved of a modern
contraceptive method, while 30.1% had ever used a modern method in the study area.
More than a quarter reported that male condom is their main method ever used, while the
least reported method was female sterilization (0.8%). On current use, only 7.8% were
currently using a method at the time of the survey and the methods mostly in use were
pill, IUCD/coil, male condom and norplant (18.8%) respectively. Logistic regression
result did not significantly support the hypothesis that number of children ever born will
likely influence the practice of modern contraceptive methods in the study area. It can be
deduced from findings of the study that the women‟s approval of modern contraceptive
methods was not commensurate with the actual use of the methods in the study area.
Almualm (2007) studied knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) towards modern
family planning in Mukalla and Yamen, using a sample of 400 women of reproductive
age. The purpose of the study was to assess the KAP of modern family planning among
the women in the study area. The following results were obtained. Among users, the
male condom was the common method used (54.2%), followed closely by IUCD
(43.4%). Most of the women (89.3%) had positive attitude towards modern family
planning and agreed that modern methods were more effective than traditional methods.
Multiple linear regression analysis for the attitude score revealed a significant
association with education of the women and the number of living children. There were
marked differentials by level of education; the higher the woman‟s education, the more
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likely it was for her to practice modern family planning. Thus demographic factors such
as age, parity, marital status, education and occupation were known to influence family
planning attitude and practice in the study area.
Kaba (2007) studied fertility regulation among women in rural communities
around Jimma, Western Ethiopia, using 360 respondent women in their reproductive age.
The results of the study revealed that the majority (93.8%), believed that “it is God that
decides when to become pregnant and the number of children to bear”. Current users
among married women was found to be only 7.0% of which 65.0% used the pill.
Those women who had some form of education and the younger ones were found
to have used modern family planning methods.
The most common contraceptive
methods claimed to be used by the women were pill (65%), injectables (44%) rhythm
(23.3%) and both injection and the pill (5.3%).
Contraceptive use was found to have strong association with women‟s educational
status (P < 0.00071).
Age did not show strong association with women‟s use of
contraception (P < 0.5980).
From the study, it was generally concluded that
contraceptive use was grossly deficient in the study area. Women of reproductive age in
the study area were likely to be prone to unplanned pregnancies, STI‟s and HIV since no
barrier method was claimed to be used by the women.
Aninyei et al. (2008) carried out a study on Knowledge and attitude to modern
family planning methods in Abraka Communities of Delta State, Nigeria, using a sample
of 657 women of reproductive age. The results of the study showed that 75.3% of those
interviewed were aware of modern family planning but only 42.9% were using it. Those
using male condom constituted 32.6% of the 42.9% figure. Thus, data indicated a fairly
high degree of awareness but little regard for family planning.
Determination of the different family planning methods being used by those
involved showed that 20.7%, 6.3%, 3.4%., 0.5%, 13.9% were using male condoms, pills,
IUCD, tubal ligation and injectables respectively. Majority of those who were aware of
modern family planning methods but were not using any had varied reasons which
included the following: fear of side effects (30.3%), religious prohibition (0.4%), white
man‟s deceit (16.2%), needs female (5.1%) or male (34.3%) children, reduces coital
satisfaction (4.3%) and spouse or boyfriend hates the idea (16.3%).
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It is plausible from results of the study that birth control using modern family
planning is very much minimal among women of reproductive age in the study area. It is
most likely that pregnancy related problem and maternal mortality would be on the
increase in the study area in addition to HIV and sexually transmitted infections which
are public health problems in the country.
Health education programmes targeting
change of cultural and psychosocial beliefs that are inimical to health of women should
be designed involving women in the study area right from the planning and
implementation stages to achieve a positive level of health for women of reproductive
age in the study area.
Akafuah and Kossou (2008) studied attitude towards and use of modern family
planning methods among Dunkwan –on- Offin married woman in Ghana. The study
sample comprised 200 maried women.
The result of the study indicated that the
participants demonstrated a remarkable willingness to use a modern family planning
method in future. Accordingly, the safest family planning devices for most participants
were the condom, pills and injectables for all categories of women.
The result of the study further showed that 96% of the women had some form of
formal education. Clearly, education had a positive role in influencing the use of a
modern family planning method. The findings also revealed that demographic
characteristics of age, parity and education played a major role in influencing women‟s
behaviour concerning the practice of modern family planning methods in Ghana. It can
be inferred from the findings of the study that formal education in Ghana made the
practice of modern family planning less cumbersome and efforts should be made by
health educators in Ghana to sustain the practice.
Mairiga, Kullima, Bako and Kolo (2010) concluded a survey on socio-cultural
factors influencing decision-making related to modern family planning among Kanuri
tribe in Bornu State, Nigeria, using 120 women of reproductive age as sample for the
study. Results showed that few Kanuri women practised modern methods of family
planning. Low patronage of modern contraceptives was as a result of illiteracy and poor
attitude of health workers encountered by some women. The attitude of health workers
need to be modified for family planning to succeed in the study area.
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Choudhary, Gau and Pandy (2011) investigated knowledge, attitude and practice
(KAP) of modern contraceptives among eligible couples of rural Haryana, using a sample
of 250 women of reproductive age. The result of the study revealed 59.2% of the
respondents were practising different contraceptive methods.
Regarding the type of
contraception used, female sterilization was the most common chosen method used by
46.0% women.
Positive attitude to contraception was shown by 79.2% females as compared to
20.8% females who showed negative attitude. Education was therefore considered to
improve the ability of women to practice modern family planning methods. Family
planning services thus need to provide a range of quality methods for family planning
that can allow women to either limit or space birth, and to focus services to the individual
needs of women with different socio-demographic characteristics.
In a related study, Mathe, Kasonia and Maliro (2011) surveyed barriers to
adoption of family planning among women in Eastern Democratice Republic of Congo
using 572 women as study sample. The result of the study showed that 55% of the
respondents were practising modern family planning, 44% had used a form of modern
family planning while 72% intended to use modern family planning in future. However,
in practice, not all the positive intentions can translate into action.
In a similar study Ali, Abodunrin and Adeomi (2011) carried out a study on
contraceptive practices among women in rural communities in Osun State, Nigeria. The
sample for the study was 612 women of reproductive age. The result of the study showed
that most of the respondents strongly agreed with the National policy of four children per
woman (77.6%). Furthermore, they strongly disagreed that contraceptives are ineffective
(61.4%) and that it is only for the illiterates (79.9%). An appreciable number, however,
felt that contraceptive would encourage promiscuity (30.4%) and would diminish sexual
pleasure (26.4%).
Majority of the respondents (66.3%) were currently using a modern contraceptive
method whereas (26.3%) were not using any method. Most of the non-users (86.4%) did
not have any reason for not using any method. No significant association was found
between age, marital status and educational status with ever used modern family planning
methods. The results of the study revealed some psychological and superstitious beliefs
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by some respondents which health education programmes in the study area need to
address.
Gizaw and Regassa (2011) surveyed family planning service utilization in Mojo
town, Ethiopia, using a sample of 551 women of reproductive age. The result of the
survey indicated that approval of family planning was 82.2%. The actual practice of
modern family planning methods was found to be low where only 38.3% were using a
family planning method at the time of the survey. The most common method for both
ever and current users were injectables, pills and male condom. The logistic regression
model showed that the likelihood of family planning service utilization was higher for
those with higher parity, literate and approved use of modern family planning.
A good number of researches have been conducted on attitude to and practice of
modern family planning methods among women of reproductive age in many parts of the
world including Nigeria. However, none of such studies has been conducted in Logo
Local Government Area.
Summary of Literature Review
Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, NDHS (2003) conceived family
planning as the use of modern contraceptives or natural techniques to limit or space
pregnancies. Wikipedia (2008) viewed family planning as a regimen of one or more
actions, devices, or medications followed in order to deliberately prevent or reduce the
likelihood of pregnancy or childbirth. In this study, family planning is conceptualized as
the use of modern contraceptives to prevent or reduce the likelihood of pregnancy or
childbirth. Modern family planning methods refer to contraceptive methods of family
planning other than traditional or natural family planning methods. According to Park
(2007), contraceptive methods are by definition, preventive methods that help the woman
avoid unwanted pregnancies resulting from coitus. Modern family planning methods are
sub-categorized into non-appliance, appliance and surgical methods.
Liverton (1990) defined attitude to modern contraception as the sum total of our
habits and ideas, our likes and dislikes and our practices of choosing and using modern
contraceptive methods. In the context of this study, attitudes are conceptualized as habits,
behaviour, feelings, likes and dislikes of a particular modern family planning method.
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Attitude may either be positive or negative. According to Para (1993), attitudes have the
tendency to determine practices in some cases.
Practice, according to Hornby (2001), is doing something regularly as part of
one‟s normal behviour. Ademuwagun, Ajala, Oke, Moronkola and Jegede (2002) noted
that positive health practices are encouraged to continue and are reinforced while
negative ones are discouraged. Okoye and Okoye (2007) refer to modern family planning
practice as a habitual way of applying modern contraceptives, consistently.
They further observed that practice may be influenced by knowledge and attitude,
although the possession of accurate health knowledge and attitude does not guarantee the
right behaviour, knowing the right thing to do may lead to positive attitude and
appropriate behaviour. Practice as used in this study, means behaviour or habits that are
carried out consistently by widows of reproductive age in relation to modern family
planning. Practice like attitude may be either positive or negative.
A widow of reproductive age is a woman in the age bracket of 15-49 years, whose
husband has died and who has not married again (Igbudu & Okoro,2010). A widow of
reproductive age in the context of the present study is a woman aged between 15 and 49
years whose husband has died and who has not married again or inherited by the late
husband‟s relation.
Some theories have also been reviewed. The theories reviewed are; theory of
reasoned action (TRA) which according to Taylor (2003), states that one‟s attitudes
toward a particular behaviour are influenced by belief, outcome of the behaviour and
ones evaluation of the potential outcome. If widows of reproductive age believe that
practicing contraceptive methods would benefit them, they will certainly practice such
methods. A similar theory reviewed, is the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), which
states that people‟s evaluation of, or attitudes toward behaviour are determined by their
accessible belief about the behaviour, where a belief is defined as a subjective probability
that the behaviour will produce a certain outcome. If a widow of reproductive age
believes that contraception is beneficial and intends to use it, she will certainly use it.
Self-efficacy theory was reviewed with regard to practice. The theory holds the belief that
one is able to control one‟s practice of a particular behaviour (Bandara, 1986). Schwarzer
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(1992) and Owie (2003) posit that self-efficacy refers to one‟s belief that one can
successfully execute a particular action.
Literature was further revealed on demographic factors influencing modern
family planning attitude and practice. Specifically, literature revealed the demographic
factors of age, parity, and level of education. Age, parity and level of education have
been identified as some of the factors that influence attitude to and practice of modern
family planning (Underwood,2000).
Literature was reviewed on studies conducted by various researchers on attitude
and practice of modern family planning among women of reproductive age in different
parts of the World including Nigeria. The results showed either positive or negative
attitude to some contraceptive methods. Regarding practice, more preference was given
to some methods than the others. The practice of modern family planning in Nigeria
particularly was low. These studies have provided baseline data for those areas studied.
However, no such studies have been found related to Logo Local Government in Benue
State. This then provides the existing gap to be filled with the present study which will
help in providing baseline data for what is obtainable in Logo Local Government Area of
Benue State.
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CHAPTER THREE
Methods
This chapter contains the description of the research design, the population for the
study, sample and sampling techniques, instrument for data collection, methods of data
collection and analysis.
Research Design
The cross-sectional survey research design was utilized for the study. This design
permits the investigation of current status of the phenomena from a population in their
natural setting who would supply the required information and to whom the information
is generalizable (Ejifugha, 1999). This design was therefore appropriate because the
condition of the respondents were described as they existed in their natural setting and the
information was collected directly from the respondents. Khosravi, Ahmadi & Servati
(2004) used this research design in a related study when they surveyed the attitude,
knowledge, and practice related to oral hygiene among urban Babolian.
Population for the Study
The population for the study consisted of all the widows of reproductive age in
Logo Local Government Area numbering 2, 296 (Women Affairs Unit Diary, Logo LGA,
2009).
Sample and Sampling Techniques
A sample of 230 widows of reproductive age was drawn for the study. This
sample size was considered adequate based on Nwana‟s (1990) rule of the thumb which
suggests that if a population is a few thousand, 10% of the population will serve.
The sample was drawn following a multistage sampling procedure. At the first
stage, political wards from the autonomous communities that made up Logo LGA were
identified. The second stage entailed the selection of five political wards through random
sampling technique of balloting with replacement. At the third stage, two clusters
(settlements) were selected from each of the selected political wards through balloting
with replacement. This resulted in the selection of one hundred settlement areas used for
the study. The fourth stage entailed the systematic random sampling technique to select
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one hundred households from each of the selected settlements. All the widows of
reproductive age found in the selected households were randomly taken using a ratio of
1:10 until 230 widows of reproductive age which were used for the study was completed.
This is in line with WHO (2000) which stated that when the population is large, there is
no available register for such population and every household can not be visited, the
technique can be utilized. It is pertinent to mention here that the household numbers
assigned by the National Programme on Immunization, NPI (2004) were employed to
conduct the systematic random sampling.
Instrument for Data Collection
The instrument for data collection was the researcher designed questionnaire on
attitude to an practice of modern family planning methods otherwise called APMFPM
questionnaire (See Appendix II). The questionnaire consisted of three sections: A, B and
C. Section A comprised three questions demanding the bio-data of the respondents.
Section B composed of thirty-one attitudinal questions on modern family planning
methods. Sixteen of the attitudinal questions were positive while fifteen were negative.
The respondents were required to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement as
follows: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD); with
assigned values of 4, 3, 2 and 1 for positive items and 1, 2, 3 and 4 for negative items.
Section C consisted of twenty-seven questions inquiring into practice of modern family
planning methods by widows of reproductive age. The respondents were required to
indicate “Yes” or “No” as it applied to them. The items in the questionnaire were
organized to reflect the purpose of the study, research questions and hypothesis.
Validity of the instrument.
