Whitton,
Jr.
Paul L.,
The Effect of the Student
Teaching Experience on the Student Teacher 's Attitude
Toward Punishment.
Doctor of Education
Leadership), August, 1974,
139 pp.,
(Administrative
6 tables, bibliography,
121 titles.
This study investigates the effect of the student
teaching experience on attitudes toward the use of punishment in the classroom.
Student teachers in large inner-
city and suburban secondary schools furnished data, which
were analyzed with a semantic differential technique and
the Purdue Attitude Scale Toward Any Practice.
The study seeks to determine the effect of student
teaching on attitudes of prospective teachers toward
punishment in the classroom for discipline purposes, as
measured by a semantic differential;
to determine differences
in attitude changes when student teachers were grouped according to sex in pretests and posttests; to determine differences in attitude changes between those in inner-city schools
and suburban schools; to determine the effect of student
teaching on the attitudes of prospective teachers toward
corporal punishment in the classroom as measured by the
Purdue Attitude Scale Toward Any Practice.
Subjects for this study were North Texas State University
students scheduled for student teaching at the secondary level.
1
2
The subjects had white, black, and Mexican-American ethnic
representation.
The student teachers taught in practically
every academic area offered in the secondary school.
The first chapter gives a brief description of the
study, along with a basic overview of its background and
significance and a survey of related literature.
Instru-
ments and terminology for the study are discussed, and
procedures for collection and treatment of the data are reviewed.
The second chapter reviews relevant literature, discussing discipline and control in the classroom,
attitude
change research in student teaching, and corporal punishment.
Chapter Three describes the two groups of student
teachers and the schools they were placed.
The two test
instruments are also discussed, with information on their
backgrounds.
Chapter Four presents the data and brief explanations,
proving that the student teaching experience does change
the attitudes of the student teacher.
This study concludes that a beginning student teacher's
attitudes toward punishment in the classroom changes significantly with experience.
Attitudes of student teachers
3
in inner-city schools do not change significantly more than
those in suburban schools.
Attitudes of female student
teachers toward corporal punishment change more than those
of males.
The rules of the particular school in which the
student teacher does his teaching influence the student
teacher appreciably.
The study recommends that a study be made to determine
whether specific rules and attitudes of the particular
schools in which the student teacher is placed have the
strongest effect on the attitudes of the student teacher.
Studies should also investigate whether attitudes of female
student teachers toward punishment are more crucial than
those of males.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES..................-.....-..-..-..v
Chapter
I.
INTRODUCTION...................-....-...
Statement of the Problem
Purposes of the Study
Hypotheses
Background and Significance of the Study
Implications of the Study
Limitations
Procedures for Data Collection
Treatment of Data
II.
SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE .
........
..
21
Discipline and Control in the Classroom
Attitude and Attitude Change Research
Related to Student Teaching
Corporal Punishment
III.
PROCEDURES FOR COLLECTING AND
TREATING DATA...........................-57
Procedures for Data Collection
Instruments
IV.
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA.. ....
84
Control Group Data
Experimental Group Data
Summary
V.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Findings
Conclusions
Recommendations for Further Research
iii
110
APPENDIX-...
.-........-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.. .....-..................-...-.-.-.-.-
iv
Page
128
129
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.
t-TEST FOR CORRELATED MEANS OF VARIABLES
FOR CONTROL GROUP ................
- -
-
88
2.
t-TEST FOR CORRELATED MEANS OF VARIABLES
1-8 FOR CONTROL GROUP MALES .......
*
.
.
92
3.
t-TEST FOR CORRELATED MEANS OF VARIABLES
1-8 FOR CONTROL GROUP FEMALES . . ..
94
4.
t-TEST FOR CORRELATED MEANS OF VARIABLES
. . . .
1-8 FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
.
96
5.
.
Table
t-TEST FOR CORRELATED MEANS OF VARIABLES
. . . .
1-8 FOR EXPERIMENTAL MALES
99
6.
t-TEST FOR CORRELATED MEANS OF VARIABLES
. .. 0.
1-8 FOR EXPERIMENTAL FEMALES
101
V
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Much controversy has recently been centered around
teacher education and the value of student teaching experiStudent teaching is almost universally accepted as
ences.
the most dynamic phase of teacher education
(26, p.
33).
Student teaching consistently is held valuable as a part of
the professional preparation of teachers
At present,
(30, 26).
there are few teacher training programs
that offer training in behavior modification
(7, p.
152).
Apparently since the beginning of time teachers have thought
that yesterday's children were better behaved; that today's
children are harder to manage.
Since maintaining pupil
discipline is one of the most persistent problems teachers
face,
(20, p. vii)
the student teacher's attitudes toward
punishment to aid in maintenance of discipline both before
and after his student teaching experience should be of
interest.
It is suggested by Campbell that students approach
student teaching with pre-established attitudes and convictions that may influence their performance during student
teaching
(6).
According to Morse and Wingo, discipline is
1
2
the biggest problem of the beginning teacher
(16).
Some
teachers feel that it is not their responsibility to deal
with problem children.
Others complain about finding them-
selves caught in a double bind, in that they are told to
maintain order and then may be subjected to criticism when
they do
(7, pp. 1-2).
With student unrest spreading downward to many high
schools, and with the great trouble in the inner cities,
teachers and discipline are a great concern (20, p. vii).
In attempting to discuss student teachers' discipline attitudes either before or after the teaching experience,
one is
confronted immediately with the absence of any strong research evidence.
Studies in which objective measures were
employed to evaluate the student teaching program are difficult to find.
The present study, then, was designed to
determine the expressed attitude change of student teachers,
in three large inner city secondary schools and in suburban
secondary schools during their student teaching experience,
toward punishment and the use of punishment in the classroom.
Statement of the Problem
The problem of this study was to determine the effect of
student teaching experience on attitudes toward punishment
and the use of punishment in the classroom as expressed by
student teachers in three large inner city secondary schools
and in large suburban secondary schools.
3
Statement of the Purpose
The purposes of this study were:
1.
To determine the effect of student teaching on the
attitudes of prospective teachers toward punishment and the
use of punishment in the classroom for discipline purposes
as measured by a semantic differential.
2.
To determine differences in the attitudes when
grouped according to sex both on the pre- and posttest.
3.
To determine differences in the attitude changes
when in an inner city school and when in a suburban school.
4.
To determine the effect of student teaching on the
attitudes of prospective teachers toward corporal punishment in the classroom as measured by the Purdue Attitude
Scales Toward Any Practice.
5.
To report these findings for institutions, teachers,
and others who are interested and concerned about the attitudes
and changes.
Hypotheses
1.
An analysis of the Semantic Differential Technique
results on the pretest and posttest will reveal that no
significant change in attitude toward punishment and use of
punishment has
taken place.
4
Sub-hypotheses:
a.
There will be no significant difference
between the attitude scores of student teachers
toward the concept of teacher spanking.
b.
There will be no significant difference
between the attitude scores of student teachers
toward the concept of principal spanking.
c.
There will be no significant difference
between the attitude scores of student teachers
toward the concept,
d.
"Sit down and shut up."
There will be no significant difference
between the attitude scores of student teachers
toward the concept,
"Stay in thirty minutes after
school."
e.
There will be no significant difference
between the attitude scores of student teachers
toward the concept,
"Stay in after the class period
until everyone leaves the room."
f.
There will be no significant difference
between the attitude scores of student teachers
toward the concept,
"Be quiet or copy a page out
of the dictionary."
g.
There will be no significant change in
the attitude scores of student teachers toward the
concept,
"Stand out in the hall by the class door
for the rest of the period."
5
h.
There will be no significant change in
the attitude of student teachers toward the concept,
"Either be quiet, or I will go get the principal."
2.
An analysis of the Semantic Differential Technique
on the pretest and posttest utilizing the Two-Way Analysis
of Covariance will reveal that student teachers in the large
inner city schools have no significantly greater change in
attitude toward punishment and the use of punishment than
those in the suburban schools on each of the eight concepts.
3.
An analysis of the Semantic Differential Technique
results on the pretest and posttest utilizing the Two-Way
Analysis of Covariance will reveal that there is no significant difference in the change of attitude of male and female
student teachers on each of the eight concepts.
4.
An analysis of the Purdue Attitude Scale Toward
Any Practice on the pretest and posttest utilizing the TwoWay Analysis of Covariance will reveal that student teachers
in the large inner city schools have no significantly greater
change in attitude toward corporal punishment in the classroom than those student teachers in the suburban schools.
Background and Significance
of the Study
Investigations show that one of the chief causes for
the failure of teachers is the inability to maintain satisfactory working conditions and good discipline in the classroom
(22, p. 486).
This shows how important it is to study
6
discipline problems and the attitudes of teachers toward
discipline.
A body of principles on student discipline,
developed by American education over the past half-century
or longer, appeared until recently, to satisfy everyone.
Suddenly the rules on discipline in the standard teachers'
manuals became, if not obsolete,
at least not pertinent to
the instant problems presented by student behavior
p.
(17,
143).
Each year thousands of recruits to education enter the
classroom for the first time to begin acting out their new
role as a student teacher.
Young as they are, they have
given a great portion of their lives in preparation for such
a career--informally from the day they first became registered pupils and formally through the years spent in teachertraining institutions.
It seems that a strong line is being
drawn between the inner city schools and its students and
the suburban schools and its students
(10, pp. v-vi).
is no trick to teach the middle-class child;
the real
challenge is to lead the disadvantaged child
(17, p.
It
165).
Teachers in the more difficult schools may long at
times for the autocratic methods of keeping order and forcing
obedience that were available in earlier times.
The old
disciplinary procedures served a society that held submission to authority to be a prime goal of education
p. 145).
(17,
7
Today, the ideal product of the mass schooling system
is expected to possess an independent mind and a cooperative
spirit, traits not likely to flourish in an atmosphere of
institutional coercion.
For most of the years of American education, fear of
the rod was a major instrument of student discipline.
Fear
was conceived as the only force which would make men amenable
to dominion--it was material that children, too, should be
controlled by violence or the threat of violence.
Corporal
punishment never quite dies as an educational issue.
The
rise in Juvenile Delinquency in the decade following World
War II revived public support for it.
A scholarly study of
corporal punishment in the early 1960's showed it was a
factor in schools and was still practiced even in area's
where regulations forbade it.
The author found a "strong
trend" of public opinion "away from the permissive" and
toward the authoritarian point of view in discipline of
pupils in public schools.
This was due to concern over "ever
mounting" unrest and disorder in the schools
(17, pp.
144-146).
In a national survey of public-school classroom teachers,
conducted by the National Education Association Research
Division in Spring 1969, approximately one-half of the respondents approved of corporal punishment in secondary
schools.
Comparing this with data from 1960 showed no change in secondary schools in the generally widespread teacher approval of
8
judicious use of corporal punishment to discipline pupils.
The following chart illustrates the percentages of response
(18, p.
49).
1960
1969
Yes
47.7%
47.5%
No
38.9
37.0
Don't know
13.4
15.5
A higher percentage of men than of women favored the
use of corporal punishment, as the following chart illustrates
(18, p.
49).
Men
Women
Yes
61.0%
48.9%
No
31.7
39.2
7.3
11.9
Don't know
The only decrease in the percentage of teachers favoring
corporal punishment was noted on the elementary level, as the
following chart illustrates
(19,
p.
49).
1960
1969
Yes
71.6%
65.7%
No
21.8
24.5
6.6
9.8
Don't know
An increase in the difficulty of classroom discipline
was
shown by a survey of teachers in the Spring of 1968 and
in the Spring of 1971, as illustrated by the following chart
(19, p. 105).
9
Classroom Discipline
1968
1971
Total
15.2%
21.2%
Secondary
14.5
18.5
Men
13.3
18.8
Women
16.2
22.7
Large Systems
25.5
32.8
Medium-Size Systems
11.8
19.2
Small Systems
11.4
13.1
Urban
23.3
34.0
Suburban
10.8
16.5
Rural
12.1
14.5
This tends to show that even experienced teachers are
concerned about the use of punishment.
Thus, one can see
the uneasy situation a new teacher is facing and the need
for educational institutions to learn all they possibly can
about the problem.
In relation to this study,
the above
chart shows that the large systems, both urban and suburban,
show an increased concern over the problem of discipline.
Despite the widespread and almost daily use of punishment in the classroom, there has been very little in the way
of systematic study of the effects of punishment
(7, p. 108).
Since punishment is a complex and sometimes unpredictable
phenomenon, it must be used as skillfully and carefully as
possible
(7, p. 126).
Knowing the attitudinal changes,
10
concerning punishment, of student teachers in inner city
schools and suburban schools could serve as a method or
guide in developing a better student teaching program.
Shifts in attitudes of subjects while experiencing
contact with persons of a different subculture were carried
out by Mager and found to be very useful to student teaching
programs
(15, pp. 116-120).
Butts and Raun studied shifts
in attitudes of students and used the results in a teacher
education program.
Osgood reports several studies con-
cerning shifts in attitudes
(4, 5).
A search of the literature revealed that there were no
studies dealing with the specific purpose and problem treated
in this study.
Studies were located which were in part re-
lated to this study, and these were reviewed
11,
14, 15,
23,
(3, 4, 5,
6, 9,
30).
The main difference in this study was the placing of
student teachers in large minority oriented inner city
schools.
This was for many of the student teachers the
first time they had worked in a situation of almost ninetyfive per cent minority composition.
In addition to the apparent lack of sufficient research
in the area of punishment and classroom discipline, this
study has the following implications:
1.
This study should contribute to a better understanding
of the effect and influence of group and individual attitude
structures.
11
2.
This study should raise some questions about the
student teaching phase of professional development.
3.
This study should raise some questions about inner
city school problems and methods of handling them.
4.
This study should give some basis for the develop-
ment of instructional materials for the development of
proper attitudes and wholesome self-assessment and control.
Definition of Terms
For the purposes of this study the following definitions
have been formulated:
Attitude--a factor which involves a tendency to perceive
and react in a particular manner toward an aspect of environment.
Attitude change--the difference between the attitude
as assessed by the pretest and the attitude as assessed by
the posttest scales of the Semantic Differential Technique.
Punishment--use of corporal punishment, expulsion from
class, verbal reprimand, moving in the classroom, detention
after school or class, and
"busy" work in the class.
All
forms of punishment will be teacher initiated.
Limitation
There will be one limitation in this study in that the
inner city group of student teachers is an experimental group
of volunteers for the inner city school.
12
The Instruments for the Proposed Study
The Semantic Differential has become one of the standard
tools of attitude studies and has particular merit when the
researcher wishes to measure unconscious shifts occurring in
the connotations attached to an attitude object.
The Semantic
Differential also has been found to be a useful instrument to
measure shifts in attitudes of subjects while experiencing
contact with persons of different subcultures which the
student teachers in the inner city school will definitely
have
(17, pp.
107-108).
Charles E. Osgood, George J. Suci,
and Percy H. Tannenbaun developed the Semantic Differential
as an instrument to measure "connotative" meanings of concepts held by individuals toward objects, events, persons,
ideas,
and situations
(21).
Being essentially the combination of controlled association and scaling procedures the Semantic Differential
Technique is a measuring device that is flexible, widely
applicable,
simple to administer,
simple to score, and in
accord with the basic criteria of an acceptable measuring
instrument (23, p. 361).
The Semantic Differential was
first utilized as a tool for research on the psychology of
meaning.
Now its value as a possibility for attitude assess-
ment has been recognized by many researchers
(1, p.
534).
There are no standard scales or concepts for the Semantic
Differential.
Concepts and scales for a given study depend
13
on the "purpose" of the research.
It is the nature of the
problem that chiefly defines the class and form of concept
to be selected.
It must be pointed out that in the area of
measurement of attitudes a particular form of the Semantic
Differential may be developed, but there is no general
"Semantic Differential Test"
(21, pp. 76-77).
Finally, it should be pointed out that the Semantic
Differential is a technique of measurement and is not a test
with an invariant set of items
(21, pp.
26, 76).
The subjects are provided with a concept to be differentiated and a set of bipolar adjectival scales against which
to do it.
For each item the subject indicates the direction
of his association and its intensity on a seven step scale.
An unfavorable attitude is operationally defined as a mean
rating between 1.0 and 3.5 and a favorable attitude is
defined as a mean rating between 4.5 and 7.0.
Thus, one
can see that the major properties of attitudes are readily
accommodated by this procedure.
Direction of attitude,
favorable or unfavorable, is indicated by the selection of
polar terms.
The adjective pairs, utilized in this study, have been
factor analyzed in previous studies to measure the evaluative factor.
These pairs have high loadings in the evalu-
ative factor acrosss concepts generally and negligible
14
loadings on other factors as indicated from various previous
factor analysis studies
(21, 29).
The Purdue Attitude Scale Toward Any Practice has
particular merit when the researcher wishes to have an attitude scale which has standardized norms and scales with which
to work.
This instrument is similiar to the semantic differ-
ential technique in that a person responds to a concept, such
as corporal punishment, by checking on a scale of statements
ranging from very favorable to unfavorable the statement or
statements that he agrees with the most.
The reliability
and validity of the Purdue Attitude Scale Toward Any Practice
have been established to the extent that the scale is acceptable for this study.
Procedures for the Collection of Data
Subjects for the study were a group of thirty-two student
teachers who were going into three large inner city secondary
schools and a group of thirty-five student teachers going
into large suburban secondary schools for their student teaching experience.
The student teachers in the inner city school
were in the school all of the spring semester of 1972 while
the student teachers in the suburban schools were in the
schools only about the first eight weeks of the smester.
Both groups were posttested at the end of the first eight
weeks of the spring semester of 1972.
15
One technique used for this study was a form of the
Semantic Differential set up to obtain results on eight
concepts of punishment:
teacher spanking, principal spanking,
stay in after school for thirty minutes, stay after class
until everyone leaves the room, either be quiet or I will
go get the principal, be quiet or copy a page from the
dictionary, stand out in the hall by the class door for the
rest of the period,
and sit down and shut up.
The student
teachers were asked in the instructions to respond to the
concepts of punishment as they would feel in their role as
a student teacher about saying:
1.
"Johnny, come out in the hall for a spanking."
2.
"Johnny, come to the principal's office for a
spanking by the principal."
3.
"Johnny, sit down and shut up."
4.
"Johnny, stay after school today for thirty minutes."
5.
"Johnny, stay after class until everyone leaves the
"
room.
6.
"Johnny, be quiet or copy a page from the dictionary."
7.
"Johnny, stand out in the hall by the class door for
the rest of the period."
8.
"Johnny, either be quiet, or I will go get the
principal."
The other technique used in this study was the Purdue
Attitude Scale Toward Any Practice.
This scale was set up to
16
obtain results on the concept of corporal punishment in the
classroom.
The students were asked to mark the positions
on the scale with which they agreed in their role as a
student teacher in reference to the concept of corporal
punishment.
The student teachers were administered the Semantic
Differential and the Purdue Attitude scale prior to their
student teaching experience and immediately after their
student teaching experience.
Students were advised that
their answers were completely anonymous so they should be
free to give their true impressions.
The students were
also told that the pretest and posttest would not influence
their teaching grade.
Treatment of Data
The pretest and posttest scores on the Semantic Differential technique were recorded for a statistical analysis by
the Center for Research Evaluation at North Texas State University, Denton, Texas.
Procedures were used to determine
if there was a significant change in attitude toward punishment by both groups of student teachers.
Next, procedures
were used to determine if there was a significant difference
in change between the group in the inner city school and
the group in the suburban school.
Thirdly, procedures were
used to determine if there was a significant difference in
attitude change between the male and female student teachers.
17
The pretest and posttest scores on the Purdue Master
Attitude scores were studied to determine if the student
teachers in the inner city schools had a significantly
greater change in attitude toward corporal punishment than
those student teachers in the suburban schools.
All procedures recommended by the Center for Research
and Evaluation were employed in the statistical analysis of
the data.
The two procedures specifically used were the t-
Test for Correlated Means and the Analysis of Covariance
(Two-Way Design).
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Anastasi, Anne, Psychological Testing, New York, The
McMillan Co., 1968.
2.
Bailey, Stephen K., Disruption in Urban Public Secondary
Schools, Washington, D. C., National Association of
Secondary Principals, 1970.
3.
Brim, Burl J., "Attitude Changes in Teacher Education
Students," The Journal of Educational Research, LIX
(July-August, 1966), 441-445.
4.
Butts, D. P. and C. E. Raun, A Study in Teacher Attitude
Change, Austin, Texas, Research Development Center for
Teacher Education, 1968a.
5.
Butts, D. P. and C. E. Raun, A Study of Teacher Change,
Austin, Texas, Research Development Center for Teacher
Education, 1968b.
6.
Campbell, Donald E., "Dimensional Attitude Changes of
Student Teachers," The Journal of Educational Research,
LXI (December, 1967), 160-162.
7.
Clarizio, Harvey F., Toward Positive Classroom Discipline,
New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1971.
8.
Combs, Arthur W., The Professional Education of Teachers,
Boston, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965.
9.
Corrigan, Dean and Kenneth Griswald, "Attitude Changes of
Student Teachers," The Journal of Educational Research,
LVII (October, 1963), 93-95.
10.