The face validity of the research instrument was established by giving the
instrument, specific objectives, research questions and hypotheses of the study to five
experts; three from the Department of Health and Physical Education, and two experts
from the Department of Psychology all of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka for vetting.
Their criticism, advice and suggestions were used in modifying the instrument for data
collection for the purpose of providing a valid questionnaire.
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Reliability of the instrument.
To establish the reliability of the instrument, the split-half method was used. This
method involved a single administration of the instrument (Nworgu, 2006). Therefore,
twenty copies of the questionnaire were administered on twenty widowss of reproductive
age in Uyam political ward from Ukum LGA which settlement areas were not selected
for the study. All the 20 copies of the questionnaire that were distributed were returned.
From this single administration, two sets of scores were obtained by splitting the test into
two equal halves of odd and even numbers. The split-half reliability coefficient was
determined by correlating the scores on the odd items of the instrument against the even
items using Spearman rank order correlation coefficient. The reliability coefficient index
was as follows: Attitudes .85, and practices .87 indicating a substantial reliability of the
instrument for use in the present study. Akuezuilo and Agu (2003) stated that the higher
the value of the reliability coefficient, the more reliable the test is.
Method of Data Collection
The researcher trained ten female research assistants on the content of the
questionnaire, how to locate the sample, administration of the instrument and the method
of collecting the completed questionnaire from the respondents. An assessment was done
after training and the best five were selected and used in the collection of data for the
present study.
In order to gain access to the households in the selected settlements, a letter of
introduction from the head, Department of Health and Physical Education, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka, seeking permission to conduct the research was presented to each head
of households (See Appendix I). This, of course was preceded with a self-introduction by
the researcher and his trained research assistants. All widows of reproductive age found
in the households in the selected settlements were administered with the questionnaire to
fill and requested to return on the spot to ensure maximum return rate. The researcher and
his trained assistants also interpreted the questions where necessary to non-literate
respondents. Altogether, 230 copies of the questionnaire were administered to the
respondents.
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Method of Data Analysis
The data collected was checked for completeness of information. All the 230
copies of questionnaire that were distributed were returned. Two out of the returned
copies were discarded due to incomplete filling out. The remaining 228 copies were
utilized for the data analysis. The information were computer analysed using Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) batch system.
The result was used to answer
research questions and test postulated hypotheses.
The research questions one, two, three, four, five and six concerning attitude of
widows of reproductive age to modern family planning methods were answered using
mean. Where the mean score was equal to or greater than the criterion mean of 2.50, it
was concluded that the widows‟ attitude was positive to the subject matter; where the
mean score was less than the criterion mean value, it was concluded that the widows‟
attitude was negative. Percentage was used to analyse research questions seven, eight,
nine, ten, eleven and twelve concerning the widows‟ practice of modern family planning
methods.
Hypotheses one and two concerning attitude were tested using t-test. Hypothesis
three which also concerned attitude was tested using ANOVA while hypotheses four, five
and six which bothered on practice were tested using Chi-square. All the hypotheses were
tested at .05 level of significance.
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CHAPTER FOUR
Results and Discussions
The chapter presents and discusses the findings of the study on attitude to and
practice of modern family planning methods among widows of reproductive age in Lago
Local Government Area of Benue State. Two hundred and thirty copies of the
questionnaire were distributed to respondents. All the 230 copies were returned. Out of
the 230 copies that were returned, two copies were discarded due to incorrect filling. The
remaining 228 copies were used for the study.
Results
The following results were derived from the data collected and were presented as
shown below
Research question 1.
What is the attitude of widows of reproductive age to other women who practice
modern family planning? Data answering this research question are contained in Table 1.
Table 1
Attitude of Widows of Reproductive age to Other Women who Practice Modern
Family Planning (N= 228)
S/N
Attitude to other women who practice modern
family planning
4
I like women who practice modern family
planning
3.62
5
I am interested in discussing with women
3.11
who practice modern family planning
6
I am scared of women who use modern
2.89
family planning methods
7
Women using modern family planning
2.09
methods are promiscuous.
Overall mean
2.59
x
Data in Table 1 indicate that widows of reproductive age had an overall mean
score (overall x = 2.59 >2.50) which was above the criterion mean. This means that
42
43
widows of reproductive age had positive attitude towards other women who practice
modern family planning.
Research question 2.
What is the attitude of widows of reproductive age to those who provide modern
family planning services? Data answering this research question are contained in Table 2
Table 2
Attitude of Widows of Reproductive age to Those who Provide Modern Family
Planning Services (N=228)
S/N
Attitude to those who provide modern family
planning services
8
I like the way modern family planning
3.05
service providers attend to me at the clinic
9
I am interested in modern family planning
3.04
service providers
10
Service providers are unfriendly
11
Service providers make modern family
planning services expensive by attaching a
2.52
fee
Overall
x
1.98
2.62
Data in Table 2 indicate that widows of reproductive age had an overall mean
score (overall x 2.62) which was above the criterion mean of 2.50. This means that
widows of reproductive age had positive attitude towards those who provide modern
family planning services.
43
44
Research question 3.
What is the attitude of widows of reproductive age to their possible practice of
modern family planning? Data answering this research question are contained in Table 3.
Table 3
Attitude of Widows of Reproductive Age to Their Possible Practice of Modern
Family Planning (N = 228)
S/No
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
Attitude to possible practice of modern family
planning
Attitude to possible practice of pills
I enjoy using pills
Pills are not useful to me
I always have the urge to use pills
Overall mean
Attitude to Possible Practice of on injectables
I like taking injectables
I have no confidence in injectables
I can‟t give up taking injectables
I am afraid of taking injectables
Overall mean
Attitude to Possible Practice of Female condom
I like using female condom
I am afraid of using female condom
I never feel any urge using female condom
Female condom makes sex enjoyable
Overall mean
Attitude to Possible practice of Male Condom
I don‟t like using male condom
I don‟t enjoy sex with male condom
I like using male condom
I feel safe using male condom
Overall mean
Attitude to Possible Practice of IUCD
I like using intra-uterine contraceptive devices
I am afraid of using intra-uterine contraceptive
devices
It is against my principle to use intra-uterine
contraceptive device
I fell comfortable using intra-uterine device
Overall mean
Attitude to possible practice of female sterilization
I am afraid of female sterilization
I have no confidence in female sterilization
I like female sterilization
I can‟t give up using female sterilization
Overall mean
x
2.20
2.76
2.19
2.38
2.43
2.51
2.47
2.50
2.48
2.20
2.78
2.68
2.10
2.44
2.45
2.52
2.56
2.50
2.49
2.11
2.85
2.67
2.13
2.44
2.87
2.70
2.04
2.04
2.44
44
45
Data in Table 3 show that widows of reproductive age had overall mean scores
(overall x 2.38, 2.48, 2.44, 2.49, 2.44 and 2.44) which were less than the criterion mean
of 2.50 in their attitude to possible practice of pills, injectable, female condom, male
condom, intra-uterine contraceptive devices (IUCD) and female sterilization respectively.
This means that widows of reproductive age had negative attitude to their possible
practice of modern family planning.
Research question 4.
What is the attitude of young and old widows of reproductive age to modern
family planning based on their age? Data answering this research question are contained
in Table 4.
45
46
Table 4
Attitude of Young and old Widows of Reproductive age to Modern Family Planning
Methods Based on Their Age (N = 228)
Age
S/No Attitude to modern family planning
Young 15-32
Old 33-49
based on age
yrs (N=108)
yrs (N=120)
x
x
2.34
2.59
2.33
2.42
2.08
2.91
2.06
2.35
2.54
2.48
2.49
2.42
2.48
2.33
2.55
2.46
2.56
2.47
2.21
2.83
2.70
2.12
2.46
2.19
2.75
2.66
2.10
2.42
2.42
2.51
2.56
2.50
2.46
2.47
2.53
2.56
2.50
2.45
2.17
2.81
2.06
2.88
2.68
2.65
2.16
2.46
2.10
2.42
2.87
2.77
1.96
2.04
2.41
2.86
2.63
2.11
2.04
2.41
Attitude to pills
12
13
14
I enjoy using pills
Pills are not useful to me
I always have the urge to use pills
Overall mean
Attitude to injectables
15
16
17
18
I like taking injectables
I have no confidence in injectables
I can‟t give up taking injectables
I am afraid of taking injectables
Overall mean
Attitude to Female condom
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
I like using female condom
I am afraid of using female condom
I never feel any urge using female condom
Female condom makes sex enjoyable
Overall mean
Attitude to Male Condom
I don‟t like using male condom
I don‟t enjoy sex with male condom
I like using male condom
I feel safe using male condom
Overall mean
Attitude to IUCD
I like using intra-uterine contraceptive devices
I am afraid of using intra-uterine contraceptive
devices
It is against my principle to use intra-uterine
contraceptive device
I fell comfortable using intra-uterine device
Overall mean
Attitude regarding female sterilization
I am afraid of female sterilization
I have no confidence in female sterilization
I like female sterilization
I can‟t give up using female sterilization
Overall mean
46
47
Data in Table 4 reveal that young widows had higher overall mean scores in their
attitude to pills than the old widows of reproductive age (young widows x = 2.42 > old
widows x = 2.35) which were less than the criterion mean of 2.50. This means that the
attitude of the old were more negative than the young widows of reproductive age to
pills.
Data in the Table further reveal that young than old widows of reproductive age
had slightly higher overall mean scores in injectables (young widows x = 2.48 > old
widows x = 2.47) less than the criterion mean. This implies that the attitude of old and
young widows of reproductive age to injectables were negative.
The Table also reveals negative overall mean scores in which that of young
widows was higher than that of old widows of reproductive age (young widows x = 2.46
> old widows x = 2.42) in their attitude towards female condom. The Table indicates
that the young had slightly higher overall mean scores than the old widows of
reproductive age in male condom (young widows x 2.4682 > old widows x = 2.45)
which were less than the criterion mean of 2.50. This means that the attitude of both
young and old widows of reproductive age to male condom were negative.
The Table further indicates that young widows had higher overall mean scores
than old widows of reproductive age in intra-uterine contraceptive devices, IUCDs
(young widows x = 2.46 > old widows x = 2.42) which were less than the criterion
mean of 2.50. This again means that both old and young widows of reproductive age had
negative attitude to IUCDs.
Data in Table 4 further reveal that young widows had equal negative overall mean
scores with old widows of reproductive age in surgical method (young widows x = 2.41
> old widows x = 2.41). The means that the attitude of both young and old widows of
reproductive age to surgical method (female sterilization) were negative.
Research question 5.
What is the attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning
methods based on their parity? Data answering this research question are contained in
Table 5.
47
48
Table 5
Attitude of Widows of Reproductive Age to Modern Family Planning Methods Based on
Their Parity (N = 228)
S/No
Attitude to modern family
planning based on parity
Parity
Four or less children
(N=125)
x
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
Attitude to pills
I enjoy using pills
Pills are not useful to me
I always have the urge to use pills
Overall mean
Attitude to injectables
I like taking injectables
I have no confidence in injectables
I can‟t give up taking injectables
I am afraid of taking injectables
Overall mean
Attitude to Female condom
I like using female condom
I am afraid of using female condom
I never feel any urge using female condom
Female condom makes sex enjoyable
Overall mean
Attitude to Male Condom
I don‟t like using male condom
I don‟t enjoy sex with male condom
I like using male condom
I feel safe using male condom
Overall mean
Attitude to IUCD
I like using intra-uterine contraceptive devices
I am afraid of using intra-uterine contraceptive
devices
It is against my principle to use intra-uterine
contraceptive device
I fell comfortable using intra-uterine device
Overall mean
Attitude regarding female sterilization
I am afraid of female sterilization
I have no confidence in female sterilization
I like female sterilization
I can‟t give up using female sterilization
Overall mean
Four or less children
(N=103)
x
2.33
2.68
2.28
2.43
2.04
2.86
2.08
2.33
2.31
2.57
2.40
2.53
2.45
2.58
2.44
2.57
2.45
2.51
2.21
2.81
2.72
2.06
2.45
2.18
2.75
2.64
2.16
2.43
2.44
2.52
2.55
2.52
2.51
2.46
2.53
2.58
2.47
2.51
2.12
2.78
2.10
2.93
2.73
2.59
2.18
2.45
2.07
2.42
2.88
2.76
1.98
2.00
2.40
2.85
2.63
2.11
2.09
2.42
48
49
Data in Table 5 indicate negative overall mean scores in which that of widows of
reproductive age with four or less children was higher than those with more than four
children (four or less children x = 2.43 > more than four children x = 2.33) in their
attitude towards pills.
The Table further shows that widows of reproductive age with more than four
children had positive attitude to injectables with overall mean scores higher than the
criterion mean of 2.50 while widows of reproductive age with four or less children had
negative attitude to injectables with overall mean scores less than the criterion mean
(more than four children x = 2.51 > four or less children x = 2.45). The Table indicates
that widows of reproductive age with four or less children and those with more than four
children had overall mean scores less than 2.50 in their attitude to female condom (four
or less children x = 2.45 > more than four children x = 2.43) which indicate negative
attitude to female condom.
Data in Table 5 further indicate that widows of reproductive age with more than
four children had equal positive overall mean scores than those with four or less children
in their attitude to male condom (more than four children x = 2.51 > four or less children
x = 2.51). This implies that widows of reproductive age with more than four children
and those with four or less children had equal positive attitude to male condom.
The
Table also reveals that widows of reproductive age with four or less children had slightly
negative overall mean scores than those with more than four children in their attitude to
IUCDs (four or less children x = 2.45 > more than four children x = 2.42). The Table
further reveals negative overall mean scores in which that of widows of reproductive age
with four or less children was slightly higher than that of widows of reproductive age
with more than four children in their attitude to surgical method (four or less children x
= 2.42 > more than four children x = 2.40).
Research question 6.
What is the attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning
methods on the basis of their level of education? Data answering this research question
are contained in Table 6.