The Passage to
Eddy, Elizabeth M., Becoming a Teacher:
Teachers
University,
Columbia
Status,
Professional
1969.
College Press,
11.
Feshbach, Norma D. and Astrid Bergil, "A Note on the Use
of the Semantic Differential in Measuring Teacher
Personality and Values," Educational and Psychological
Measurements, XXVIII (Autumn, 1968), 923-929.
18
19
12.
Gage, N. L., Handbook of Research on Teaching, Chicago,
Rand McNally and Company, 1963.
13.
Horn, J. L. and W. L. Morrison, "Dimensions of Teacher
Attitudes," Journal of Educational Psychology, LVI
(June, 1965), 118-125.
14.
Lipscomb, Edna E., "A Study of the Attitudes of Student
Teachers in Elementary Education," The Journal of
Educational Research, LX (December, 1966), 159-163.
15.
Mazer, G. E.,, "Attitude and Personality Change in
Student Teachers of Disadvantaged Youth," Journal of
Educational Research, LXIII (November, 1969), 116-120.
16.
Morse, W. C., and G. M. Wingo, Psychology and Teaching,
Glenview, Illinois, Scott, Foresman, and Company, 1969.
17.
Muse, Milton, Selected Readings for the Introduction
to the Teaching Profession, Berkeley, California,
McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1970.
18.
National Education Association, "Corporal Punishment:
Teacher Opinion," National Education Research Bulletin,
XLVIII
19.
(May,
1970) ,
48-49.
National Educational Association,
"Major Problems of
Teachers," National Education Research Bulletin, XLIX
(December, 1971), 103-108.
20.
National Educational Association, "Discipline in the
Classroom," Washington, D. C., National Education
Association Journal, 1969.
21.
Osgood, Charles E., George J. Suci, and Percy H.
Tannenbaum, The Measurement of Meaning, Urbana, Chicago
and London, University of Illinois Press, 1967.
22.
Risk, Thomas M., Principles and Practices of Teaching
in Secondary Schools, New York, American Book Company,
1958.
23.
Remmers, Herman H., Introduction to Opinion and Attitude
Measurement,
24.
Sandgun,
D. L.
New York, Harper and Brothers, 1954.
and L. G.
Schmidt,
"Does Practice Teaching
Change Attitudes Toward Teaching?"
Journal of Educational Research, XLIX (May, 1956), 673-680.
20
25.
Scott, Owen and Sterling G. Brinkley, "Attitude Changes
of Student Teachers and the Validity of the Minnesota
Teacher Attitude Inventory," Journal of Educational
Psychology, LI (April, 1960), 76-81.
26.
Sharpe, Donald M., "Threshold to the Profession,"
National Educational Association Journal, LIV (April,
1965), 33-35.
27.
Smith, B. Othanel, Research in Teacher Education,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1971.
28.
Smith, B. Othanel, Teachers for the Real World, Washington,
D. C., The American Association of Colleges for Teacher
Education, 1969.
29.
Snider, James G., Charles E. Osgood, Semantic Differential
Technique:
A Sourcebook, Chicago, Aldine Publishing
Co., 1969.
30.
Woodruff, Asahil D., "An Exploratory Evaluation of Teacher
Education," Education, Administration and Supervision,
XXXII (January, 1946), 1-18.
CHAPTER II
SURVEY OF LITERATURE
To assist in accomplishing the purpose of this study,
a review of the literature
divided into:
was made.
This review was
(1) Discipline and Control in the Classroom;
(2) Attitudes and Attitude Change Research Related to Student
Teaching;
and
(3)
Corporal Punishment.
Discipline and Control in the Classroom
Headlines such as "Tension in Schools,"
Restless,"
"Students
"Revolt Among Pupils," and "Unrest Spreading" have
been carried by the news media in many areas of the country.
Disturbances have not been confined to any age group or one
type of school or community.
Student unrest situations have
occurred in junior and senior high schools, in metropolitan
areas and small cities, and in racially mixed areas and
non-racially mixed areas.
With this general increase in
disrespect for authority, an increase in the difficulty of
classroom management and discipline has shown itself in
teaching.
Student unrest,
sometimes leading to demonstrations,
boycotts, and even destruction and violence, is a spreading
problem.
Starting in the nation's colleges and universities
21
22
during the last decade,
the phenomenon is rapidly spreading
to the secondary schools.
In a recent survey by the National
Association of Secondary School Principals, three out of five
principals reported some kind of student protest in their
schools.
Thirty-five percent of the complaints were in the
areas of dress regulations and school disciplinary practices.
Sixty percent of the student unrest can be ascribed to issues
outside the school's capacity to provide constructive change.
All of this unrest affects the classroom and the teacher in
the classroom (19, p. 57).
Four major changes have made the school's task of pupil
control more difficult.
First,
a large part of the responsi-
bility for pupil attendance shifted from the pupil to the
school.
Second, pupils were more varied than before.
Third,
traditional methods of control were no longer practical or
acceptable.
Finally, as schools grew larger and more ex-
pensive, the consequences of disorder became more serious
(47).
The necessity of accommodating a large and varied
student body, which could not be controlled by traditional
methods of corporal punishment,
segregation,
failure, or
expulsion, has forced American public schools to seek new
or better solutions.
Whatever the educational justification
might have been, milder disciplinary measures have resulted
in an attempt to alleviate problems confronting the schools.
23
A brief analysis of the history of discipline and
punishment can be very illuminating.
One interesting fact,
for example, is that at many points in the history of education, school discipline has actually bordered on barbarism.
This would account for the many laws regarding methods of
punishment in public schools.
The change in concepts of
discipline and punishment through the ages is tied to the
dominant social and religious theories of an age.
The most
recent changes, for example, have resulted largely from our
present awareness of democratic ideals and our rapidly increasing knowledge of mental health (24, p. 144).
Harsh punishments of a bygone era have all but disappeared.
Some teachers and principals still,
on occasion,
wield a paddle, give a quick spat with a ruler, or in some
manner inflict momentary pain.
Even traditional sanctions
not involving physical punishment are used with restraint,
ridicule,
sarcasm, detentions, extra assignments, or suspension
for a few days are avoided, and permanent expulsion is rare.
While it is natural to hope that punishment will not be needed,
there may be times when the learning situation can only be
restored by the use of some form of punishment.
When this
is the case, punishment must be used judiciously if it is
to bring about the desired behavior.
Its misuse frequently
increases the difficulty by creating resentment and hostility
in the pupil.
Insecure and overly dependent pupils may
24
respond with panic.
Also, pupils and teachers do not always
consider punishment in the same way (44, p.
199).
The word discipline is apparently derived from the root
word disciple, meaning one who follows or studies under an
accepted leader.
In some early civilizations discipline
implied teaching or helping one to grow or achieve.
Later
on in time it slowly became associated with blind conformity.
Today there is little or no way to count the number of
meanings it has for different perople.
It probably is the
most talked about but least understood of all problems of
teaching
(19).
Agreement on the meaning of discipline is not easy:
for some individuals it has a connotation of punishment only;
for some it means enforced obedience by means of punishment;
for others it implies systematic correction with punishment
when necessary; but for most it involves elements of control
of behavior which include punishment
(35, p.
209).
There
seems to be little or limited research on just discipline.
This situation is probably due to the fact that discipline
was originally a very comprehensive and amorphous concept
which over a period of time has become more precise and
concrete as different parts are crystallized and separated
into different categories.
Discipline problems are usually
confined largely to the thoughtless and irresponsible acts
of young people.
Correction or punishment usually is aimed
25
at helping the individual to adjust to the personal and social
forces of his experiences
(19, pp.
46-47).
The concept of good discipline and classroom control that
has generally come to be accepted during the twentieth century
emphasizes self-control as the final aim of school discipline.
In accepting this view or attitude, teachers should take care
not to overlook the necessity for immediate classroom order.
Teachers are in authority, and their authority must be recognized and accepted by all pupils.
Discipline in the sense
of order in the classroom must be maintained if any directed
learning is to take place
(46).
Without reservation, it may be said that much of what
is currently being written about classroom discipline has
been written and rewritten many times.
To a certain extent
the literature is concerned with problems rising out of
special situations.
When some of the problems appear repe-
titive, the reason is not that teachers have never learned
how to control their classes.
problems are timeless.
It is because all disciplinary
Each new generation of teachers writes
and speaks about the problems of his time, using the language
and style appropriate to his generation.
Teachers are not
born with the ability to achieve good classroom order, nor
does the good disciplinarian result solely from experience
in teaching.
Attitudes help or hinder the teacher in identi-
fying the right thing to do quickly and appropriately.
In
26
all of this, the teacher will find no easy formula for
solution of his problems in classroom management and
discipline
(46, p. 390).
Because the agency in today's American society most
likely to be responsible for controlling juveniles in the
public school, attitude toward punishment and discipline
is important.
Located in nearly every neighborhood and
processing more young people than any other institution,
the public school is widely viewed as the logical body for
regulating youthful behavior.
Some teachers may complain
about having to be babysitters or policemen, but the prevailing assumption that the school is responsible for
controlling youngsters is seldom seriously challenged.
American public school teachers are more confused and
disturbed about matters of discipline today than at any
previous time in the history of the public school system.
There tends to be an appreciable gap between the theory of
discipline as taught in colleges of education and discipline
as it is actually conceived and practiced in schools.
In
everyday disciplinary practice, American teachers have never
gone along completely with the extreme ideas of educational
theorists.
Teachers have to be realistic in handling
problems of discipline because they encounter them daily
in doing their jobs.
Unlike professors of education, who
rarely if ever have to cope with disciplinary problems in
27
the classroom, they can ill afford to be starry-eyed about
these matters
(42, p.
381).
Educational theory in the field of classroom discipline
has remained virtually unchanged over the past two decades,
but the pendulum of public opinion in recent years has been
swinging further and further away from the formerly fashionable cult of permissiveness.
As a result, a growing estrange-
ment has arisen between the general public and educational
and psychological theorists with the classroom teacher caught
squarely in the middle
(42, p. 388).
Apparently it has been
assumed that teacher education classes have shed some light
on behavior modification and discipline.
But most of these
courses do not explore any ways of handling discipline
problems until the student teaching experience.
Teachers'
colleges should terminate the prevailing conspiracy of
silence they maintain about the existence of disciplinary
problems in the public schools.
Although discipline is the
one aspect of teaching about which the beginning teacher is
most worried, he receives little or no
in handling this problem.
practical instruction
Colleges of education rationalize
their inadequacies in this area by pretending that disciplinary
problems are relative rare occurrences involving the disturbed
child, or more typically, the disturbed teacher.