49
50
Table 6
Attitude of Widows of Reproductive age to Modern Family Planning Methods on
the Basis of Their Level of Education (N = 228)
Level of Education
S/N
Attitude to modern family planning
Non-formal
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
based on level of education
(N=57)
(N=53)
(N=73)
(N=45)
x
x
x
x
1.98
2.94
2.01
2.31
2.32
2.56
2.33
2.40
2.21
2.75
2.17
2.38
2.33
2.77
2.26
2.45
2.28
2.56
2.38
2.50
2.43
2.47
2.49
2.43
2.58
2.49
2.63
2.41
2.53
2.45
2.50
2.26
2.66
2.55
2.46
2.48
2.14
2.92
2.63
2.05
2.43
2.07
2.84
2.83
2.13
2.47
2.21
2.79
2.68
2.08
2.44
2.40
2.53
2.57
2.20
2.42
2.68
2.70
2.31
2.17
2.46
2.58
2.49
2.50
2.52
2.52
2.34
2.47
2.60
2.65
2.52
2.17
2.42
2.88
2.64
2.53
2.17
2.78
2.09
2.79
2.15
2.93
2.02
2.86
2.49
2.77
2.73
2.66
2.19
2.41
2.18
2.46
2.13
2.48
2.00
2.38
2.71
2.54
2.19
2.17
2.40
2.94
2.73
2.00
1.98
2.41
2.93
2.82
1.97
2.01
2.43
2.88
2.66
2.02
2.00
2.39
Attitude to pills
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
I enjoy using pills
Pills are not useful to me
I always have the urge to use pills
Overall mean
Attitude to injectables
I like taking injectables
I have no confidence in injectables
I can‟t give up taking injectables
I am afraid of taking injectables
Overall mean
Attitude to Female condom
I like using female condom
I am afraid of using female condom
I never feel any urge using female condom
Female condom makes sex enjoyable
Overall mean
Attitude to Male Condom
I don‟t like using male condom
I don‟t enjoy sex with male condom
I like using male condom
I feel safe using male condom
Overall mean
Attitude to IUCD
I like using intra-uterine contraceptive devices
I am afraid of using intra-uterine contraceptive
devices
It is against my principle to use intra-uterine
contraceptive device
I fell comfortable using intra-uterine device
Overall mean
Attitude to female sterilization
I am afraid of female sterilization
I have no confidence in female sterilization
I like female sterilization
I can‟t give up using female sterilization
Overall mean
50
51
Data in Table 6 show that widows of reproductive age with tertiary education had
higher negative overall mean scores than those in other levels of education in their
attitude towards pills (tertiary x =2.45 > primary x = 2.40 > secondary x = 2.38 > nonformal x = 2.31 < criterion x = 2.50). The Table further shows that widows of
reproductive age with secondary education had positive attitude towards injectables with
overall mean scores higher than the criterion mean of 2.50 while widow of reproductive
age in other levels of education had negative attitude towards injectables with overall
mean scores less than the criterion mean (secondary x = 2.50 > primary x = 2.49 >
tertiary x = 2.48 > non-formal x = 2.43).
The Table reveals that widows of reproductive age in all levels of education had
overall mean scores less than the criterion mean of 2.50 in their attitude towards female
condom (primary x = 2.47 > secondary x = 2.44 > non- formal x = 2.43 > tertiary x =
2.42) which indicate their negative attitude towards female condom. The Table further
reveals that widows of reproductive age with tertiary, secondary and primary education
had higher overall mean scores than the criterion mean of 2.50 in their attitude towards
male condom while those with non-formal education had overall mean scores less than
the criterion mean in their attitude to male condom (tertiary x = 2.53 > primary x = 2.52
> secondary x = 2.52 > non-formal x = 2.46). This means that widows of reproductive
age with tertiary, secondary and primary education had positive attitude towards male
condom while those with non-formal education had negative attitude towards male
condom.
The Table indicates that widows of reproductive age in all levels of education had
overall mean scores less than the criterion mean of 2.50 in their attitude towards IUCDs
(secondary x = 2.48 > primary x = 2.46 > non-formal x = 2.41 > tertiary x = 2.38)
which indicate their negative attitude towards intra-uterine devices (IUDs). The Table
again indicates that widows of reproductive age in all levels of education had overall
mean scores less than the criterion mean in their attitude towards surgical method of
modern family planning (secondary x = 2.43 > primary x = 2.41 > non-formal x = 2.40
> tertiary x = 2.39) which reveals their negative attitude towards surgical method.
51
52
Research question 7.
What are widows of reproductive ages‟ practice of non-appliance methods of modern family planning? Data answering this research question are contained in Table 7.
Table 7
Practice of Non-appliance Methods by Widows of Reproductive Age According to Age, Parity and Level of Education (N = 228)
Age
Parity
15-32yrs
(N= 12)
Yes
S/N
Practice
appliance
(pills)
nonmethods
35
Do you use pills?
36
Do you use
package pill?
37
Do you use
package pills?
38
39
No
Yes
Four or less children
(N=125)
No
Yes
More than four children
(N=103)
No
Yes
Non-formal
(N=57)
No
Yes
Primary
(N=53)
No
Yes
Secondary
(N=73)
No
Yes
Tertiary
(N= 45)
No
Yes
No
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
41
18.0
67
29.4
25
11.0
95
41.7
45
19.7
80
35.1
21
9.2
82
36.0
7
3.1
50
21.9
21
9.2
32
14.0
20
8.8
53
23.2
18
7.9
27
11.8
21-day
21
9.2
87
38.2
11
4.8
109
47.8
17
7.5
108
47.4
15
6.6
88
38.6
4
1.8
53
23.2
11
4.8
42
18.4
8
3.5
65
28.5
9
3.9
36
15.8
28-day
21
9.2
87
38.2
12
5.3
108
47.4
28
12.3
97
42.5
5
2.2
98
43.0
4
1.8
53
23.2
10
4.4
43
18.9
11
4.8
62
27.2
8
3.5
37
16.2
Do you use pills daily?
36
15.8
72
31.6
22
9.6
98
43.0
40
17.5
85
37.3
18
7.9
85
37.3
6
2.6
51
22.4
16
7.0
37
16.2
19
8.3
54
23.7
17
7.5
28
12.3
Do you start taking your
first package of the pill
the
day
your
menstruation begins?
18
7.9
90
39.5
13
5.7
107
46.9
19
8.3
106
46.5
12
5.3
91
39.9
5
2.2
52
22.8
13
5.7
40
17.5
6
2.6
67
29.4
7
3.1
38
16.7
Overall %
of
33-49yrs
(N=120)
Education Level
38
62
29
71
36
64
20
80
12
88
40
60
27
73
40
52
60
53
Data in Table 7 indicate a higher percentage of practice of non-appliance
method (pills) among the young than the old widows of reproductive age (young =
38%> old = 29%). The Table again shows higher percentage of practice of pills
among widows of reproductive age with four or less children than those with more
than four children (four or less children = 36%> more than four children 20%). The
Table further indicates higher percentage for practice of pills among widows of
reproductive age with tertiary and primary education than those in other levels of
education (tertiary = 40%> primary = 40%> secondary = 27%> non-formal education
= 12%).
53
54
Research question 8.
What is widows of reproductive age’s practice of appliance method of modern family planning? Data answering this research question are contained in Table 8 and 9.
Table 8
Practice of Appliance Method of Modern Family Planning by Widows of Reproductive Age According to Age, Parity and Level of Education (N = 228)
Parity
Age
Yes
S/N
Practice of Appliance
Methods
15-32yrs
(N= 108)
No
Four or less children
(N=125)
33-49yrs
(N=120)
No
Yes
Yes
Education Level
More than four children
(N=103)
No
Yes
Non-formal
(N=57)
No
Yes
Primary
(N=53)
No
Yes
Secondary
(N=73)
No
Yes
Tertiary
(N= 45)
No
Yes
No
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
F
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
Injecatables
40
Do you take injectables?
51
22.4
57
25.0
47
20.6
73
32.0
43
18.9
82
36.0
55
24.1
48
21.1
21
9.2
36
15.8
20
8.8
33
14.5
41
18.0
32
14.0
16
7.0
29
12.7
41
Do you take injectables
every two months?
30
13.2
78
34.2
24
10.5
96
42.1
21
9.2
104
45.6
33
14.5
70
30.7
12
5.3
45
19.7
12
5.3
41
18.0
20
8.8
53
23.2
10
4.4
35
15.4
42
Do you take injectables
every three months?
Do you combine injectables
with male condom?
Overall
24
10.5
84
36.8
27
11.8
93
40.8
23
10.1
102
44.7
28
12.3
75
32.9
10
4.4
47
20.6
10
4.4
43
18.9
23
10.1
50
21.9
8
3.5
37
16.2
26
11.4
82
36.0
29
12.7
91
39.9
27
11.8
98
43.01
28
12.3
75
32.9
8
3.5
49
21.5
5
2.2
48
21.1
29
12.7
44
19.3
13
5.7
32
14.0
43
47
53
39
61
34
66
53
47
37
63
38
62
56
44
36
64
Female condom
44
45
46
47
48
Do you use female condom
during sex?
Do you use female condom
whenever you have sex?
Do you combine female
condom with pills?
Do you use a female condom
more than once during sex?
Do you discard used female
condom into the latrine?
Overall %
11
4.8
97
42.5
9
3.9
111
87.7
11
4.8
114
50
9
3.9
94
41.2
1
.4
56
24.6
3
1.3
50
21.9
10
4.4
63
27.6
6
2.6
39
17.1
7
3.1
101
44.3
3
1.3
117
51.3
8
3.5
117
51.3
2
.9
101
44.3
0
.0
57
25.0
1
.4
52
22.8
6
2.6
67
29.4
3
1.3
42
18.4
10
4.4
98
43.0
1
.4
119
52.2
9
3.9
116
50.9
2
.9
101
44.3
2
.9
55
24.1
2
.9
51
22.4
5
2.2
68
29.8
2
.9
43
18.9
10
4.4
98
43.0
11
4.8
109
47.8
14
6.1
111
48.7
7
3.1
96
42.1
4
1.8
53
23.2
2
.9
51
22.4
8
3.5
65
28.5
7
3.1
38
16.7
22
9.6
86
37.7
24
10.5
96
42.1
27
11.8
98
43.0
19
8.3
84
36.8
6
2.6
51
22.4
7
3.1
46
20.2
21
9.2
52
22.8
12
5.3
33
14.5
10
90
7
93
9
91
9
81
2
98
6
94
14
86
13
87
54
55
Data in Table 8 show that higher percentage of young than old widows of
reproductive age practised injectables (young widows= 47% > old widows 39%).
Higher percentage of young than old widows of reproductive age practised female
condom (young widows = 10% > old widows = 7%).
The Table further shows that higher percentage of widows of reproductive age
with more than four children than
those with four or less children practised
injectables (more than four children53% > four or less children = 34%). The Table
indicates equal percentage in the practice of female condom by widows of
reproductive age with four or less children and those with more than four children
(four or less children = 9% > more than four children = 9%).
The Table further indicates that widows of reproductive age with secondary
education had higher percentage than the others in practising injectable (secondary =
56% > primary = 38% > non-formal = 37% > tertiary = 36%). Widows of
reproductive age with secondary education had higher percentage than those in the
other levels of education in the practice of female condom (secondary = 14% >
tertiary = 13% > primary = 6% non-formal education = 2%).
55
56
Table 9
Practice of Appliance Method of Family Planning by Windows of Reproductive Age According to Age, Parity and Level of Education
Age
Parity
Education Level
15-32yrs
(N= 108)
Yes
S/N
f
%
57
25.0
51
33-49yrs
(N=120)
No
f
Yes
Four or less children
(N=125)
Yes
No
No
More than four children
(N=103)
Yes
Non-formal
(N=57)
Yes
No
No
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
F
%
f
%
51
22.4
65
28.5
55
24.1
65
28.5
60
26.3
57
25.0
46
20.2
17
22.4
57
25.0
53
23.2
67
29.4
58
25.4
67
29.4
46
20.2
57
25.0
8
3.5
100
43.9
11
4.8
109
47.8
11
4.8
114
50.0
8
3.5
95
34
14.9
74
32.5
24
10.5
96
42.1
29
12.7
96
42.1
29
12.7
51
22.4
57
25.0
47
20.6
73
32.0
56
24.6
69
30.3
42
18.4
No
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
7.5
40
17.5
21
9.2
32
14.0
52
22.8
2
13
5.7
44
19.3
18
7.9
35
15.4
45
19.7
2
41.7
5
2.2
52
22.8
1
.4
52
22.8
6
2.6
6
74
32.5
8
3.5
49
21.5
13
5.7
40
17.5
25
11.0
4
61
26.8
14
6.1
43
18.9
17
7.5
36
15.8
42
18.4
3
%
%
Yes
Seconda
(N=73
Yes
f
f
f
Primary
(N=53)
Practice of
Appliance Methods
Male condom
49
50
51
52
53
Do you use male condom
during sex?
Do you use male condom
whenever you have sex?
Do you use a male condom
more than once during
sex?
Do you combine male
condom with pills?
Do you discard used male
condom into the latrine?
Overall %
53
47
54
46
52
48
55
45
30
70
40
60
71
IUCD
54
Do you use IUCD?
7
3.1
101
44.3
10
4.4
110
48.2
9
3.9
116
50.9
8
3.5
95
41.7
3
1.3
54
23.7
7
3.1
46
20.2
2
.9
7
55
Do you check whether
IUCD is in place during
sex?
Do you check whether
IUCD is in place during
urination?
Do you check whether
IUCD is in place during
menstruation?
Do you combine IUCD
with make condom?
Overall %
7
3.1
101
44.3
8
3.5
112
49.1
8
3.5
117
51.3
7
3.1
96
42.1
2
.9
55
24.1
7
3.1
46
20.2
1
.4
7
7
3.1
101
44.3
14
6.1
106
46.5
10
4.4
115
504
11
4.8
92
40.4
6
2.6
51
22.4
7
3.1
46
20.2
2
.9
7
18
7.9
90
39.5
20
8.8
100
43.9
18
7.9
107
46.9
20
8.8
83
36.4
6.
2.6
51
22.4
9
3.9
44
19.3
12
5.3
6
10
4.4
98
43.0
9
3.9
111
48.7
8
3.5
117
51.3
11
4.8
92
40.4
1
.4
56
24.6
5
2.2
48
21.1
9
3.9
6
56
57
58
6
94
8
92
7
93
8
92
5
95
13
87
56
3
57
Data in Table 9 indicate that slightly higher percentage of the old than the young
widows of reproductive age practised male condom (old widows = 45% > young
widows = 53%). Slightly higher percentage of the old than the young widows of
reproductive age practised IUCDs (old widows = 8% > young widows = 6%).
The Table further indicates that higher percentage of widows of reproductive
age with more than four children than those with four or less children practised male
condom (more than four children = 55% > four or less children = 52%). Slightly
higher percentage of windows of reproductive age with more than four children than
those with four or less children practised IUCDs (More than four children = 8% >
four or less children = 7%).
The Table again shows that widows of reproductive age with primary
education had higher percentage than those with non-formal education in practising
male condom (Primary = 40% > non-formal = 30% whereas widows of reproductive
age with secondary education had equal higher percentage with those with tertiary
education in practising male condom (secondary = 71% ≥ tertiary =71%). Widows of
reproductive age with primary education had higher percentage than the others in
practising IUCDs (primary = 13% > tertiary = 11% > non-formal = 5% > secondary =
3%).
57
58
Research question 9.
What are widows of reproductive age’s practice of surgical method of modern family planning? Data answering this research question are contained in Table 10.
Table 10
Practice of Surgical Method of Modern Family Planning by Widows of Reproductive Age According to Age, Parity and Level of Education (N = 228)
Age
Parity
Education Level
15-32yrs
(N= 108)
Yes
33-49yrs
(N=120)
No
Yes
No
Four or less children
(N=125)
Yes
No
More than four children
(N=103)
Yes
Non-formal
(N=57)
Yes
No
No
Primary
(N=53)
Yes
Secondary
(N=73)
Yes
No
No
Tertiary
(N= 45)
Yes
No
S/N
Practice of surgical method
(female sterilization)
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
% f
%
f
% f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
59
Have you undergone any
surgical
operation
for
preventing
yourself
from
getting pregnant any longer?
Do you use male condom even
after the surgical operation?
Do you use female condom even
after the surgical operation?
Overall %
3
1.3
105
46.1
14
6.1
106
46.5
4
1.8
121
53.1
13
5.7
90
39.5
9
3.9
48
21.1
1
.4
52
22.8
2
.9
71
31.1
5
2.2
40
17.5
14
6.1
94
41.2
14
6.1
106
46.5
11
4.8
114
50.0
17
7.5
86
37.7
7
3.1
50
21.9
2
.9
51
22.4
10
4.4
63
27.6
9
3.9
36
15.8
6
2.6
102
44.7
4
1.8
116
50.9
5
2.2
120
52.6
5
2.2
98
43.0
1
.4
56
24.6
1
.4
52
22.8
2
.9
71
31.1
6
2.6
39
17.1
60
61
3
97
12
88
3
97
13
87
16
84
2
98
3
97
11
89
58
59
Data in Table 10 show higher percentage of practice of surgical method by the
old than the young widows of reproductive age (old widows = 12%> young widows =
3%). The Table further revels higher percentage of practice of surgical method of
modern family planning by widows of reproductive age with more than four children
than those with four or less children (more than four children = 13%> four or less
children = 3%); while widows of reproductive age with non-formal education had
higher percentage than the others in practising surgical method (non-formal = 16%>
tertiary = 11%> secondary = 3%> primary = 2%).
Research questions 10.
What is the practice of modern family planning among the young and old
widows of reproductive age based on their age? Data answering this research question
are contained in Table 11.
59
60
Table 11
Practice of Modern Family Planning Among the Young and Old Widows of
Reproductive Age, Based on Their Age (N= 228)
Age
S/N
Practice of modern family planning based on age
Pills
f
35
36
37
38
39
Do you use pills?
Do you use 21-day package pill?
Do you use 28-day package pills?
Do you use pills daily?
Do you start taking your first package of the pill the day
your menstruation begins?
Overall
Injectables
Do you take injectables?
Do you take injectables every two months?
Do you take injectables every three months?
Do you combine injectables with male condom?
Overall %
Female condom
Do you use female condom during sex?
Do you use female condom whenever you have sex?
Do you combine female condom with pills?
Do you use a female condom more than once during sex?
Do you discard used female condom into the latrine?
Overall %
Male condom
Do you use male condom during sex?
Do you use male condom whenever you have sex?
Do you use a male condom more than once during sex?
Do you combine male condom with pills?
Do you discard used male condom into the latrine?
Overall %
IUCD
Do you use IUCD?
Do you check whether IUCD is in place during sex?
Do you check whether IUCD is in place during urination?
Do you check whether IUCD is in place during
menstruation?
Do you combine IUCD with make condom?
Overall %
Female sterilization
Have you undergone any surgical operation for preventing
yourself from getting pregnant any longer?
Do you use male condom even after the surgical
operation?
Do you use female condom even after the surgical
operation?
Overall %
41
21
21
36
18
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
Young 15-32yrs
(N= 108)
Yes
No
%
f
%
18.0
9.2
9.2
15.8
7.9
67
87
87
72
90
38
29.4
38.2
38.2
31.6
39.5
F
25
11
12
22
13
62
Old 33-49yrs
(N=120)
Yes
No
%
f
%
11.0
4.8
5.3
9.6
5.7
95
109
108
98
107
29
41.7
47.8
47.4
43.0
46.9
71
51
30
24
26
22.4
13.2
10.5
11.4
47
57
78
84
82
25.0
34.2
36.8
36.0
53
47
24
27
29
20.6
10.5
11.8
12.7
39
73
96
93
91
32.0
42.1
40.8
39.9
61
11
7
10
10
22
4.8
3.1
4.4
4.4
9.6
10
97
101
98
98
86
42.5
44.3
43.0
43.0
37.7
90
9
3
1
11
24
3.9
1.3
4
4.8
10.5
7
111
117
119
109
96
48.7
51.3
52.2
47.8
42.1
93
57
51
8
34
51
25.0
22.4
3.5
14.9
22.4
53
51
57
100
74
57
22.4
25.0
43.9
32.5
25.0
47
65
53
11
24
47
28.5
23.2
4.8
10.5
20.6
54
55
67
109
96
73
24.1
29.4
47.8
42.1
32.0
46
7
7
7
18
3.1
3.1
3.1
7.9
101
101
101
90
44.3
44.3
44.3
39.5
10
8
14
20
4.4
3.5
6.1
8.8
110
112
106
100
48.2
49.1
46.5
43.9
10
4.4
6
98
43.0
94
9
3.9
8
111
48.7
92
3
1.3
105
46.1
14
6.1
106
46.5
14
6.1
94
41.2
14
6.1
106
46.5
6
2.6
102
44.7
4
1.8
116
50.9
3
97
12
Data in Table 11 revealed that young widows of reproductive age had higher
percentage than the old ones in practising pills (young widows = 38% > old widows =
29%). The Table further reveals that young widows of reproductive age had higher
60
88
61
percentage than the old widows in practising injectables (young widows = 47% >
widows = 39%). The Table also shows higher percentage in practice of female
condom by the young than the old widows of reproductive age (young widows = 10%
> old widows = 7%). The Table further shows that old widows of reproductive age
had slightly higher percentage than the young in practising male condom (old widows
= 54% > young widows = 53%).
The Table indicates that old widows of reproductive age had higher
percentage than the young in practising IUCDs (old widows = 8%> young widows =
6%). The Table further indicates that majority of the old had higher percentage than
the young widows of reproductive age in practising surgical method of modern family
planning (old widows = 12% > young widows = 3%).
Research question 11.
What is the widows of reproductive ages practice of modern family planning
based on their parity? Data answering this research question are contained in Table 12
61
62
Table 12
Practice of Modern Family Planning by Widows of Reproductive Age According
to Their Parity (N = 228)
Parity
Four or less children
(N= 125)
Yes
S/N
Practice of modern family planning based on parity
More than children
(N=103)
No
Yes
No
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
45
19.7
80
35.1
21
9.2
82
36.0
17
7.5
108
47.4
15
6.6
88
38.6
28
12.3
97
42.5
5
2.2
98
43.0
40
17.5
85
37.3
18
7.9
85
37.3
19
8.3
106
46.5
12
5.3
91
39.9
Pills
35
36
37
38
39
Do you use pills?
Do you use 21-day package pill?
Do you use 28-day package pills?
Do you use pills daily?
Do you start taking your first package of the pill the day your
menstruation begins?
36
Overall %
64
20
80
Injectables
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
Do you take injectables?
Do you take injectables every two months?
Do you take injectables every three months?
Do you combine injectables with male condom?
Overall %
Female condom
Do you use female condom during sex?
Do you use female condom whenever you have sex?
Do you combine female condom with pills?
Do you use a female condom more than once during sex?
Do you discard used female condom into the latrine?
43
18.9
82
36.0
55
24.1
48
21.1
21
9.2
104
45.6
33
14.5
70
30.7
23
10.1
102
44.7
28
12.3
75
32.9
27
11.8
98
43.0
28
12.3
75
32.9
34
66
53
47
11
4.8
114
50.0
9
3.9
94
41.2
8
3.5
117
51.3
2
.9
101
44.3
9
3.9
116
50.9
2
.9
101
44.3
14
6.1
111
48.7
7
3.1
96
42.1
27
11.8
98
43.0
19
8.3
84
36.8
9
Overall %
Male condom
91
9
91
49
Do you use male condom during sex?
65
28.5
60
26.3
57
25.0
46
20.2
50
Do you use male condom whenever you have sex?
58
25.4
67
29.4
46
20.2
57
25.0
51
Do you use a male condom more than once during sex?
11
4.8
114
50.0
8
3.5
95
41.7
52
Do you combine male condom with pills?
29
12.7
96
42.1
29
12.7
74
32.5
53
Do you discard used male condom into the latrine?
56
24.6
69
30.3
42
18.4
60
26.8
52
Overall %
54
55
56
57
58
IUCD
Do you use IUCD?
Do you check whether IUCD is in place during sex?
Do you check whether IUCD is in place during urination?
Do you check whether IUCD is in place during menstruation?
Do you combine IUCD with make condom?
60
61
Female sterilization
Have you undergone any surgical operation for preventing yourself from
getting pregnant any longer?
Do you use male condom even after the surgical operation?
Do you use female condom even after the surgical operation?
Overall %
55
45
9
3.9
116
50.9
8
3.5
95
41.7
8
3.5
117
51.3
7
3.1
96
42.1
10
4.4
115
50.4
11
4.8
92
40.4
18
7.9
107
46.9
20
8.8
83
36.4
8
3.5
117
51.3
11
4.8
92
40.4
7
Overall %
59
48
93
8
92
4
1.8
121
53.1
13
5.7
90
39.5
11
4.8
114
50.0
17
7.5
86
37.7
5
2.2
120
52.6
5
2.2
98
43.0
3
97
13
62
87
63
Data in Table 12 show that widows of reproductive age with four or less
children had higher percentage than those with more than four children in practising
pills (four or less children = 36% > more than four children = 20%). The Table again
shows that the majority of widows of reproductive age with more than four children
had higher percentage than those with four or less children in practising injectables
(more than four children = 53% > four or less children = 34%). The Table indicates
that widows of reproductive age with four or less children and those with more than
four children had equal percentage in practising female condom (four or less children
= 9% > more than four children = 9%). The Table further indicates that majority of
widows of reproductive age with more than four children had higher percentage than
those with four or less children in practising male condom (more than four children =
55% > four or less children = 52%). The Table reveals that widows of reproductive
age with more than four children had slightly higher percentage than those with four
or less children in practising IUCDs (more than four children = 8% > four or less
children = 7%). The Table further reveals that widows of reproductive age with more
than four children had higher percentage than those with four or less children in
practising surgical method of modern family planning (more than four children = 13%
> four or less children = 3%).
63
64
Research question 12.
What is the widows of reproductive age‟s practice of modern family planning according to their level of education? Data
answering this research question are contained in Tables 13 and 14.
Table 13
Practice of Modern Family Planning by Widows of Reproductive Age, According to Their Level of Education (N= 228)
Level of Education
Non-formal
(N= 57)
Yes
S/N
35
36
37
38
39
Practice Based on Level of Education
Pills
Do you use pills?
Do you use 21-day package pill?
Do you use 28-day package pills?
Do you use pills daily?
Do you start taking your first package of the pill the day your
menstruation begins?
Non-formal
(N= 57)
No
Yes
Non-formal
(N= 57)
No
Yes
Non-formal
(N= 57)
No
Yes
No
F
%
F
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
7
3.1
50
21.9
21
9.2
32
14.0
20
8.8
53
23.2
18
7.9
27
11.8
4
1.8
53
23.2
11
4.8
42
18.4
8
3.5
65
28.5
9
3.9
36
15.8
4
1.8
53
23.2
10
4.4
43
18.9
11
4.8
62
27.2
8
3.5
37
16.2
6
2.6
51
22.4
16
7.0
37
16.2
19
8.3
54
23.7
17
7.5
28
12.3
5
2.2
52
22.8
13
5.7
40
17.5
6
2.6
67
29.4
7
3.1
38
16.7
12
Overall %
88
40
60
27
73
60
27
Injectables
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
Do you take injectables?
Do you take injectables every two months?
Do you take injectables every three months?
Do you combine injectables with male condom?
Overall %
Female condom
Do you use female condom during sex?
Do you use female condom whenever you have sex?
Do you combine female condom with pills?
Do you use a female condom more than once during sex?
Do you discard used female condom into the latrine?