All this
suggests that prospective teachers today not only need to
be taught more realistic propositions about the nature and
28
purposes of discipline but also require adequately supervised,
down-to-earth experience in coping with classroom discipline
(42, p. 389).
Few class periods pass without some behavior incident,
be it large or small, which needs a teacher's attention
All teachers of adolescents have discipline problems.
cording to Morse and Wingo
(19).
Ac-
(30) discipline is the biggest
problem of the beginning teacher.
Maintaining pupil disci-
pline is one of the most persistent problems teachers face
(19).
Mass compulsory education has created custodial
problems as well as educational problems.
When one considers
that there are over forty-million pupils in the public elementary and secondary schools of the United States, the
percentages of disturbances appear small, but methods of
dealing with disturbances must be studied.
No matter how much subject matter one knows, he cannot
teach unless he can control a class.
Almost all first year
teachers report discipline to be their chief problem.
These
teachers usually ask for much more emphasis upon discipline
techniques in their professional education courses.
Much
of the discipline difficulty of first year teachers occurs
because they do not gain in their student teaching an
accurate and comprehensive picture of a high school and
the
job of the high school teacher
(3, p. 48).
29
All teachers have discipline problems.
The struggle
for classroom control is a part of teaching for the experienced and inexperienced and the skilled and the unskilled.
Differences in control of the classroom and discipline
problems are usually those of frequency, degree, and kind.
There are no panaceas in teaching.
One needs to lose faith
in pupils only if, as a teacher, one fails to learn that
pupil behavior can be modified by the teacher's attitudes
and purposes and that it is apparent that it is the nature
of pupils to resist less actively the teacher, his method,
or subject matter which interest them
(3, pp.
60-61).
Many administrators want discipline problems handled
exclusively inside the classroom so as to not have a situation
of administrators against students and parents.
At different
times it has even been implied that teachers who send students
to the office are not "good" teachers.
These administrators
have usually not announced any completely effective method
for behavior modification except to let the teacher handle
the problems.
Since research has shown that the systematic application
of behavior modification principles can bring about needed
behavior change in educational settings, the teacher must
assume the role of behavioral engineer, and through the
application of behavior modification techniques create a
classroom atmosphere that not only leads to desired
"M."
30
instructional outcomes but reduces the chances of a child
learning inappropriate responses.
Teachers themselves seem to expect different standards
of conduct.
As a teacher one's concept of discipline re-
flects one's views on the nature of man.
If,
for instance,
a teacher thinks of youngsters as being inherently "mean"
or "bad", one is likely to think of discipline as enforced
conformity.
At the other end of the continuum are those
who think of discipline as guided growth in self control
(19).
A teacher's fundamental attitude toward discipline helps
establish the classroom atmosphere, whether it be restrictive
and formal, friendly and relaxed, or chaotic.
Nearly always
problems of discipline which require some form of punishment
come up both from within and outside the classroom.
It
should be pointed out that serious behavior problems of maladjustment result from deep rooted causes; whereas, rather
superficial ones may stem from many situations that with
proper corrective measures are readily corrected
(35, p. 221).
When beginning teachers feel that they are not accepted
and rebuked by those they teach because of disciplinary
actions, they become lost and confused in their new position
of authority in the classroom.
The beginning teachers'
initiation into teaching is partial at best, and many times
they have an attitude of failure with those pupils whom they
are unable to reach.
The least difficult pupils are fre-
quently perceived as compensating for the bad ones who require
31
punishment and discipline action, but even the least difficult do not make up for those who do not respond to actions
initiated by the teacher.
For the new teacher, encountering pupils who do not
conform to the patterns of social behavior expected in the
classroom is more often than not professionally and personally
traumatic.
These students, unlike the good workers, usually
fail to respond in ways that permit or enhance the true professional work of teaching.
These most difficult pupils
typically cause teachers to spend a great deal of time on
what most teachers feel is the unprofessional work of
disciplining the student.
Most of the time the teacher
tends to develop the attitude that these students threaten
the authority of the teacher
(2, p.
88).
The beginning teacher need not have an attitude of
excessive fear of the discipline problem nor should he
underestimate the difficulty of the problem.
A very signifi-
cant point is that an analysis of causes for the failure of
beginning teachers,
as reported in several independent in-
vestigations, reveals poor discipline as the leading cause
in every study.
In reality, the real cause of the failure
of a beginning teacher may be more fundamental than the way
that he deals with his disciplinary cases.
The persistence
of unsolved disciplinary problems provides concrete and
convincing evidence to school officials that a severe weakness
32
is present and that they are likely to classify this weakness
under discipline
(2, pp. 91-99).
An accepted educational environment with classroom
relationships which incorporate both teachers and pupils into
the work of formal education is often not established, or if
established, not maintained in the large inner-city school.
Many times the friction which arises when teachers attempt
to discipline or punish difficult pupils, who are frequently
recalcitrant, sometimes truculent, and nearly always stranger
to the ways of the school and its educational traditions,
can and many times does turn the classroom into a battleground.
Both teachers and pupils may experience serious
attitude changes in the process, as the classroom becomes
a unit in a system of custodial care (14, pp.
99-100).
The high incidence of turnover and attrition among
teachers of inner-city schools is one of the nation's most
pressing and perplexing problems.
Rated highest as reasons
for this turnover are the discipline and punishment attitudes
of the teachers who must face these schools.
Increasingly,
teacher training institutions are being called on to help
alleviate this situation.
These institutions must give
attention to the procedures which are vital to successful
teaching in the inner-city school.
In summary, disciplinary difficulties
are commonly
recognized as the most frequently occurring problems of
33
student teachers and beginning teachers.
Usually experienced
teachers will not list discipline as one of their problems
but will be concerned with their disciplinary techniques and
whether or not such techniques are conducive to an efficient
learning atmosphere.
Most of the time student teachers,
beginning teachers, and experienced teachers are concerned
with the association of discipline and some form of punishment given to students who are not meeting the teacher's
expectations.
Attitudes of the teacher will set the atti-
tudes of the classroom.
Most of what a teacher does is a
reflection of what he is and believes.
The teacher's atti-
tude toward punishment may decide if the teacher is going
to be able to control the classroom and how effective the
discipline will be in the classroom.
Attitudes and Attitude Change Research Related
to Student Teaching
Like most abstract terms, the word attitude has several
different meanings.
Derived from the Latin aptus,
one defi-
nition has to do with fitness or adaptedness, connoting a
subjective or mental state of preparation for action.
For
example, in the field of art, the term may come to mean the
posture of a figure in statuary or painting.
Likewise,
in
the field of social science, educators, psychologists, and
sociologists have attempted to clarify the origin and nature
of attitudes
(34).
Osgood,
Suci, and Tannenbaum
(37) presently
seem to think that attitudes are inferred states of the
34
organism that are learned and implicit and may be acquired
in the same manner that any other internal learned activity
is acquired.
A prevailing trend in definitions of attitudes today
seems to be to consider attitudes as latent variables used
to describe consistency among responses to a specific set
of stimuli.
Cooper and McGaugh
(9)
put in their definition
of the construct "attitude" that belief, bias, doctrine,
faith,
ideology, judgment, value, and opinion were all im-
portant components.
Doob states that an attitude is evoked
by a variety of stimulus patterns and is considered an implicit response to patterns of overt responses
(12).
Another
similar definition comes from Newcomb when he implies that
an attitude can be defined as an everlasting organization of
motivational, perceptual, cognitive,
and emotional processes
in respect to some aspect of one's world
(33, p.
23).
He
also states that "an attitude is the individual's organization
of psychological processes,
as inferred by his behavior, with
respect to some aspect of the world which he distinguishes
from other aspects."
Formation of attitudes and change in attitudes are both
continuous aspects of growth.
Attitudes are used by the
individual in constructing a meaningful, orderly world.
Changes in original
attitudes are made as new information
is made available to the individual.
When the individual
35
moves into new groups with new beliefs, norms, and values,
his attitudes will tend to show accommodating changes.
study by Jacobs
(20) is a good example of this.
A
As a group
of students progressed through professional courses, they
moved away from rigid and formalized attitudes toward more
liberal and democratic points of view.
The initial teaching experience is obtained during the
student teaching program which usually is defined as a period
of guided teaching when a college student assumes increasing
responsibility for directing the learning of a group or groups
of students.
Student teaching is considered as a time when
attitudes are developed and modified by the different experiences to which the student teacher is exposed during this
time.
Actual teaching experience will probably be affected
by many of the attitudes which result from the student
teaching experience
(1).
An analysis of the literature appearing in the professional journals today reveals many reports that student
teaching is a valuable experience for the training of
teachers
(6, p.
160).
Michaeles
(28, p.
1479)
reported that
very little evaluation of the student teaching program has
been done.
Wickman
(50)
reported that it is necessary to study
attitudes of teachers
toward students in order to obtain
the criteria by which the ideal teacher may be judged.
In
36
a study by Lipscomb,
it was found that very significant
changes occur in student teachers'
student teaching experience
(25, p.
study by Sandgren (43, p. 679)
attitudes during their
159).
Still another
found that attitudes of
student teachers "improve" during the period of time in
which practice of student teaching is taken.
A large number of studies have been undertaken to
determine whether formal educational programs in schools
and colleges result in changes in attitudes and value systems.
Recently a major comprehensive summary of research on attitude
change resulting from college programs was reported.
This
report indicated that a college education usually resulted
in greater homogeneity of values and attitudes.
Students
who entered college with extreme views tended to move in
toward the middle as their college education progressed
(48).
Many researchers have begun to try and identify factors
in attitude change of prospective teachers
29, 41, 43, 51).
(7, 8, 11, 23, 26,
The effect on the attitudes of prospective
teachers of the various programs of teacher education should
be studied carefully so that the teacher education institution can consider the program which produces the most
favorable attitudes in prospective teachers.
Since research
(13, 5, 52) presents evidence that the attitudes of prospective
teachers tend to change during the professional semester in
teacher education, it would appear useful to research all
37
areas of attitude change, especially an area as important
as punishment and discipline.
It must be emphasized that
the first and most important means of controlling a classroom is the student teacher's attitude
(3, p. 51).
Attitudes and opinions are extremely important to
understand, because they indicate what people might accept
or reject.
If educators can uncover and analyze some of the
common hidden motives the teachers hold concerning discipline
issues, they could perhaps work out new and better solutions
to many of the discipline problems confronting education
today.
Uncovering some of the attitudes that teachers have
toward discipline and punishment should reveal some of the
teacher's private reference points which will always influence his behavior in discipline issues (7).
Many studies of student teaching or the professional
semester have dealt with changes in students' attitude attributable to the student teaching experience.
Dahl investi-
gated changes in classroom behavior and attitudes of student
teachers toward pupils in their classroom.