Overall %
21
9.2
36
15.8
20
8.8
33
14.5
41
18.0
32
14.0
16
7.0
29
12.7
12
5.3
45
19.7
12
5.3
41
18.0
20
8.8
53
23.2
10
4.4
35
15.4
10
4.4
47
20.6
10
4.4
43
18.9
23
10.1
50
21.9
8
3.5
37
16.2
8
3.5
49
21.5
5
2.2
48
21.1
29
12.7
44
19.3
13
5.7
32
14.0
37
63
38
62
56
44
36
64
1
.4
56
24.6
3
1.3
50
21.9
10
4.4
63
27.6
6
2.6
39
17.1
0
.0
57
25.0
1
.4
52
22.8
6
2.6
67
29.4
3
1.3
42
18.4
2
.9
55
24.1
2
.9
51
22.4
5
2.2
68
29.8
2
.9
43
18.9
4
1.8
53
23.2
2
.9
51
22.4
8
3.5
65
28.5
7
3.1
38
16.7
6
2.6
51
22.4
7
3.1
46
20.2
21
9.2
52
22.8
12
5.3
33
14.5
2
98
6
94
14
86
13
87
64
65
Data in Table 13 indicate that widows of reproductive age with tertiary education
had higher percentage than the others in practising pills (tertiary = 60% > primary = 40%
> secondary = 27% > non-formal = 12%). The Table further indicates that widows of
reproductive age with secondary education had higher percentage than the others in
practising injectables (secondary = 56% > primary = 38% > non-formal = 37% > tertiary
= 36%). The Table again shows that widows of reproductive age with secondary
education had higher percentage than the others in practising female condom (secondary
= 14% > tertiary = 13% > primary = 6% > non-formal = 2%).
65
66
Table 14
Practice of Modern Family Planning by Widows of Reproductive Age, According to Their Level of Education (N= 228
Level of Education
Non-formal
Non-formal
(N=(N
57)= 57)
No
Yes
S/N
Practice Based on Level of Education
f %
Secondary
Primary
(N = 73)
(N = 53)
Primary
(N=53)
f
%
Yes
Tertiary
Secondary
(N=
45)
(N =73)
No
f
%
f
%
Yes
Tertiary
(N = 45)
No
Yes
f
%
f
%
f
%
No
f
%
Male condom
49
50
51
52
53
Do you use male condom during sex?
Do you use male condom whenever you have sex?
Do you use a male condom more than once during sex?
Do you combine male condom with pills?
Do you discard used male condom into the latrine?
17
13
5
8
14
7.5
5.7
2.2
3.5
6.1
30
40
44
52
49
43
17.5
19.3
22.8
21.5
18.9
70
21
18
1
13
17
9.2
7.9
.4
5.7
7.5
40
32
35
52
40
36
14.0
15.4
22.8
17.5
15.8
60
52
45
6
25
42
22.8
19.7
2.6
11.0
18.4
71
21
28
67
48
31
9.2
12.3
29.4
21.1
13.6
29
32
28
7
12
25
14.0
12.3
3.1
5.3
11.0
71
13
17
38
33
20
5.7
7.5
16.7
14.5
8.8
29
3
2
6
6
1
1.3
.9
2.6
2.6
.4
5
54
55
51
51
56
23.7
24.1
22.4
22.4
24.6
95
7
7
7
9
5
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.9
2.2
13
46
46
46
44
48
20.2
20.2
20.2
19.3
21.1
87
2
1
2
12
9
.9
.4
.9
5.3
3.9
3
71
72
71
61
64
31.1
31.6
31.1
26.8
28.1
97
5
5
6
11
4
2.2
2.2
2.6
4.8
1.8
11
40
40
39
34
41
17.5
17.5
17.1
14.9
18.0
89
9
3.9
48
21.1
1
.4
52
22.8
2
.9
71
31.1
5
2.2
40
17.5
7
1
3.1
.4
16
50
56
21.9
24.6
84
2
1
.9
.4
2
51
52
22.4
22.8
98
10
2
4.4
.9
3
63
71
27.6
31.1
97
9
6
3.9
2.6
11
36
39
15.8
17.1
89
Overall %
54
55
56
57
58
IUCD
Do you use IUCD?
Do you check whether IUCD is in place during sex?
Do you check whether IUCD is in place during urination?
Do you check whether IUCD is in place during menstruation?
Do you combine IUCD with make condom?
Overall %
59
60
61
Female sterilization
Have you undergone any surgical operation for preventing yourself from
getting pregnant any longer?
Do you use male condom even after the surgical operation?
Do you use female condom even after the surgical operation?
Overall %
66
67
Data in Table 14 reveal that widows of reproductive age with primary education
had higher percentage than those with non-formal education in practising male condom
(primary =40% > non-formal = 30%) whereas widows of reproductive age with
secondary education had equal higher percentage with those who had tertiary education
(secondary = 71% > tertiary = 71%) in practice of male condom.
The
Table
further
reveals that widows of reproductive age with primary education had higher percentage
than the others in practising IUCDs (primary = 13% > tertiary = 11% > non- formal = 5%
> secondary = 3%). The Table shows that widows of reproductive age with non- formal
education had higher percentage than the others in practising surgical method (nonformal = 16% > tertiary = 11% > secondary = 3% > primary = 2%).
68
Hypothesis 1.
There is no significant difference between the attitude of young and old widows
of reproductive age towards modern family planning methods. Data testing this
hypothesis are contained in Table 15.
Table 15
Results of T-test Analysis Testing Attitudes of Young and old widows of
Reproductive Age to Modern Family Planning Methods.
S/N
Attitude
Age
n
1.
Pills
2.
Injectable
3.
Female condom
4.
Male condom
5.
IUCDs
6.
Surgical
15-32 yrs
33-49 yrs
15-32 yrs
33-49 yrs
15-32 yrs
33-49 yrs
15-32 yrs
33-49yrs
15-32 yrs
33-49yrs
15-32 yrs
33-49yrs
108
120
108
120
108
120
108
120
108
120
108
120
x
t-cal
df
t-tab
P
Decision
2.42
2.35
2.45
2.42
2.44
2.39
2.46
2.45
2.44
2.39
2.44
2.39
. 22
12
2.17
.05
Accepted
-.22
12
2.17
.05
Accepted
.30
12
2.17
.05
Accepted
.15
12
2.17
.05
Accepted
.26
12
2.17
.05
Accepted
.26
12
2.17
.05
Accepted
Data in Table 15 reveals that t-cal values for the methods of modern family
planning were: pills (t-cal = .22 < 2.17) injectables (t-cal = -.22 < 2.17), female condom
(t-cal = .30 < 2.17) male condom (t-cal = .15 < 2.17), IUCDs (t- cal = .26 < 2.17) and
surgical (t-cal = .26 < 2.17) less than the Table t-value of 2.17 at 12 degree of freedom at
.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no significant difference in the attitude of
young and old widows of reproductive age to modern family planning methods based on
age was accepted. This means that there is no difference in the attitude of young and old
widows of reproductive age to modern family planning methods.
68
69
Hypothesis 2.
There is no significant difference in the attitude of widows of reproductive age to
modern family planning methods according to parity status. Data testing this hypothesis
are contained in Table 16.
Table 16
Results of T-test Analysis Testing Parity Differentials in Attitude of Widows of
Reproductive Age to Modern Family Planning Methods
S/N
Attitude
1.
Pills
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Parity
Four or less children
More than four children
Injectables Four or less children
More than four children
Female
Four or less children
condom
More than four children
Male
Four or less children
condom
More than four children
IUCDs
Four or less children
More than four children
Surgical
Four or less children
More than four children
Decision
n
x
t-cal
df
t-tab
P
125
103
125
103
125
103
125
103
125
103
125
103
2.43
2.33
2.45
2.51
2.45
2.43
2.51
2.51
2.45
2.42
2.42
2.40
.33
6
2.44
.05
-.82
6
2.44
.05
.07
6
2.44
.05
Accepted
Accepted
-.12
6
2.44
.05
Accepted
.11
6
2.44
.05
Accepted
.05
6
2.44
.05
Accepted
Accepted
Data in Table 16 reveal that t-cal values for the methods of modern family
planning were: pills (t-cal = .33 < 2.44), injectables (t-cal = -.82 < 2.44), female condom
(t-cal = .07 < 2.44), surgical (t-cal = .05 < 2.44) all less than the Table value of 2.447 at 6
degrees of freedom at .05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no significant
difference in the attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning
methods based on number of children (parity) was accepted. This means that parity status
exerted no difference in the attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family
planning methods.
Hypothesis 3.
There is no significant difference in the attitude of widows of reproductive age to
modern family planning according to level of education. Data testing this hypothesis are
contained in Table 17.
69
70
Table 17
Result of One-way ANOVA Statistics Testing Differentials in Level of Education in
the Attitude of Widows of Reproductive Age to Modern Family Planning Methods
S/N
Source of variation
1.
Attitude towards
pills
Attitude towards
injectables
Attitude towards
female condom
Attitude towards
male condom
Attitude towards
IUCDs
Attitude towards
surgical
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Between groups
Within groups
Between groups
Within groups
Between groups
Within groups
Between groups
Within groups
Between groups
Within groups
Between groups
Within groups
Sum of
squares (ss)
df
Mean
square (ms)
f.cal
Tab. f
Decision
.03
.99
.01
.17
.00
1.50
.01
.55
.02
1.75
.00
2.35
3
12
3
12
3
12
3
12
3
12
3
12
.01
.12
.00
.01
.00
.12
.00
.04
.00
14
.00
.19
.08
3.49
Accepted
.28
3.49
Accepted
.01
3.49
Accepted
.07
3.49
Accepted
.05
3.49
Accepted
.00
3.49
Accepted
Table 17 shows f-ratio for each of the attitude towards: pills (f=.08), female
condom (f = .0), male condom (f=.07), IUCDs (f = .05), and surgical (f = .00) was less
than the tab f value of 3.49 at .05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no
significant difference in the attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family
planning according to level of education was therefore accepted. This means that level of
education did not make any difference in the attitude to modern family planning methods.
70
71
Hypothesis 4.
There is no significant difference between the practice of young and old widows
of reproductive age towards modern family planning methods. Data testing this
hypothesis are contained in Table 18.
Table 18
Result of Chi-square Values Testing Differentials in Young and Old Widows of
Reproductive Age’s Practices of Modern Family Planning Methods
S/N
Items (practices)
Young widows
Yes
No
Old widows
Yes No
Cal 2
Value
Cit 2
Value
df
Decision
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Pills (a)
Injectables (b)
Female condom (c)
Male condom (d)
IUCDs (e)
Surgical method (f)
41
51
11
57
7
3
25
47
9
65
10
14
8.11
1.55
.51
.04
.28
6.51
3. 84
3.85
3.84
3.84
3.84
3.84
1
1
1
1
1
1
Rejected
Accepted
Accepted
Accepted
Accepted
Rejected
67
57
97
51
101
105
95
73
111
55
110
106
Data in Table 18 indicate a calculated 2 value of 8.11 at 1 degree of freedom
which is greater than the Table 2 value of 3.84 at .05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis of no significant difference in the practice of pills between young and old
widows of reproductive age was therefore rejected. This means that there is a difference
in the practice of pills between young and old widows of reproductive age.
Data in the Table further indicate a calculated 2 value of 1.55 at 1 degree of
freedom which is less than the Table 2 value of 3.84 at .05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis of no significant difference in the practice of injectables by young and old
widows of reproductive age was therefore accepted. This means that there is no
difference in the practice of injectables between young and old widows of reproductive
age.
The Table also shows a calculated 2 value of .51 at 1 degree of freedom which is
less than the Table 2 value of 3.84 at .05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no
significant difference in the practice of female condom by young and old widows of
reproductive age was therefore accepted. This implies that there is no difference in the
practice of female condom between young and old widows of reproductive age.
71
72
Data in the Table reveal a calculated 2 value of .04 at 1 degree of freedom which
is less than the Table 2 value of 3.84 at .05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of
no significant difference in the practice of male condom between young and old widows
of reproductive age was therefore accepted. This implies that there is no difference in the
practice of male condom between young and old widows of reproductive age.
Result in the Table further reveals a calculated 2 value of .28 at 1 degree of
freedom which is less than the Table 2 value of 3.84 at .05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis of no significant difference in the practice of intra-uterine devices (IUCDs) by
young and old widows of productive age was therefore accepted. This implies that there
is no difference in the practice of IUCDs between young and old widows of reproductive
age.
Data in the Table also show a calculated 2 value of 6.51 at 1 degree of freedom
which is greater than the Table 2 value of 3.84 at .05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis of no significant difference in the practice of surgical method of modern
family planning by young and old widows of reproductive age was therefore rejected.
This implies that there is significant difference in the practice of surgical method of
modern family planning between young and old widows of reproductive age.
Hypothesis 5.
There is no significant difference in the practice of modern family planning
methods by widows of reproductive age according to parity status. Data testing this
hypothesis are contained in Table 19.
72
73
Table 19
Result of Chi-square Values Testing Differentials in Parity Status in the Practice of
Modern Family Methods by Widows of Reproductive Age.
S/N
Items
(practices)
Four or less
children
Yes
No
More than four
children
Yes
No
Cal 2
Value
Crit 2
Value
df
Decision
1.
2.
3.
Pills (a)
Injectables (b)
Female
condom (c)
Male condom
(d)
IUDs (e)
Surgical
methods (f)
45
43
11
80
82
114
21
55
9
82
48
94
6.69
8.35
.00
3.84
3.84
3.84
1
1
1
Rejected
Rejected
Accepted
65
60
57
46
.25
3.84
1
Accepted
9
4
116
121
95
90
.02
7.26
3.84
3.84
1
1
Accepted
Rejected
4.
5.
6.
8
13
Data in Table 19 reveal a calculated 2 value of 6.69 at 1 degree of freedom
which is greater than the Table 2 value of 3.84 at .05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis which states that there is no significance difference in the practice of pills by
widows of reproductive age according to parity status was therefore rejected. This
implies that parity exerted significant difference in the practice of pills by widows of
reproductive age.
The Table shows a calculated 2 value of 8.35 at 1 degree of freedom which is
greater than the Table 2 value of 3.84 at .05 level of significance. The null hypothesis
which states that there is no significant difference in the practice of injectables by widows
of reproductive age according to parity status was therefore rejected. This means that
parity made significant difference in the practice of injectables by widows or
reproductive age.
The Table further shows a calculated 2 value of .00 at 1 degree of freedom which
is less than the Table 2value of 3. 84 at .05 level of significance. The null hypothesis
which states that there is no significant difference in the practice of female condom by
widows of reproductive age according to parity status was therefore accepted. This means
that parity exerted significant difference in the practice of female condom by widows of
reproductive age.
73
74
Data in the Table indicate a calculated 2 value of .25 at 1 degree of freedom
which is less than the Table 2 value of 3.84 at .05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the practice of male
condom by widows of reproductive age according to parity status was therefore accepted.
This implies that parity made no significant difference in the practice of male condom by
widows of reproductive age.
The Table further indicates a calculated 2 value of .02 at 1 degree of freedom
which is less than the Table 2 value of 3.84 at .05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the practice of IUCDs by
widows of reproductive age according to parity status was therefore accepted. This
implies that parity exerted significant difference in the practice of IUCDs by widows of
reproductive age.
The Table also reveal a calculated 2 value of 7.26 at 1 degree of freedom which
is greater than the Table 2 value of 3.84 at .05 level of significance. The null hypothesis
which states that there is no significant influence in the practice of surgical method of
modern family planning by widows of reproductive age according to parity status was
therefore rejected. This implies that parity exerted significant difference in the practice of
surgical method of modern family planning by widows of reproductive age.
74
75
Hypothesis 6.
There is no significant difference in the practice of modern family planning
methods by widows of reproductive age according to level of education. Data testing this
hypothesis are contained in Table 20.
Table 20
Result of Chi-square Values Testing Differentiates in Education Level in the
Practice of Modern Family Planning Methods by Widows of Reproductive Age.
S/N
Items
(practice)
Non-formal
Yes No
Primary
Yes No
Secondary
Yes No
Tertiary
Yes No
Cal 2 Crit 2
value value
df
Decision
1.
2.
Pills (a)
Injectables
(b)
Female
condom (c)
Male
condom (d)
IUCDs (e)
Surgical
method (f)
7
21
50
36
21
20
32
33
20
41
53
32
18
16
27
29
13.93
7.66
7.82
7.82
3
3
Rejected
Accepted
1
506
3
50
10
63
6
39
7.55
7.82
3
Accepted
17
40
21
32 52
21
32
13
31.78
7.82
3
Rejected
3
9
54
48
7
1
46 2
52 2
71 5
71 5
40
40
6.16
11.34
7.82
7.82
3
3
Accepted
Rejected
3.
4.
5.
6.
Data in Table 20 reveal a calculated 2 value of 13.93 at 3 degrees of freedom
which was greater than the Table 2 value of 7.82 at .05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis of no significant difference was rejected. This implies that there was
significant difference in the practice of pills by widows of reproductive age according to
level of education.
The Table further reveals a calculated 2 value of 7.66 at 3 degrees of freedom
which was less than the Table 2 value of 7.82 at .05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis of no significant difference was therefore accepted. This implies that there
was no significant difference in the `practice of injectables by widows of reproductive
age on the basis of level of education.
The Table shows a calculated 2 value of 7.55 at 3 degrees of freedom which was
less than the Table 2 value of 7.82 at .05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no
significant difference was therefore accepted. This means that level of education made no
significant difference in the practice of female condom by widows of reproductive age.
The Table further shows a calculated 2 value of 31.78 at 3 degrees of freedom
which was greater than the Table 2 value of 7.82 at .05 level of significance. The null
75
76
hypothesis of no significant difference was rejected. This implies that level of education
made significant difference in the practice of male condom by widows of reproductive
age.
The Table indicates a calculated 2 value of 6.16 at 3 degrees of freedom which
was less than the Table 2 value of 7.82 at .05 level of significance. The null hypothesis
of no significant difference was therefore accepted. This means that level of education
exerted no significant difference in the practice of IUCDs by widows of reproductive age.
The Table further indicates a calculated 2 value of 11.34 at 3 degrees of freedom
which was greater than the Table 2 value of 7.82 at .05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis of no significant difference was therefore rejected. This implies that level of
education had significant difference in the practice of surgical method of modern family
planning by widows of reproductive age.
Summary of Findings
Based on the analysis of data, major findings of the study are summarized bellow:
1
Attitude of widows of reproductive age to other women who practised modern family
planning was positive (overall x = 2.59) (Table 1).
2
Attitude of widows of reproductive age to those who provide modern family planning
services was positive (overall x = 2.62) (Table 2).
3
Attitude of widows of reproductive age to their possible practice of modern family
planning was negative (Table 3).
4
Attitude of young and old widows of reproductive age to modern family planning
methods based on their age was negative in all the components of modern family
planning as follows: pills (young widows x = 2.42 > old widows x = 2.35);
injectables (young widows x = 2.48 > old widows x =2.47); female condom (young
widows x = 2.46 > old widows x =2.42); male condom (young widows x = 2.46 >
old widows x = 2.45) intra-uterine contraceptive devices, IUCDs (young widows x
= 2.46 > old widows x = 2.42) and surgical method (young widows x = 2.41 > old
widows x = 2.41) (Table 4). There was no statistically significant difference in the
attitude of young and old widows of reproductive age to modern family planning
methods: pills (t-cal = .22< t-tab = 2.17), injectables (t-cal = -.22< t-tab = 2.17),
76
77
female condom (t-cal = .30< t-tab = 2.17), male condom (t-cal = .15< t-tab = 2.17),
IUCDs (t-cal = .26< t-tab = 2.17), and surgical (t-cal = .26< t-tab = 2.17 (Table 15).
5
Attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning according to parity
status was positive to only male condom (four or less children x = 2.51 > more than
four children x = 2.51) but negative to all the other methods of modern family
planning (Table 5). Parity had no statistically significant difference in the attitude of
widows of reproductive age to modern family planning methods: pills (t-cal =.33 < ttab = 2.44), injectables (t-cal = -.82 < t-tab = 2.44), female condom (t-cal = .07< t-tab
= 2.44), male condom (t-cal =-.12< t-tab = 2.44), IUCDs (t-cal =-.11< t-tab = 2.44),
surgical (t-cal =-.05< t-tab = 2.44) (Table 16).
6
All the attitude of widows of reproductive age towards modern family planning
methods based on their level of education were negative to some methods except on
the following Injectables (secondary education x = 2.50), male condom (tertiary
education x =2.53 > primary x = 2.52 > secondary x = 2.52) which were positive
(Table 6). There was no statistically significant difference in the attitude of widows of
reproductive age to modern family planning methods according to level of education:
pills (f-cal =.08< 3.49); injectables (f-cal =.28< 3.49); female condom (f-cal = 01<
3.49); male condom (f-cal .07<3.49); IUCDs (f-cal =.05<3.49) and surgical method
(f-cal =.00< 3.49) (Table 17).
7
Majority of widows of reproductive age with tertiary education had higher percentage
than those in the other levels of education in the practice of pills (tertiary = 60%>
primary = 40% > secondary = 27% > non-formal education = 12%) (Table 7).
8
Majority of widows of reproductive age with more than four children had higher
percentage than those with four or less children in the practice of injectables (more
than four children = 53% > four or less children = 34%), whereas majority of the
widows of reproductive age with secondary education had higher percentage than
those in the other levels of education in the practice of injecatbles (secondary = 56%>
primary = 38% > non-formal = 37%> tertiary = 36%) (Table 8).
(Table 9).
9. Majority of the old than the young widows of reproductive age had slightly higher
percentage in the practice of male condom (old widows = 54% > young widows =
53%). Majority of widows of reproductive age with more than four children had
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higher percentage than those with four or less children in the practice of male
condom (more than four children = 55% > four or less children 52%) whereas
widows of reproductive age with tertiary and secondary education had equal higher
percentage than those with primary and non-formal education in the practice of male
condom (tertiary = 71% > secondary = 71% > primary 40%> non-formal education
= 30%) (Table 9).
10. Majority of widows of reproductive age with regard to age, parity and level of
education had less than one-half (16%) in the practice of surgical method of modern
family planning (Table 10).
11. Majority of the old than young widows of reproductive age had higher percentage in
the practice of male condom (old widows = 54%> young widows = 53%) (Table11).
The null hypothesis of no significant difference in the practice of male condom by
young and old widows of reproductive age was accepted (cal 2= .04< crit 2= 3.84)
(Table 18).
12. Majority of widows of reproductive age with more than four children had higher
percentage than those with four or less children in practising injectables (more than
four children = 53%> four or less children = 34%) (Table12). Parity had significant
difference in the practice of injectables by widows of reproductive age (cal 2= 8.35>
crit 2= 3.84) (Table 19).
Majority of widows of reproductive age with more than four children had higher
percentage than those with four or less children in practising male condom (more than
four children = 55%> four or less children = 52%) (Table 12). The null hypothesis of
no significant difference in the practice of male condom by widows of reproductive
age based on their parity was accepted (cal 2= .25< crit 2= 3.84) (Table 19).
13. Majority of widows of reproductive age with tertiary education had higher percentage
than those in the other levels of education in practicing pills (tertiary = 60%> primary
= 40%> secondary = 27%> non-formal =12%) (Table 13). Level of education exerted
significant difference in the practice of pills by widows of reproductive age (cal 2=
13.93> crit 2= 7.82) (Table 20).
Widows of reproductive age with secondary education had higher percentage than the
others in practising injectables (secondary =56%> primary = 38% > non-formal =
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37% > tertiary = 36%) (Table 13). Level of education made no significant difference
in the practice of injectables by widows of reproductive age (cal 2= 7.82) (Table 20).
Majority of widows of reproductive age with secondary, and tertiary education had
equal higher percentages than the others in practising male condom (secondary = 71%
 tertiary = 71% > primary = 40% > non-formal = 30%) (Table 14). Level of
education exerted statistically significant difference in the practice of male condom
by widows of reproductive age (cal 2= 31.78 > crit 2= 7.82) (Table 20).
Discussion of Findings
The findings of the study are discussed under the following headings:
1. Attitude of widows of reproductive age to other women who practise modern
family planning.
2. Attitude of widows of reproductive age to those who provide modern family
planning services.
3. Attitude of widows of reproductive age to their possible practice of modern
family planning methods.
4. Differences of demographic variables (age, parity and level of education) on
attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning methods.
5. practice of non-appliance, appliance and surgical methods of modern family
planning by widows of reproductive age.
6. Differences of demographic variables (age, parity and level of education) on
practice of modern family planning methods by widows of reproductive age.
Attitude of widows of reproductive age to other women who practice modern
family planning.
Data in Table 1 revealed that attitude of widows of reproductive age in Logo
Local Government Area (LGA) to other women who practised modern family planning
was positive with overall mean score above the criterion mean of 2.50. This indicates that
widows of reproductive age might have learnt this positive attitude through their
interaction with other women who practised modern family planning methods. This
contradicts the findings of Maniga, Kullima, Bako and Kolo (2010) who observed that
the Kanuri women of reproductive age had negative attitude to women who practised
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modern family planning due to their belief that modern contraception was introduced to
reduce the population of Muslim nations.
Attitude of widows of reproductive age to those who provide modern family
planning services.
Data in Table 2 indicated that widows of reproductive age in Logo LGA had
positive attitude to those who provide modern family planning services with overall mean
score above the criterion mean of 2.50. The positive attitude to those who provide
modern family planning services could be due to the friendly posture of the modern
family planning services providers. However, the finding does not support the findings
of Mariga, Kullima, Bako and Kolo (2010) in which women had negative attitude to
those who provide modern family planning services due to the poor attitude of health
workers encountered by some women.
Attitude of widows of reproduction age to their possible practice of modern
family planning methods.
Data in Table 3 revealed that attitude of widows of reproductive age to their
possible practice of modern family planning was negative with overall mean scores less
than the criterion mean 2.50. This is surprising because it is not expected. This
contradicts the findings of Aninyei et al. (2008) who observed that women of
reproductive age demonstrated remarkable willingness to use a modern family planning
method in future. The negative attitude of widows of reproductive age to their possible
practice of modern family planning could be due to the remoured side effects of some
methods as expressed by those who used them (Giman, 2005).
Attitude of young and old widows of reproductive age to modern family
planning methods
Data in Table 4 revealed that both young and old widows of reproductive age had
negative attitude in all the components of modern family planning. This could be a
dangerous result because widows of reproductive age are within sexually active age and
are more likely to be regularly exposed to the risk of unplanned pregnancy, abortion,
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and Human immune defficiency virus (HIV) and
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) which still remain public health
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challenges in Nigeria. Negative attitude should be discouraged so as to pave way for
positive health attitude and good health of the individual and the community.
Table 13 utilized further statistical tools to test the significance of this difference.
The calculated t was less than t-value in all the attitudinal components of modern family
planning. This result indicates that there is no significant difference in the attitude of
young and old widows of reproductive age to modern family planning. These findings
disagree with that of Almualm (2007) who reported that age was known to influence
family planning attitude and practice.
Data in Table 5 showed that widows of reproductive age with four or less children
had positive attitude to male condom while those with more than four children had
positive attitude to injectables and male condom. This is expected. The more the number
of children, the more positive the attitude to number of family planning methods. Chako
(2001) found out that the number of living children a woman has, greatly influence her
attitude to modern family planning methods. Oyedokun (2007) revealed that children
ever born were also found to be a significant factor that influence womens attitude and
practice of contraceptive. This needs commendation and encouragement to avoid relapse
and maintain positive attitude to modern family planning methods by the widows.
Table 16 utilized further statistical tools to verify the difference of parity on
attitudes of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning methods. The
calculated t was less than the t value in all the components of modern family planning.
This result indicates that parity had no statistically significant difference on the attitude
of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning methods contrary to Chako‟s
(2001) view.
Data in Table 6 indicated that widows of reproductive age with primary and
tertiary education had positive attitude towards male condom; those with secondary
education had positive attitude to injectables while widows of reproductive age with nonformal education had negative attitude in all the components of modern family planning.
Not surprisingly, formally educated women are more likely than others to have positive
attitude to modern family planning methods.
Table 17 utilized further statistics to verify the difference of level of education on
the attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning methods. The
calculated f was less than the table f-value in all the components of modern family
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planning based on level of education. This result indicated that level of education had no
statistically significant difference on the attitudes of widows of reproductive age towards
modern family planning methods. This is contrary to Almualm (2007) who observed that
there were marked differentials by level of education; the higher the woman‟s education,
the more positive the attitude and use of modern family planning methods.