The fact that
the attitudes toward pupils did change was found to be evident, but Dahl could not pin point the direction of the
change, because of a high level of fluctuation
(11).
found no significant change in student teachers'
attitudes toward children during student teaching
Price
Ragsdale
expressed
(41).
(40) found that student teachers tended to change
their own attitudes in the direction of those held by their
38
supervising teachers and many times acquired many of the
teaching practices of their supervising teachers.
and Griswold
Corrigan
(10) found that student teachers held certain
principles of teaching to be important to the extent that
their college supervisors, cooperating schools, and cooperating teachers implemented these principles in actual
practice.
If the principles were contradicted in practice,
the student teachers tended to suspect their soundness and
had new or stronger feelings about these principles.
The current national emphasis upon the qualitative
preparation of teachers should require that increased attention be devoted to the nature and types of personality
and/or attitude changes that occur during the teacher preparation process.
Attitudes exhibited by teachers toward their
students are usually recognized in part as a reflection of
the teacher's own personality organization.
Therefore,
an
increased effort should be devoted to the enlargement and
verification of any and all evidence concerning the noncognitive characteristics of teachers.
One of the purposes of all teacher education programs
is to effect a change in the behavior of students so that
they can become successful in-service teachers.
Since atti-
tudes show in some way an inclination or predisposition to
act in certain ways in given situations, it probably should
be the purpose of all teacher education programs to mold
39
attitudes that will equip the prospective teacher to deal
with the teaching role in a way that will bring the greatest
benefit to his students.
Therefore, the relationship of
student perception of persons or situations involved in the
student teaching program and changes in attitude appear to
be an area that deserves much study (20, p.
410).
In a study conducted by Weinstock and Peccolo the
subjects showed a marked change in attitude scores after
student teaching
(49).
Campbell found in some instances
that attitude scores changed after student teaching while
others in the same study had no change
(6).
Sandgren and
Schmidt conducted a study which also showed that attitudes
of student teachers toward children and school work changed
during the student teaching phase of training
(43).
In a study by Oelke, it was found that the student
teacher's attitudes change during student teaching to the
point that student teachers were able to accept much of the
pupils' undesirable aggression that would have been intolerable previously.
The basis for the change seems to be the
student teaching experience itself
(36).
Questions related to the nature and pattern of student
teachers'
attitudes were explored by Dunham in his study
which involved student teachers,
college supervisors.
supervising teachers,
and
He found that off-campus experience
affected the student teachers'
attitudes toward the
students
40
more than did the on-campus experience during the student
teaching period
(13).
In a study conducted by Mazer (27) concerning attitude
changes of student teachers teaching disadvantaged youth, it
was concluded that the attitudes and personal values and
constructs of student teachers can be significantly modified
during the student teaching period both by the exposure and
by set training classes.
Mazer reconfirmed that attitudes
held by prospective teachers are a major concern of those
engaged in training programs
(27).
Looking at teacher attitudes, Hodenfield and Stinnett
seem to sum up general feelings by saying that graduates of
teacher education, in traditional forms or in the newest
patterns, are very rarely prepared to cope with all the classroom problems.
Many teachers seem to want to ignore problems
and teach only those who do not have or create problems of
any kind
(18, p.
66).
Finally, in a study done by Harrow
(16), problem areas
related to student teaching experiences were identified.
Fifty problem areas were identified and rated according to
their severity.
Results emphasized that student teachers
should be provided with relevant information concerning
ciscipline of students and four other areas.
It was recom-
mended that discipline of students and the four other areas
be included as guidelines for curriculum development in
41
teacher preparation programs so as to send out students with
an attitude toward these problem areas that would enable them
to deal with the problem areas effectively.
(1) administrative functions;
were:
(3)
problems of student peer groups;
The five areas
(2) discipline;
(4) motivation of
students; and (5) policies of school and school system.
Building and altering attitudes has been, and probably
will remain, one of the basic objectives of all formal education.
The fact that attitudes do change during the student
teaching phase of the training of teachers stresses the need
for these changes to be in the right direction.
If the
prospective teacher has received correct training, then he
will probably develop the ability to experience correct attitude changes.
Therefore, all information collected concerning
attitude change should be of significant interest.
Corporal Punishment
Corporal punishment never quite dies as an educational
issue.
Although forty-nine states permit pupil punishment
in schools, individual districts approach corporal punishment
warily, according to a survey of school administrators undertaken by McGraw Hill World News.
Corporal punishment is
usually based on the psychology of fear.
A study of corporal punishment in the early 1960's
showed that it was a major factor in nearly all schools.
42
It seems that the rise in unrest and disorder in the schools
has revived strong public support for corporal punishment.
Some districts ban it, but most restrict it to "last resort"
situations, spelling out in careful detail how and when
corporal punishment may be applied and specifying safeguards
to protect both punisher and pupil.
Corporal punishment usually falls within the scope of
the teacher and the principal.
Legally the teacher stands
in loco parentis in respect to pupil control.
This phrase
when used by the courts usually means that the teacher has
the legal status of a conditionally privileged person standing
in place of the parent while the child is under the teacher's
jurisdiction.
The parents, by sending a child to school,
delegate to the teacher authority to discipline the pupil for
all offenses which interfere with the good order and adequate
control of the school.
Usually the teacher's jurisdiction
extends to all offenses committed concerning the authority of
the school within all legal limitations and school regulations.
This is true in practically every state of the United States
(24, p. 146).
From colonial times until the end of the nineteenth
century there were very few questions concerning corporal
punishment as the best method in order to handle disobedient
pupils.
After the beginning of the twentieth century,
such as G.
Stanley Hall,
Francis W. Parker,
leaders
and Edward L.
43
Thorndyke began to make definite statements against corporal
punishment.
The basic idea of Horace Mann was to replace
authoritarianism and corporal punishment by strengthening
and improving the ability and quality of the teacher.
Refer-
ence to corporal punishment as assault and battery began to
appear frequently, and corporal punishment was denounced as
being a brutal and inhuman imposition of adult will,
a child to a spineless, subservient being
(22).
reducing
Talk tended
to emphasize the idea that rearing of children should not be
a haphazard affair but based upon an educated understanding
of human nature.
The trend toward abolishing corporal punishment continued
through the World War II years.
Many teachers began to try
to meet the physical and emotional needs of their pupils and
to be concerned with these needs.
In trying to reach these
so-called new needs, the teachers began to think that many
disciplinary problems disappeared when old punitive measures
were stopped and new measures applied.
There has been much progress made in theory and in
practice in the area of discipline and punishment since World
War II.
There has been a great deal of controversy over
corporal punishment in the last few years mainly because of
a need or
"felt" need by the public for more control in the
public schools.
In many parts of the country the prevailing
opinion is that corporal punishment
is necessary,
effective,
44
and harmless.
Physical punishment is considered by many to
be an acceptable form of school discipline because it is an
accented child rearing practice.
Teachers and parents are
reluctant to change this practice because of the fact that
it seems violence is condoned and rewarded by the present
day society.
It is felt that people are frequently tempted
to respond to conflict and frustration with physical force.
Although legal principles concerning corporal punishment
in the public schools have not changed much lately, the laws
have become more concrete concerning this issue.
State
statutes deal with corporal punishment in many ways.
The
District of Columbia and the state of New Jersey have laws
which specifically prohibit corporal punishment of any type.
In New Jersey the law states that no person employed or engaged in a school or educational institution shall inflict
or cause to be inflicted corporal punishment upon a pupil
attending such school or institution
(21, p. 144).
Approximately one-fourth of the states expressly allow
the teacher or administrator to administer "reasonable"
corporal punishment.
Most of these states have in their
statutes specific steps as to how and what steps must be
taken in administering the punishment.
Many of these states
have passed the law after obtaining pressure from teacher
groups to have a written code as a guideline instead of
tradition
(17, p. 50).
Since 1958, at least eight states
45
have enacted provisions expressly permitting the use of
corporal punishment in the public school.
Some states have no statutes relating to corporal punishment but have precedents set by court decisions that make the
use of corporal punishment possible.
Other states have written
policies set by their state board of education usually based
on an attorney general's opinion or traditional law concerning
control and discipline.
Some states leave the issue of
corporal punishment to the local school districts and policies
of the board of trustees, whereas other states follow the law
as written under the assault and battery clauses, which usually has a section stating that assault and battery does not
apply to authorized agents of the parent
(21, p.
147).
A
few states have no legal basis for corporal punishment and
admit to this.
The extent to which corporal punishment is
used in these states would be difficult to ascertain since
no one really cares to discuss the issue
(21, p.
147).
A state law to limit the use of corporal punishment is
being debated at the present time in North Carolina.
Op-
ponents have stated that corporal punishment does not enhance
learning and conflicts with the aims of the professional educator.
Proponents say that corporal punishment is needed to
enable teachers to perform in loco parentis.
Proponents in-
clude the North Carolina Association of Educators.
46
In the absence of prohibitory legislation,
local,
state or
a teacher may administer corporal punishment because
the teacher stands in loco parentis.
The punishment that is
administered by the school teacher must not be unreasonable
or excessive in view of age and sex of the pupil, nor excessive in view of the gravity of the offense, nor administered maliciously.
Under the common law of in loco parentis
a teacher must act within certain limits.
not have all the rights of the parent.
The teacher does
His authority is
limited to those aspects of child behavior which have an
effect upon or are related to the teacher's performance of
his professional duties
(24, p.
148).
Subject to such limitations that are defined by state
laws,
the use of corporal punishment for the purpose of
maintaining school and classroom discipline is usually accepted
in public schools.
Teachers exercising this privilege must
stay within certain judicial boundaries, and this must never
be used to enforce unreasonable or outrageous rules.
The
punishment must be administered in a proper manner and only
to the extent necessary to maintain what is considered proper
discipline.
Almost all states have some form of law forbidding
cruelty to children.
When corporal punishment administered
by a school teacher becomes excessive or is administered with
a dangerous instrument or in an improper manner,
the teacher
47
becomes liable under such laws.
Therefore, a teacher who
administers corporal punishment may be subject to dismissal,
a fine, or imprisonment,
as well as civil action by the
parent if the punishment is deemed unreasonable, malicious,
or otherwise unlawful.
In a national survey of public school classroom teachers
conducted in 1969,
approximately sixty-six percent of the
teachers responding approved of corporal punishment in the
elementary school, and nearly one-half approved of corporal
punishment in the secondary school.
Comparing this with data
from 1960 shows a slight decrease in the percentage of teachers
favoring corporal punishment in elementary school but no significant change with reference to secondary schools.
A con-
siderably higher percentage of secondary than of elementary
teachers favored corporal punishment in secondary schools.
Also, a higher percentage of men than of women favored the
use of corporal punishment at both levels
(31, p.
49).
In a study conducted by Purdue University of high school
students and their teachers nationwide, discipline, drugs,
and apathy were the biggest concerns mentioned.
Approximately
one-half of the 182 teachers in the survey listed discipline
as their most pressing concern.
Along the same line, half of
the two thousand students in the survey also listed discipline--
the problem of students who disrupt classrooms--as a very
serious concern.
Both groups also listed safety and security
48
within the school as probably the second biggest problem
(15).
The students and teachers in the survey agreed that
classroom disorder was a common concern, but there was no
consensus of opinion on how to handle the problem.
Corporal
punishment was favored by seventeen percent of the teachers,
but only by eleven percent of the students.
Parent-teacher
conferences were seen as the most effective approach by
sixty-one percent of the teachers, but only forty-one percent of the students believed it could correct misbehavior
by an unruly pupil.
One-fourth of the teachers favored
cutting the disruptive students' grades, whereas almost
fifty percent of the students favored cutting grades.
Approxi-
mately half of the teachers felt a student-teacher conference
after class would be a constructive approach to the problem
(15).
Educational writers have deprecated the use of corporal
punishment in schools, and it appears that increasing support
for the view that the use of corporal punishment is undesirable and unnecessary is becoming evident.
Publications of
various kinds, such as the Handbook of Suggestions for
Teachers
(1937), Primary Education (1959), the Nussom Report
(1963), and the Plowden Report (1967) have become less
equivocal in the views expressed on corporal punishment,
ranging from the statement,
"In the best school corporal
49
punishment may be absent altogether,"
gestions for Teachers 1937)
that,
(Handbook for Sug-
to the forthright recommendation
"The infliction of physical pain as a method of punish-
ment shall be forbidden"
(Plowden Report 1967)
(45, pp. 51-53).
Highfield and Pinsent and investigators who carried out
the survey for the Plowden Committee
(39) found that less
than six percent of the representative sample of teachers
thought that all corporal punishment should be abandoned in
schools.
Starr
(45) found that seventy-one percent of a
sample of graduate student teachers favored the retention
of corporal punishment and that those opposing its use were
more likely to have been educated at schools where no corporal
punishment was used.
In a survey conducted in California during the 1972-1973
school year by the California State Department of Education,
it was reported that only seven percent of 1,054 school
districts actually forbade spanking.
Many of the remaining
districts permitted spanking but recommended that it be used
sparingly.
One interesting feature of this survey was that
more boys were given spankings than girls.
A total of
37,594 boys were given spankings, while only 2,146 girls were
paddled.
No explanation was ever given except that some
districts have specifically written rules forbidding spanking
of girls.
50
Methods used in administering corporal punishment
varied.
Paddles,
light straps, belts, yardsticks,
were utilized in the districts.
and hands
Eighty-nine districts did
not require a witness to be present, but the rest required a
witness, with some even requiring written permission from the
parents
(4, p.
8).
The case against corporal punishment rests on many
grounds, from the philosophic to the pragmatic.
Some school
men argue that physical reprimands are ineffective responses
to difficult or antisocial behavior.
Numerous studies tend
to indicate that a majority of school superintendents are in
favor of some form of corporal punsihment.
Even school men
who oppose corporal punishment in principle tend to support
it as a last resort discipline.
A good pragmatic argument
against corporal punishment is the fact that in many cases
the parents do not have the emotional maturity to permit
others to administer corporal punishment
(24, p. 149).
Most school districts seem to be content with their
current stand on corporal punishment.
Changes in the last
few years have been made occasionally,
and only,
when pressure of some type was experienced.
it seems,
Usually these
changes introduce corporal punishment where it was previously
banned, or replaced informal rules with a written code.
Decisions to use or not use corporal punishment are usually
based on local educational philosophy more than any other
51
factor.
Probably a good consensus of opinion throughout
the country in public schools would be:
Corporal punish-
ment is not wise; where permitted, it is not completely
recommended; when used, it is only after all else has
failed.
In many places the use of corporal punishment is
not mentioned, because it is usually considered an inappropriate technique that must be kept available.
One of the
best summaries made was by an Ohio superintendent who said
that in thirty-three years in the school business, he had
never had to whip a youngster, but that he did not want to
take the privilege away from any teacher who felt there was
no other way to handle a specific situation.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Andrews, L. 0., Student Teaching, The Center for Applied
Research in Education, Inc., New York, 1964.
2.
Batchilder, Howard T., Student Teaching in Secondary
Schools, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New~York, 1968.
3.
Brown, Thomas J. ,
Student Teaching in a Secondary School,
Harper and Row, New York, 1968.
4.
California Department of Education, "School Spankings
Survive," School Management for the Business of Education, XVIII (April, 1974). 8.
5.
Callis, Robert, "Change in Teacher-Pupil Attitudes
Related to Training and Experience,"
Education and
Psychological Measurement, (Spring-Winter, 1950),
718-727.
6.
Campbell, Donald E. , "Dimensional Attitude Changes of
Student Teachers," The Journal of Educational Research,
LXI (December, 1967).
7.
Campbell, Gene Virginia, "A Descriptive Study of the
Effects of Student Teaching Upon Attitudes, Anxieties,
and Perceived Problems of Student Teachers," Dissertation Abstracts, XXIX (May-June, 1969), 3890A.
8.
Chabassol, David J., "The Possession of Certain Attitudes
as Predictors of Success in Practice Teaching," Journal
of Educational Research, LXI (March, 1968), 301-306.
9.
Cooper, J. B. and J. L. McGaugh, "Attitudes and Related
Concepts," Attitudes, edited by Marie Jahoda, Middlesex,
England, Penguin Books, 1966.
10.
Corrigan, Dean and Kenneth Griswold, "Attitude Change of
Student Teachers," The Journal of Educational Research,
LVII (October, 1963), 93-95.
52
53
11.
Dahl, Ivan Justin K., "Analysis and Evaluation of
Certain Attitudinal and Behavioral Changes in
Selected Student Teachers During the Professional
Laboratory Experience with an Experimental Variable
of Supervisory Personnel," Dissertation Abstracts,
XXIX (May-June, 1969), 3892A.
12.
Doob, Leonard, Public Opinion and Propaganda,
Hold Publishing Co., New York, 1948.
13.
Dunham, Darrel R., "Attitudes of Student Teachers,
College Supervisors, and Supervising Teachers Toward
Our Youth," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School
of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana,
1958.
14.
Eddy, Elizabeth M., Becoming a Teacher, The Passage to
Professional Status, Teachers College Press, Teacher's
College, Columbia University, 1969.
15.
Fogg, Susan, "Discipline Among Problems Listed by High
Schoolers," Ft. Worth Star Telegram, 1974, Newhouse
News Service, April, 1974.
16.
Harrow, Thomas L., "An Investigation Into Student Teacher
Problems During Practice Teaching," Paper Presented at
Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, New Orleans, La., February, 1973.
17.
Hickman, L. C., "Corporal Punishment:
Relegated to
Last Resort Discipline, Survey Shows," Nations
Schools, LXXVI (December, 1965).
18.
Hodenfield, G. K. and T. M. Stinnett, The Education of
Teachers, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1961.
19.
Hoover, Kenneth H., Learning and Teaching in The
Secondary School, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1972.
20.
Jacobs, Elmer B., "Attitude Change In Teacher Education:
An Inquiry Into the Roles of Attitudes in Changing
Teacher Behavior," Journal of Teacher Education, XIX
(Winter, 1968), 410-415.
21.
Jones, Morris Vol, "The Legal Status of Corporal Punishment In The Public Schools," California Journal of
Educational Research, XV (May, 1964), 142-149.
Henry
54
22.
Langdon, Grace and Irving W. Stout, The Discipline of
Well Adjusted Children, The John Day Company, New
York, 1952.
23.
Lantz, Donald L., "Change in Student Teacher's Concepts
of Self and Others," Journal of Teacher Education, XV
(June, 1964), 200-203.
24.
Larson, Knute G. and Melvin R. Karpas, Effective
Secondary School Discipline, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1963.
25.
Lipscomb, Edna E., "A Study of the Attitudes of Student
Teachers in Elementary Education," Journal of Educational Research, LX (December, 1966).
26.
Markowitz, Fred A., "A Study of the Relationship Between
the Belief Systems of Prospective Teachers and Their
Performances in Student Teaching," Dissertation
Abstracts, XXIX (October-December, 1968), 1785A.
27.
Mazer, Gilbert E., "Attitude and Personality Change in
Student Teachers of Disadvantaged Youth," Journal of
Educational Research, LXIII (November, 1969), 116-120.
28.
Michaelis, John D., "Teacher Evaluation, Student Teaching
and Internship," Encyclopedia of Educational Research,
edited by Charles W. Harris and Marie R. Liba, The
Macmillan Co., New York, 1960, 1474-1480.
29.
McEwin, Tom, "Attitudinal Change of Students During
Methods Courses and Student Teaching," Dissertation
Abstracts, XXIX (July-September, 1968), 169A.
30.
Morse, W. C. and G. M. Wingo, Psychology and Teaching,
Scott Foresman and Co., Glenview, Illinois, 1969.
31.
National Education Association, "Corporal Punishment:
Teacher Opinion," National Education Association
Research Bulletin, XLVIII (May, 1970), Washington,
D. C., 48-49.
32.
National Education Association, "Major Problems of
Teachers," National Education Association Research
Bulletin, XLIX (December, 1941), 103-108.
33.
Newcomb, T. M., "On The Definition of Attitude,"
Attitudes, edited by Marie Jahoda, Middlesex, England,
Penguin Books, 1966.
55
34.
Noble, Jean L., "What Are Adolescents Scared Of?"
Education Digest, XXXIV (December, 1968), 32-34.
35.
Nordberg, Orville Hi, James M. Bradfield, and William
C. Odell, Secondary School Teaching, MacMillan Co.,
New York, 1962.
36.
Oelke, Merritt 0.,, "A Study of Student Teacher's
Attitudes Toward Children," Journal of Educational
Psychology, XLVII (April, 1956), 25.
37.
Osgood, Charles, George Suci, and Percy Tannenbaum,
Attitude Measurement, edited by Gene F. Summers, Rand
McNally and Co., Chicago, 1970.
38.
Osgood, Charles E.,, "The Nature and Measurement of
Meaning," Psychological Bulletin, XLIX (May, 1952),
197-237.
39.
"Plowden Report," Report of Central Advisory Council
for Education, London, Her Majesty's Stationary
Office, 1967.
40.
Price, Robert D., "The Influence of Supervising Teachers,"
The Journal of Teacher Education, XII (December, 1961),
471-475.
41.
Ragsdale, Elva Mae, "Attitude Changes of Elementary
Student Teachers and the Changes in Their Classroom
Behavior During Student Teaching," Dissertation
Abstracts, XXVIII (1967-1968), 521A.