Practice of non-appliance, appliance and surgical methods of modern family
planning by widows of reproductive age
Data in Table 7 revealed higher percentage practice of non-appliance method
(pill) by the young than the old widows of reproductive age. This is not surprising
because young widows of reproductive age are in their sexually active years and are more
likely to be regularly exposed to the risk of unplanned pregnancy than their old
counterpart. This is commendable and should be encouraged. This finding however, lends
support to the findings of Georgis (2006) in which age showed significant difference in
the practice of modern contraceptives between young and old women of reproductive
age. However, it contradicts the findings of Kaba (2006) in which age did not show
strong association with women‟s use of contraceptives.
Majority (36%) of widows of reproductive age with four or less children practised
non-appliance method of modern family planning. This could be in keeping with the
Nigerian National Population Policy of not more than four children to a woman (NPB,
1984).
Regarding practice of non-appliance based on level of education, majority (40%)
of widows of reproductive age with tertiary education had practiced non-appliance
method of modern family planning. This is expected and not surprising because the
higher educated people are expected to be a model for others to emulate in all aspects
pertaining to healthy living. Oye-Adeniran (2006) observed that women with a university
education were relatively likely to have used a modern method of contraceptive,
suggesting that certain groups were more likely than the others to practice contraception.
Data in Table 8 and 9 revealed practice of appliance method by age in which
majority of the young widows had higher percentages in the practice of injectable (47%)
and female condom (10%). Majority of the old widows of reproductive age had higher
percentages in the practice of male condom (54%) and IUCD (18%). A good effort is
being made in the practice of appliance method in order to prevent unwanted pregnancy,
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transmission of STIs and HIV among widows of reproductive age. This effort should be
encouraged to increase for better attainment of good health. Old widows of reproductive
age (33-49 years) liked to use male condom more than the young ones (15-32 years). This
finding contracdicts the findings of Chizororo and Natshalaga (2003) in which young
women aged 20-29 years liked the use of male condom more than the older ones 40 years
and above.
Regarding practice of appliance method based on parity, data in the Table further
indicated that young widows of reproductive age with more than four children were the
majority with varying higher percentages in all the components of appliance methods of
modern family planning except female condom where both groups had equal percentage
of 71% each. This is a positive development and it is not surprising because the Nigerian
National Policy on Population provides for not more than four children per family.
Gupta, Katende and Blessing (2003) found that contraceptive use increased with parity.
As regards widows of reproductive age‟s practice of appliance method based on
level of education, data in the Table showed that the majority of widows of reproductive
age with tertiary education had equal higher percentage (71%) with those having primary
education than their counterparts in the other levels in the practice of male condom.
Those with secondary education had higher percentage in the practice of injectables and
male condom than their counterparts with other level of education. Those with primary
education had higher percentage in the practice of IUCD in addition to male condom than
those in the other levels of education. Those with non-formal education, the Table
revealed, did not excel in the practice of any of the components of the appliance method.
This is expected and not surprising because formal education is more likely to enable the
practice of modern family planning than non-formal education. Gupta, Akende and
Blessing (2003) established that more educated women were more likely than their
uneducated counterpart to use modern contraceptives.
Data in Table 10 showed that the majority (12%) of young widows of
reproductive age practised surgical method than their old ones. Young widows of
reproductive age are thought to be more sexually active and more prone to unplanned
pregnancy in the absence of a husband.
Regarding practice of surgical method based on parity, data in the Table indicated
that widows of reproductive age with more than four children were the majority than
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those with four or less children. This is again expected and not surprising because a
woman whose husband has died and is not married again or inherited by the husband‟s
relation may not like to give birth to children who would be regarded as bastards.
The practice of surgical method was highest among widows of reproductive age
with non-formal education than the others. This is surprising and not expected because
non-formal education is more likely to be associated with illiteracy and therefore, good
health practices are less expected from those who posses this level of education. This
practice should however be encouraged to continue.
Differences of demographic variables (age, parity and level of education) on
practice of modern family planning methods by widows of reproduction age
Data in Table 11 revealed that majority of the young widows of reproductive age
had higher percentage that the old in the practice of pills. This is expected and not
surprising because young widows of reproductive age are in their sexually active years
and are more likely to be regularly exposed to the risk of unplanned pregnancy than their
old counterpart. This is a good health practice that needs to be reinforced to ensure its
sustainability for the health benefit of the individual and the community. When tested the
result indicated that there was no significant difference in the practice of pills by widows
of reproductive age based on age (Table 18). This supports Yahaya (2002) who reported
that use of contraception was not significantly influenced by age. However, this
contradicts Kaba (2007) who reported that age showed significant difference in the
practice of modern contraceptives.
The data in the Table showed that majority of the young than the old widows of
reproductive age had higher percentage in the practice of injectables. This is expected and
not surprising because young widows of reproductive age are more likely than their
counterpart to practice injectables because they may perceive that they have a relatively
high risk of pregnancy due to more frequent sexual activity or higher fecundity than their
old counterpart who may perceive otherwise. This difference was tested, the result
indicated that the difference was not statistically significant (Table 18).
The data in the Table further showed that majority of the young than the old
widows of reproductive age had higher percentage in the practice of female condom.
Further statistical tools were utilized to test the significant of the difference. The result
indicated that the difference was not significant (Table 18.
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The data in the Table indicated that majority of the old than the young widows of
reproductive age had slightly higher percentage in the practice of male condom. This
finding is expected and not surprising because old widows of reproductive age would
also want to protect themselves from risky of unwanted pregnancy, STIs and HIV. This
positive health practice should be encouraged so as to minimize death associated with
pregnancy and HIV and AIDS. Further statistical tools were utilized to test the significant
of the difference between the old and the young widows of reproductive age. The result
should that there was no statistically significant difference (Table 18).
The data in the Table further indicated that a higher percentage of the old than the
young widows of reproductive age practised IUCD. This is not surprising because a
woman whose husband has died would do all that she can in order not to give birth to
children after the husband death. This difference was tested, the result indicated that there
was no statistically significant difference (Table 18).
The data in the Table further revealed that majority of the old than the young
widows of reproductive age had higher percentage in the practice of surgical method of
modern family planning. This is not surprising since at this age the widows may have had
enough children to take care of alone. This difference was tested, the result indicated that
there was statistically significant difference (Table 18).
Data in Table 12 indicated that majority of widows of reproductive age with four
or less children had higher percentage than their counterpart with more than four children
in practising pills. This is not surprising because it is to avoid the risk associated with
frequent pregnancy and delivery and complying with the Nigerian National Population
Policy of not more than four children per woman (NPB, 1984). When tested, the result
indicated that there was statistically significant influence (Table 19). These findings
support that of Georgis (2006) who reported significant difference in the practice of
modern contraception between women with four or less children and those with more
than four children.
The Table further indicated that majority of widows of reproductive age with
more than four children had higher percentage than those with four or less children in
practising injectables. This is expected. High parity women are more likely to be exposed
to the risk of unwanted pregnancy, therefore, their efforts to protect themselves from
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subsequent pregnancies is commendable and should be encouraged to continue. When
tested, the result indicated significant difference (Table 19).
The data in the Table revealed equal percentage by widows of reproductive age
with four or less children and those with more than four children in practising female
condom. This is not surprising because both groups were likely to be experimenting with
the new product in the prevention of pregnancy to enable wide acceptability and
subsequent use. When tested, the result indicated that there was no significant difference
(Table 19).
The data in the Table further revealed that majority of widows of reproductive age
with more than four children had higher percentage than those with four or less children
in practising male condom. This is expected and not surprising because widowss of
reproductive age with more than four children are likely to do all they could to prevent
pregnancy and STIs in orders to stay healthy and take good care of their children after the
death of their husband. When tested, the result indicated that there was no significant
difference (Table 19).
The data in the Table showed a slightly higher percentage of widowss of
reproductive age with more than four children than those with four or less children in
practicing IUCD. This is expected. When tested, the result indicated no significant
difference (Table 19).
The data in the Table further showed that majority of widowss of reproductive
age with more than four children had higher percentage than their counterpart with four
or less children in practising surgical method. This is not surprising. When tested, the
result indicated significant difference (Table 19).
Data in Table 13 showed that majority of widows of reproductive age with
tertiary education had higher percentages than those in the other levels of education in
practising pills. This is not surprising because highly educated women are more likely
than the others to protect and maintain their health. This is a god health practice which
should be adopted by all widowss of reproductive age. When tested, the result indicated
significant influence (Table 19). However, it contradicts Yahaya (2002) in which use of
contraception was not significantly different by education level.
The data in the Table indicated that majority of widows of reproductive age with
secondary education had higher percentage than their counterparts in the other levels of
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education in practising injectables. This is expected. When tested, the result indicated no
significant difference (Table 20). This is in line with Yahaya (2002) who reported that
use of contraception was not significantly different by education level.
The data in the Table further indicated that widows of reproductive age with
secondary education had higher percentage than their counterparts in the other levels of
education in practising female condom. This is not surprising. When tested, the result
indicated no significant difference (Table 20).
Data in Table 14 revealed that majority of widows of reproductive age with
secondary, and tertiary education had equal higher percentages than their counterparts
with primary and non-formal education in practising male condom. This is expected and
not surprising. When tested, the result revealed significant difference (Table 20).
The data in the Table further revealed that widowss of reproductive age with
primary education had higher percentage than the others the others in practising IUCD.
This is not surprising because formal education at any level is likely to exert positive
influence for positive health to be achieved. When tested, the result revealed no
significant difference (Table 20).
The data in the Table again indicated that majority of widowss of reproductive
age with non-formal education had higher percentage than their counterparts with other
levels of education in practising surgical method of modern family planning. This is
surprising and not expected because non-formal education is likely to be associated with
illiteracy and therefore, good health practices are less expected from those who posses
this level of education. It is possible that the educated ones may have understood the
irreversible nature of surgical contraception and so decides not to patronize that. This
practice should however, be encouraged to continue. When tested, the result indicated
significant difference (Table 20) contrary to Yahaya (2002) who observed no significant
difference in education levels.
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CHAPTER FIVE
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
Summary
The purpose of the study was to find out the attitude to and practice of modern
family planning methods among widows of reproductive age in Logo Local Government
Area (LGA) of Benue State. To achieve the purpose of the study, twelve research
questions were posed and six hypotheses were postulated to guide the study. Literature
related to the study was reviewed. The study utilized a cross-sectional survey research
design. The instrument used for data collection was the researcher designed
questionnaire. Data was collected from 228 widows of reproductive age and used for the
study.
Percentages and means were used to answer the research questions.
The
hypotheses were verified using chi-square, t-test, and ANOVA statistics at .05 level of
significance. Findings that emanated from the study were summarized below.
1. Attitude of widows of reproduction age to other women who practised modern family
planning was positive (overall x = 2.59) (Table 1).
2. Attitude of widows of reproductive age to those who provide modern family planning
services was positive (overall x = 2.62) (Table 2).
3.
Attitude of widows of reproductive age to their possible practice of modern family
planning was negative (Table 3).
4. Attitude of young and old widows of reproductive age to modern family planning
methods based on their age was negative in all the components of modern family
planning as follows: pills (young widows x = 2.42 > old widows x = 2.35);
injectables (old widows x = 2.45 > young widows x =2.42); female condom (young
widows x = 2.44 > old widows x 2.39); male condom (young widows x = 2.46 >
old widows x = 2.45) intra-uterine devices, IUDs (young widows x = 2.44 > old
widows x = 2.3976) and surgical method (young widows x = 2.41 > old widows x
= 2.41) (Table 4). There was no significant difference in the attitude of young and
old widows of reproductive age to modern family planning methods: pills (t-cal =
.22< t-tab = 2.17), injectables (t-cal = -.22 < t-tab = 2.17), female condom (t-cal =
.30< t-tab = 2.17), male condom (t-cal = .15< t-tab = 2.17), IUDs (t-cal = .26< t-tab =
2.17), and surgical (t-cal = .26< t-tab = 2.17 (Table 15).
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5. Attitude of widows of reproductive age to modern family planning according to party
status was positive to only male condom (four or less children x = 2.15 > more than
four children x = 2.15) but negative to all the other methods of modern family
planning (Table 5). Parity had no statistically significant difference in the attitude of
widows of reproductive age to modern family planning methods: pills (t-cal =.33 < ttab = 2.44), injectables (t-cal = -.82 < t-tab = 2.44), female condom (t-cal = .07< t-tab
= 2.44), male condom (t-cal =-.12< t-tab = 2.44), IUDs (t-cal =-.11< t-tab = 2.44),
surgical (t-cal =-.05< t-tab = 2.44) (Table 16).
6. All the attitude of widows of reproductive age towards modern family planning
methods based on their level of education were negative to some methods except on
the following: injectable (secondary education x =2.50>2.50), male condom (tertiary
education x 2.53> Primary x =2.52 > secondary x =3.52) which were positive
(Table 6). There was no statistically significant difference in the attitude of widows of
reproductive age to modern family planning methods according to level of education:
pills (f-cal = .08 <3.49); injectable (f-cal = .28 < 3.49); female condom (f-cal
=.01<3.49); male condom (f-cal = .07<3.49); IUCDs (f-cal= .05<3.49) and surgical
method (f-cal = .00 < 3.49) (Table 17).
7. Majority of widows of reproductive age with tertiary education had higher percentage
than those in the other levels of education in the practice of pills (tertiary = 60%>
primary = 40% > secondary = 27% > non-formal education = 12%) (Table 7).
8. Majority of widows of reproductive age with more than four children had higher
percentage than those with four or less children in the practice of injectables (more
than four children = 53% > four or less children = 34%), whereas majority of the
widows of reproductive age with secondary education had higher percentage than
those in the other levels of education in the practice of injecatbles (secondary = 56%>
primary = 38% > non-formal = 37%> tertiary = 36%) (Table 8).