42.
Raths, James, John R. Pancella and James S. Van Ness,
Studying Teaching, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, 1971.
43.
Sandgun, Duane L. and Louis G. Schmidt, "Does Practice
Teaching Change Attitudes Toward Teaching?" Journal
of Educational Research, XLIX (May, 1965), 673-680.
44.
Schultz, Raymond E., Student Teaching in Secondary
Schools, Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 1959.
45.
Starr, J. W., "Attitudes to Corporal Punishment Among
Student Teachers," Educational Research, XII
(November, 1969), 51-55.
46.
Steeves,
Frank L.,
"Fundamentals of Teaching in Secondary
Schools, Odyssey Press, Inc., New York, 1962.
56
47.
Swift, David W., Ideology and Changes in the Public
Schools, Charles E. Merrill Co., Columbus, Ohio,
1971.
48.
Travere, Robert M. W., Essentials of Learning, The
MacMillan Company, 1967.
49.
Weinstock, Henry R. and Charles M. Peccolo, "Do
Students' Ideas and Attitudes Survive Practice
The Elementary School Journal, LXX
Teaching?"
(January, 1970), 210-218.
50.
Wickman, E. K., Children's Behavior and Teacher's
Attitudes, Commonwealth Fund, New York, 1928.
51.
Yee, Albert H., "Do Cooperating Teachers Influence the
Attitudes of Student Teachers?" Journal of Educational Psychology, LX (August, 1969), 327-332.
52.
Young, James H., "Authoritarianism in Elementary Student
Teachers and Their Supervising Teachers," The Journal
of Teacher Education, XXII (Spring, 1971), 70.
CHAPTER III
PROCEDURES FOR COLLECTING AND TREATING DATA
This chapter is divided basically into three sections.
Section one is concerned with the purpose of the study.
Section two describes the two groups of student teachers used
in the study and the schools where the student teachers were
placed.
The third section gives some details concerning the
two test
instruments used.
The purposes of this study were:
(1)
to determine the effect of student teaching on
the attitudes of prospective teachers toward
punishment and the use of punishment in the classroom for discipline purposes as measured by a
semantic differential;
(2)
to determine differences
grouped according
in the attitudes when
to sex both on the pre and
posttest;
(3)
to determine differences in the attitude changes
when in an inner city school and when in suburban schools;
57
58
(4)
to determine
the effect
of student
teaching
on
the attitudes of prospective teachers toward
corporal punishment as measured by the Purdue
Attitude Scale Toward Any Practice;
(5)
to report these findings for institutions,
teachers, and others who are interested and
concerned about the attitudes and changes.
The subjects in this study were student teachers in three
large inner city secondary schools and student teachers going
into large suburban secondary schools for their student
teaching experience.
The student teachers in the control
group in the suburban schools numbered fourteen males and
twenty-one females.
The student teachers in the experimental
group in the inner city schools numbered twelve males and
twenty females.
The two groups had white, black, and Mexican-
American ethnic representation.
It should be noted that the
teachers in the inner city schools all volunteered for the
inner city schools as a project of North Texas State University.
The control group members were randomly selected from
the large number of student teachers assigned to the suburban
schools of the north Texas area and in the suburbs of Dallas.
The control group was composed of thirty-five student
teachers in junior high school, middle school, and high school.
59
Twenty-three did their student teaching in high school,
in middle school
ten
(grades 6-8), and two in a junior high.
Twenty-three of the student teachers were candidates for the
Bachelor of Science degree, and twelve were candidates for
the Bachelor of Arts degree.
studies,
four in each area of speech,
English, art,
five in language arts,
physical education,
matics,
Nine taught in the social
and
three in mathe-
two in industrial arts, and one in each area of
journalism, biology,
and business education.
Thirty-two secondary student teachers were in the exTwenty were candidates for the Bachelor of
perimental group.
Science degree, and twelve were candidates for the Bachelor
of Arts degree.
Twenty-three teachers were in middle school,
and nine were in high school.
Eleven student teachers were
in the area of social studies,
four were in English,
physical education,
three in mathematics,
two in art,
four in
and one
in each area of chemistry, industrial arts, business education, and biology.
The schools were located in three school districts:
Dallas,
Farmers Branch-Carrolton,
and Lewisville.
The inner
city schools were located on the edge of a large housing
project, mostly populated by blacks in the inner area of the
60
City of Dallas.
The student population in the high school
was approximately ninety-five per cent black,
Mexican-American,
schools,
and two per cent white.
three per cent
In the middle
the student population was comprised of about the
same proportion of ethnic groups.
In the suburban schools, the student population was
almost the opposite in racial composition.
None of the sub-
urban schools even approached fifty per cent minority with
all minorities combined.
The suburban schools all rated very
high academically and were favorably rated by teachers in
their respective districts.
It should be pointed out that
the inner city secondary schools had experienced nearly all
of the present day problems of today's inner city school.
At the first meeting of student teachers with their
supervisors
in the spring before the student teachers had even
seen their schools,
the pretests were administered to the
control and the experimental groups.
At the end of approxi-
mately eight weeks, the two groups were administered the
posttests, as soon as their student teaching experience was
over.
Student teachers in the inner city school stayed all
semester, but were tested at the end of the time that the
other student teachers finished their student teaching experience.
61
The semantic differential technique used
for this study
was set up to obtain information on eight concepts of punishment:
teacher spanking, principal spanking, staying after
school, staying after class, bringing in the principal,
copying from the dictionary,
standing out in the hall, and
being told to sit down and shut up.
The student teachers were
asked in the instructions to respond on the semantic differential to the concepts of punishment as they would feel in
their role as a student teacher about saying:
come out in the hall for a spanking."
(1)
"Johnny,
(2)
"Johnny, come to the principal's office for a
spanking by the principal.
(3)
"Johnny, sit down and shut up."
(4)
"Johnny, stay after school today for thirty
minutes."
(5)
"Johnny, stay after class until everyone leaves
the room."
(6)
"Johnny, be quiet or copy a page from the
dictionary."
(7)
"Johnny, stand out in the hall by the class door
for the rest of the period."
(8)
"Johnny, either be quiet or I will go get the
principal."
62
The other instrument used in this study was a Purdue
Attitude Scale.
The scale was used to obtain results on the
concept of corporal punishment in the classroom.
The student
teachers were asked to mark the position or positions on the
scale with which they agreed in their role as a student
teacher in reference to the concept of corporal punishment.
The student teachers were advised that their answers
were completely anonymous and that the pretest and posttest
scores had no influence regarding their grades in student
teaching.
The pretest and posttest scores for the Semantic Differential were recorded and punched on I.B.M. cards for a
statistical analysis by the Center for Research Evaluation at
North Texas State University,
Denton,
Texas.
All procedures
were used as recommended by the Center for Research and Evaluation to determine if there was a significant change in
attitude toward punishment by both groups,
to determine if
there was a significant difference in change between the
group in the inner city schools and the group in the suburban
schools, and to determine if there was a significant difference in attitude change between the male and female student
teachers.
63
The tests recommended by the Center for Research Evalu-
ation were the Two Way Analysis of Covariance and the t-test
for Correlated Means.
The groupings were male student
teachers versus female student teachers and control group
versus the experimental group.
The criterion variable was
the posttest scores, and the covariant was the pretest scores.
The Purdue Scale was scored by values as given in the Manual
for the Purdue Master Attitude Scales (23), and then the Two
Way Analysis of Covariance was applied.
Following are some
brief comments and background of the two instruments used for
this study.
Semantic Differential
Many noted authorities agree that attitudes are learned
predispositions to respond in an evaluative sense.
predispositions are usually,
These
if not always, considered to be
bipolar in nature, implying that they can be measured in
terms of direction and intensity (20).
Reliable attitude
measurement has been most difficult due to the lack of instruments sensitive enough to register subtle attitude shifts, but
a highly sensitive approach has been developed by Osgood and
his associates
(12, p.
300).
64
In recent years an increasing number of investigators
have been employing many new and different scaling procedure
These new procedures cannot be described as
techniques.
differential,
summated,
or cumulative.
An example of these
new techniques that are being used for a measure of attitude
and attitude changes is the semantic differential technique.
The semantic differential
is a technique for specifying
differences between concepts in terms of their meanings.
The
term "concept" is taken to cover all possible objects of
judgment.
The semantic differential can best be described as
a highly generalized technique for measuring attitudes and
attitude change
(19).
Early work on what was to become known as the semantic
was reported by Osgood (1952), Osgood and Suci
(1952), Osgood
and Stagner (1941), and Stagner and Osgood (1941, 1946), but
not until 1957 was a detailed account of the semantic differential's rationale and use published
of Meaning by Osgood,
(20).
The Measurement
Suci, and Tannebaum (20) gave many
answers about the semantic differential and is often quoted.
Another source was an inquiry conducted by Cassel with the objective of developing a psychological instrument for use in
65
assessing the attitudes held by secondary school and college
students.
In this study he developed a reliable semantic
differential technique (6).
The semantic differential technique typically contains a
set of bypolar adjective scales listed down a page at the top
of which the concept or stimulus is identified.
Each indi-
vidual scale is comprised of a number of graduations between
an adjective and its opposite.
Subjects are asked to rate the
concept against each set of bipolar scales, his only task
being to indicate for each item the direction and intensity of
the association.
Osgood and associates
(20) contend that the
semantic differential technique will indicate direction of
attitude, be it favorable or unfavorable.
Direction is de-
termined simply by indicating a place on a continuum between
bipolar adjectives toward one pole or the other.
According to Osgood,
the Meaning of a concept in terms of
the operations of measurement with the semantic differential
technique is defined as its allocation to a point in the
multidimensional semantic space.
Since every point in a se-
mantic space has an evaluative component,
every concept must
involve a component of attitudes as part of its meaning.
Osgood and his associates found certain evaluative clusters
66
"socially evaluative," and
"aesthetically evaluative,
"
called "morally evaluative,"
"emotionally evaluative."
A study
utilizing the evaluative factors probably would permit a
sensitive measure of differences in teachers'
Kerlinger
attitudes
(20).
(15) has also indicated that the semantic diffe-
rential might be useful for studying attitudes and the
semantic space of student teachers.
According to Osgood, words represent things because
words produce some replica of the actual behavior toward
things.
A pattern of stimulation which is not the object is
a sign of the object and evokes a mediating reaction
(19, p. 204).
Using a model similar to Osgood, it can be concluded that
when a "sign" is conditioned to a mediator, it may also tend
to elicit other mediators in direct proportion to their similarity to the original reaction.
The "sign" will usually tend
to inhibit many other mediators in proportion to the directness of their antagonism to the original reaction.