9. Majority of the old than the young widows of reproductive age had slightly higher
percentage in the practice of male condom (old widows = 54%> young widows =
53%), majority of widows of reproductive age with more than four children had
higher percentage than those with four or less children in the practice of male condom
(more than four children = 55%> four or less children = 52%) whereas widows of
reproductive age with tertiary, and secondary education had equal higher percentage
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than those with primary and non-formal education in the practice of male condom
(tertiary = 71%  secondary = 71%> primary = 40% > non-formal education = 30%)
(Table 9).
10. Majority of widows of reproductive age with regard to age, parity and level of
education had less than one-half (16%) in the practice of surgical method of modern
family planning (Table 10).
11. Majority of the old than young widows of reproductive age had slightly higher
percentage in the practice of male condom (old widows = 54%> young widows =
53%) (Table10). The null hypothesis of no significant difference in the practice of
male condom by young and old widows of reproductive age was accepted (cal 2 =
.04< crit 2= 3.84) (Table 18).
12. Majority of widows of reproductive age with more than four children had higher
percentage than those with four or less children in practising injectables (more than
four children = 53%> four or less children = 34%) (Table12). Parity had significant
difference in the practice of injectables by widows of reproductive age (cal 2= 8.35>
crit 2= 3.84) (Table 19).
Majority of widows of reproductive age with more than four children had higher
percentage than those with four or less children in practising male condom (more than
four children = 55%> four or less children = 52%) (Table 12). The null hypothesis of
no significant difference in the practice of male condom by widows of reproductive
age base on their parity was accepted (cal 2= .25< crit 2= 3.84) (Table 19).
13. Majority of widows of reproductive age with tertiary education had higher percentage
than those in the other levels of education in practising pills (tertiary = 60%> primary
= 40%> secondary = 27%> non-formal =12%) (Table 13). Level of education had
significant difference in the practice of pills by widows of reproductive age (cal 2=
13.93> crit 2= 7.82) (Table 20).
Widows of reproductive age with secondary education had higher percentage than the
others in practising injectables (secondary =56%> primary = 38% > non-formal =
37% > tertiary = 36%) (Table 13). Level of education had no significant difference in
the practice of injectables by widows of reproductive age (cal 2= 7.66< crit 2 =
7.82) (Table 20).
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14. Majority of widows of reproductive age with secondary, and tertiary education had
equal higher percentages than the others in practising male condom (secondary =
71%  tertiary = 71% > primary = 40% > non-formal = 30%) (Table 14). Level of
education had statistically significant influence in the practice of male condom by
widows of reproductive age (cal 2= 31.78 > crit 2= 7.82) (Table 20).
Conclusions
On the basis of the major findings and discussion the following conclusions were
reached:
1. Attitude of widows of reproductive age to other women who practised modern family
planning was positive (overall x = 2.59). This answers Research Question 1
2. Attitude of widows of reproductive age towards those who provided modern family
planning services was positive (overall x =2.62). This answers Research Question 2.
3. Attitude of widows of reproductive age to their possible practice of modern family
planning was negative. This answers Research Question 3.
4. Age had no statistically significant difference in the attitude of young and old widows
of reproductive age to modern family planning methods: pills (t-cal = .22 <t- tab =
2.17; injectables (t-cal =-.22 < t-tab =2.17); female condom (t-cal = .30 < t-tab =
2.17); male condom (t –cal = .15 < t-tab = 2.17); intra-uterine devices, IUDs (t-cal =
.26 < t-tab = 2.17); and surgical method (t-cal= .26 < t-tab = 2.17). This verifies
Hypothesis 1 and answers Research Question 4.
5. Parity had no significant difference in the attitude of widows of reproductive age to
modern family planning methods: pills (t-cal = .33< t-tab = 2.44), injectables (t-cal =
-.82 < t-tab = 2.44), female condom (t-cal = .07 < t-tab = 2.44), male condom (t-cal =
-.12 < t. tab = 2.44), IUCDs (t-cal =.11 < t-tab = 2.44), surgical (t-cal = .05 < t. tab =
2.44). This verifies Hypothesis 2 and answers Research Questions 5.
6. Level of education had no statistically significant difference on the attitude of widows
of reproductive age towards modern family planning methods: pills (f-cal = .08 <
3.49); injectables (f-cal = .28< 3.49); female condom (f-cal = .01 < 3.49). Male
condom (f-cal = .07 < 3.4); surgical method (f-cal = .00 < 3.49).
This tests
Hypothesis 3 and answers Research Question 6.
91
92
7. Widows of reproductive age with tertiary education had higher percentage than those
in the other levels of education in the practice of pills (tertiary = 60% > primary =
40%> secondary = 27%> non-formal education = 12%). This answers part of
Research Question 7.
8.
Widows of reproductive age with more than four children had higher percentage
than those with four or less children in the practice of injectables (more than four
children = 53%> four or less children = 34%); majority of the widows of reproductive
age with secondary education had higher percentage than those in the other levels of
education in the practice of injectables (secondary = 56%> primary = 38%> nonformal = 37%> tertiary = 36%). This answers part of Research Questions 8.
9. Majority of old widows of reproductive age had slightly higher percentage than the
young in the practice of male condom (old widows = 54%> young widows = 53%);
majority of widows of reproductive age with more than four children had higher
percentage than those with four or less children in the practice of male condom (more
than four children = 55%> four or less children = 52%); widows of reproductive age
with tertiary, and secondary education had equal higher percentages than those with
primary, and non-formal education in the practice of male condom (tertiary = 71% 
secondary = 71%> primary = 40%> non-formal education = 30%). This answers part
of Research Question 8.
10. Widows of reproductive age had less than one-half per cent in the practice of surgical
method of modern family planning. This answer Research Question 9.
11. Age had significant difference in the practice of pills by young and old widows of
reproductive age (cal 2 = 8.11> crit 2 = 3.84). This tests part of Hypothesis 4 and
answers part of Research Question 10.
Age had no significant differences in the practice of injectables by young and old
widows of reproductive age (cal 2 1.55< crit 2 =3. 84).
This tests part of
Hypothesis 4 and answers part of Research Question 10.
Age had no significant difference in the practice of female condom by young and old
widows of reproductive age (cal 2 = .51< crit 2= 3.84). This verifies part of
Hypothesis 4 and answers part of Research Question 10.
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93
Age had no significant difference in the practice of male condom by young and old
widows of reproductive age (cal 2=.044< crit 2= 3.84).
This tests part of
Hypothesis 4 and answers part of Research Question 10.
Age had no statically significant difference in the practice of IUCDs by young and
old widows of reproductive age (cal 2 = .28< crit 2 = 3.84). This tests part of
Hypothesis 4 and answers part of Research Question 10.
Age had statistically significant difference in the practice of surgical method by
young and old widows of reproductive age (cal 2 = 6.51> crit 2= 3.84). This tests
part of Hypothesis 4 and answers part of Research Question 10.
12. Parity had statistically significant difference in the practice of pills by widows of
reproductive age (cal 2= 6.69> crit 2 = 3.84). This tests part of Hypothesis 5 and
answers part of Research Question 11.
Parity had statistically significant difference in the practice of injectables by widows
of reproductive age (cal 2= 8.35> crit 2=3.84). This tests part of Hypothesis 5 and
answers part of Research Question 11.
Parity had no significant difference in the practice of female condom by widows of
reproductive age (cal 2= .00 < crit 2 3.84). This tests part of Hypothesis 5 and
answers part of Research Question 11.
Parity had no significant difference in the practice of male condom by widows of
reproductive age (cal 2= .25< crit 2= 3.84). This tests part of Hypothesis 5 and
answers part of Research Question 11.
Parity had no statistically significant difference in the practice of IUCDs by widows
of reproductive age (cal 2= .02 < crit 2= 3.84). This tests part of Hypothesis 5 and
answers part of Research Question 11.
Parity had statistically significant difference in the practice of surgical method of
modern family planning (cal 2= 7.26> crit 2= 3.84). This tests part of Hypothesis 5
and answers part of Research Question 11.
13. Level of education had significant difference in the practice of pills by widows of
reproductive age (cal 2= 13.93> crit 2= 7.82). This tests part of Hypothesis 6 and
answers part of Research Question 12.
93
94
Widows of reproductive age with secondary education had higher percentage than the
others in practising injectables (secondary = 56%> primary = 38%> non-formal =
37%> tertiary = 36%).
Level of education had no significant difference in the
practice of injectables by widows of reproductive age (cal 2= 7.66< crit 2= 7.82).
This tests part of Hypothesis 6 and answers part of Research Question 12.
14. Level of education had statistically significant difference in the practice of male
condom by widows of reproductive age (cal 2= 31.78> crit 2= 7.82). This tests part
of Hypothesis 6 and answers part of Research Question 12.
Recommendations
On the basis of the findings of the present study, the discussion and conclusions
thereof, the following recommendations were made:
1. Widows of reproductive age varied in their responses to attitude to and practice of
modern family planning methods, therefore, there is need to expand and intensify
education on modern family planning programmes to adequately cater for widows of
reproductive age in Logo Local Government Area (LGA) of Benue State so as to
bridge the existing gaps;
2. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and community based organizations
(CBOs) should embark on behaviour change programmes to educate widows on
modern family planning methods in Logo LGA; and
3. Advocacy meetings should be held with Logo Local Government Council,
community and opinion leaders to solicit support for education programme on
modern family planning for widows in the LGA to ensure programme sustainability.
Suggestions for Further Studies
Further studies should be carried out on:
1. Attitude to and practice of modern family planning methods among widows of
reproductive age in other Local Government Areas in Benue State to determine
the true situation for generalization.
14. Extent of availability, accessibility and usability of modern family planning
methods among widows of reproductive age in Logo LGA
94
95
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103
Department of Health and
Physical Education
University of Nigeria
Nsukka
15th December, 2009
Dear Respondent,
I am a graduate student of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. I am currently
carrying out an investigation of attitude to and practice of modern family planning among
widows of reproductive age in Logo local Government Area of Benue State.
You are therefore requested to give your honest responses to the items of the
questionnaire.
All responses given by you will be strictly used for the purpose of the present
study and will be treated as confidential, therefore do not write your name anywhere on
this questionnaire. Your maximum co-operation will be highly appreciated.
Thank you.
Igbabee, Saul S.
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104
Appendix II
Questionnaire
This questionnaire is for widows of reproductive age (15-49 years) in Logo Local
Government Area of Benue State Only.
Indicate by a tick (√ ) in the boxes provided below against the option as they best apply
to you.
1. To which of the following age brackets do you belong?
Age 15 -32 [
]
33 – 49 [
]
2. How many children do you have?
For or less [ ] More than four [ ]
3. What is your level of education?
Non-formal Education
[ ]
Primary education
[ ]
Secondary education
[ ]
Tertiary education
[ ]
Read each of the following statements carefully and tick (√) against the options that best
apply to you as follows:
SA = Strongly Agree
A = Agree
D = Disagree
SD = Strongly Disagree
SA
A
D
SD
4
I like women who practice modern family planning
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
5
I am interested in discussing with women who practice modern [ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
family planning
6
I am scared of women who use modern family planning methods.
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
7
Women using modern family planning methods are promiscuous
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
104
105
8
I like the way modern family planning service providers attend to me at the [ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
11 Service providers make modern family planning services expensive by [ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
clinic
9
I am interested in modern family planning service providers
10 Service providers are unfriendly
attaching a fee.
SA A
D
SD
12 I enjoy using pills
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
13 I always have the urge to use pills
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
14 Pills are not useful to me
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
15 I like taking injectables
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
16 I have no confidence in injectables
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
17 I can‟t give up taking injectables
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
18 I am afraid of taking injectables
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
19
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
20 I am afraid of using female condom
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
21 I never feel any urge using female condom
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
22 Female condom makes sex enjoyable
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
23 I don‟t like using male condom
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
24 I don‟t enjoy sex with male condom
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
25 I like using male condom
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
26
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
27 I like using intra-uterine contraceptive devices
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
28
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
29 It is against my principles to use intra-uterine contraceptive devices
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
30 I feel comfortable using intra-uterine contraceptive devices
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
I like using female condom
I feel safe using male condom
I am afraid of using intra-uterine contraceptive devices
105
106
31 I am afraid of female sterilization
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
32 I have no confidence in female sterilization
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
33 I like female sterilization
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
34 I can‟t give up using female sterilization
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Please tick (√) against Yes or No to answer each of the following questions
Yes No
35 Do you use pills?
[ ]
[ ]
36 Do you use 21-day package pill?
[ ]
[ ]
37 Do you use 28-day package pill?
[ ]
[ ]
38 Do you use pills daily?
[ ]
[ ]
39 Do you start taking your first package of the pill the day your menstruation begins?
[ ]
[ ]
40 Do you take injectables?
[ ]
[ ]
41 Do you take injectables every two months?
[ ]
[ ]
42 Do you take injectables every three months?
[ ]
[ ]
43 Do you combine injectables with male condom?
[ ]
[ ]
44 Do you use female condom during sex?
[ ]
[ ]
45 Do you use female condom whenever you have sex?
[ ]
[ ]
46 Do you combine female condom with pills
[ ]
[ ]
47 Do you use a female condom more than once during sex?
[ ]
[ ]
48 Do you discard used female condom into the latrine?
[ ]
[ ]
49 Do you use male condom during sex?
[ ]
[ ]
50 Do you use male condom whenever you have sex?
[ ]
[ ]
51 Do you use a male condom more than once during sex?
[ ]
[ ]
52 Do you combine male condom with pills?
[ ]
[ ]
53 Do you discard used male condom into the latrine?
[ ]
[ ]
106
107
54 Do you use intra-uterine contraceptive device?
[ ]
[ ]
55 Do you check whether the intra-uterine contraceptive device is in place during sex? [ ]
[ ]
56 Do you check whether the intra-uterine contraceptive device is in place during [ ]
[ ]
urination?
57 Do you check whether the intra-uterine contraceptive device is in place during [ ]
[ ]
menstruation?
58 Do you combine intra-uterine contraceptive device with male condom?
[ ]
[ ]
59 Have you undergone any surgical operation for preventing yourself from getting [ ]
[ ]
pregnant any longer?
60 Do you use male condom even after the surgical operation?
[ ]
[ ]
61 Do you use female condom even after the surgical operation?
[ ]
[ ]
107