This tends
to mean that "signs" which develop a certain meaning through
direct training will readily elicit similar meanings but
resist being associated with opposed meanings
(19, p. 213).
67
The major theory underlying the semantic differential
technique is that it is designed to measure "connotative"
meaning or concepts held by individuals toward objects,
events, ideas,
and situations.
Based upon high correlations with scores gathered by the
Thurstone, Likert, and Guttman scales, the validity of the
semantic differential technique appears to be valid
191-192)
(20, pp.
(16, p. 241).
To determine the validity of
the semantic differential technique, Osgood and colleagues
compared the scales of the semantic differential with the
Thurstone scales.
differential,
Subjects were first given the semantic
A brief time later the
then the Thurstone test.
subjects were given both tests again with the Thurstone being
given first.
The correlation was .74,
ly toward the related items.
.82,
and .81 respective-
Osgood then stated that it was
apparent that whatever the scales of the Thurstone Test
measured,
the evaluative scales of the semantic differential
measured just as well (20, pp. 193-194).
Another study by Osgood and associates compared the
evaluative scales of a semantic differential to a Guttman type
scale.
The rank order correlation between the instruments
(rho .78; p = .01) was significant.
Osgood again concluded
68
that these findings strongly support the contention that the
evaluative scales of the semantic differential are an effective index of attitude (20, p. 194).
Still another study by Osgood was performed comparing
the semantic differential with the Bogardus Social Distance
Scales.
Approximately forty subjects were asked to indicate
their attitudes toward three sects of people on the two
scales.
Combining all three concepts yielded a multiple
correlation of .78.
Again Osgood concluded that this helped
prove the semantic differential as being capable of measuring
attitudes and change in attitudes (20, p. 199).
McCrosky conducted seven separate studies with a view
toward developing Likert type scales to measure ethos.
A sub-
sequent factor analysis revealed a correlation of .85 between
the scales of the Likert instrument and the semantic differential scales.
He concluded that since a high correlation
existed between the Likert and the semantic differential,
this indicated validity (18, p. 71).
Grigg tested the validity of the semantic differential
technique when performing a study which tested whether the semantic scores of a group of normal subjects would reflect
greater distance between ideal self and neurotic than between
69
self and neurotic.
This result, he contended,
shows evidence
of the semantic differential technique validity (10, p. 180).
The reliability and validity of the semantic differential technique was examined under delayed and immediate
test-retest conditions by DiVesta and Dick (8, p.
615).
They
concluded that the semantic differential technique was shown
to be an acceptable instrument when used with children as
young as the third grade under immediate retest conditions.
Reliability for concepts based on group means is higher than
that for individuals when groups are composed of only three to
five subjects.
Analysis of the results suggests the possi-
bility that levels of reliability of concept scores of
students may even approach those obtained for adults if
fifteen to twenty subjects are used.
Osgood and associates
(19, 20) have performed many
studies utilizing the technique of the semantic differential
instrument.
The following are studies illustrating the many
uses and situations in which the semantic differential technique has been applied.
Hecht (11) designed a study to assess the attitudinal
outcomes of Introductory Physical Science curriculum materials
used in schools.
Student attitudes were measured by a
70
semantic differential technique with six concepts evaluated in
terms of sixteen bipolar seven interval adjective scales.
Random samples of 240 students receiving Introductory Physical
Science instruction and 240 non-science students were used.
Analysis of the data indicated that no significant changes
were demonstrated by the students.
The purpose of a study by Eaton
(9) was to investigate
tenth grade students' attitudes toward environmental quality
and health knowledge.
Evaluative criteria included the
Knowledge and Application and an en-
Health Education Test:
vironmental attitude inventory utilizing the semantic
Subjects consisted of a tenth grade
differential technique.
vocational class,
a tenth grade biology class,
and a random
sample of all tenth grade students from each of twelve randomly selected Pennsylvania schools.
environmental attitudes,
It was concluded that for
random sample boys scored higher than
vocational agriculture boys; biology class girls scored higher
than boys; and biology class farm residence students scored
lower than urban and suburban students.
Hoover and Schutz
(13)
conducted a study to determine if
a sequence of education courses had an effect of altering
student attitudes.
A semantic differential was administered
71
to seventy-five college students at the beginning and end of
a spring semester.
For ten of the thirteen concepts tested,
significant differences were obtained.
were in a positive direction,
Five of the changes
and five were in a negative
direction.
An experiment in attitude modification was undertaken at
a community college in North Carolina to (1) determine if
human relations courses had any effect on student attitudes,
(2) develop a systematic procedure for assessing student
attitudes, and
(3) determine if the semantic differential
technique was an effective tool for measuring student attitudes.
Pre and post assessments using Osgood's semantic
differential technique revealed that student attitudes underwent a statistically significant positive change.
Also,
it
was concluded that the semantic differential was apparently
an effective tool for measuring attitudes
(27).
In a study conducted by Williams, it was shown that
evaluation scores from the semantic differential technique
were closely related to scores obtained from the other conventional attitude scales
Komorita and Bass
(30).
(16) conducted a study using the
semantic differential technique.
Two hundred twenty under-
graduate students were administered sixteen evaluative
72
bipolar scales and asked to evaluate two concepts.
It was
concluded that evaluative scales of the semantic differential
technique do not always yield a general evaluative dimension.
They indicated that the results indicate that such evaluative
scales, when used as a measure of attitude, might be fruitfully differentiated into additional evaluative dimensions.
The intercorrelations between the sixteen scales were factor
analyzed, and three distinct factors were obtained on each
issue.
A study devised by Husek and Wittroch using the semantic
differential technique measured attitudes toward public
school teachers.
Two hundred fifty-nine students were ad-
ministered the technique.
It was concluded that the mean and
standard deviations obtained indicated that the attitudes
toward public school teachers were,
in general, extremely
positive (14).
In a study by Burt,
fifty-nine inmates, men and women,
from two correctional institutions were randomly assigned to
eight groups to test the effect of book discussion on attitudes.
Pretest and posttest scores on socialization scales
of the "Personal Values Abstract," and on a semantic differential technique of attitudes related to persons and
behavior, were subject to analysis of covariance and the F
73
Covariance analysis revealed that experimental groups
test.
were less accepting of the two concepts of dope addiction and
stealing than were the control groups, while no significant
difference was found on attitudes toward concepts relating to
persons
(5).
The purpose of a study by Bettis was to develop and
evaluate a shop safety attitude scale that could be administered at the beginning of a shop course to help identify
students who may be accident repeaters.
A semantic diffe-
rential technique was adapted from one originated by Osgood
and associates.
By using selected scores from the semantic
differential scale, 15.68 per cent of the variance could be
accounted
for in predicting the number of injuries a student
may have during a three year period.
It
was concluded that
it would be possible to develop a shop safety attitude scale
to predict accident experience (2).
The particular form of the semantic differential that
was constructed for the present study conforms to all criteria as suggested by Osgood and associates.
This semantic
differential technique is a measuring device that is flexible, widely applicable, simple to administer,
and falls
completely in accordance with established criteria for an
acceptable attitude measuring instrument
(20).
74
Technique is used in this study to mean an approach that
has been modified to fit the subject matter under investigation.
In all of his studies Osgood made clear that there
are no standard concepts and no standard scales;
rather,
concepts and scales that are used in a particular study depend
upon the purpose and aim of the study.
The concepts were selected,
and then the bipolar adjec-
tive pairs were selected for their high loading in the
evaluative factor.
It probably should be pointed out that
the evaluative factor is the dominant dimension of the three
major dimensions of meaning and accounts for the largest percentage of variance
(20, p. 325,
1,
13, p. 300).
The primary
sources used for the selection of adjective pairs were
Osgood
(20), Bunton (4), Husek and Wittroch (14),
and Schutz (13).
Bashook
Also,
and Hoover
specific recommendations made by
(1) were considered.
Purdue Master Attitude Scale
The Purdue Master Attitude Scale was designed to overcome
the problem of not having enough scales for all significant
attitude objects.
This was done by developing generalized or
master attitude scales which can be used to measure attitudes
toward any one of a class of attitude objects.
Remmers and
75
his colleagues at Purdue University introduced attitude scales
of the generalized type approximately thirty years ago.
At
Purdue, Remmers attempted to overcome the laborious work involved in developing scales by the Thurstone equal-appearing
interval technique.
Instead of having statements referring to
single attitude objects,
the statements were couched in
terminology designed to be applicable to a variety of objects.
A number of such master attitude scales were developed,
each applicable to a particular class of objects.
Cummings
(7),
reviewing in Buros, wrote that as a research
technique
the Purdue Master Attitude Scale offered definite
promise.
He further stated that the scales have shown almost
perfect validity against Thurstone's specific scales, with
which they correlate highly in differentiating among attitudes
known to differ among various groups.
Osgood,
Suci,
and
Tannenbaum (20) stated that generalized scales have some very
definite values,
such as being economical in time and effort
and being able to be used at the time an issue is in the
forefront.
Summers
(26) wrote that by far the most frequently used
method of securing material from which to make inferences
about an attitude is to ask an individual to reveal,
his own words or through acceptance or rejection of
either in
76
standardized items, his beliefs about an object that promotes
The basis for inference is clear
reactions in his attitudes.
he continues,
in that an individual's attitude toward an
object is indicated by his beliefs,
orientation toward it.
feelings,
and action
The Purdue Master Attitude Scale has
been used to gather much data concerning attitudes.
Some of
the studies are covered in this paper.
Lutenbacher
(17) compared the team teaching program in a
junior high school with the traditional instructional program.
Six hundred students chosen at random participated in the
study.
The same teachers were used in both teaching tech-
niques.
Data were collected by the administration of the
Purdue Master Attitude Scale.
and Form B for the posttest.
Form A was used for the pretest
He stated that no significant
differences were found in the area of attitudes between the
experimental and control groups.
Pophan and Sadnavitch (22) inquired into students'
subject matter achievement,
physical science,
interest in the general area of
attitudes toward physics or chemistry, and
attitude toward filmed chemistry and physics courses.
The
Remmers-Silance Scale for Measuring Attitude Toward Any School
Subject was used to assess effective responses
to the physics
77
and chemistry courses.
The pretest and posttest scores indi-
cated that overall for physics the control group exceeded the
experimental as far as attitude toward physics as a school
subject.
For the chemistry students there was no significant
difference as far as attitude toward it as a school subject.
A classic study of the attitudes toward groups was conducted by Remmers (24).
Using 114 students he found that no
significant change had occurred over the time period between
1935 and 1942 as far as attitudes toward Germans and Jews.
He
also found that Nazis and Japanese were viewed negatively.
Using the Scale for Measuring
Attitudes Toward Any
Teacher and the Pupil Observation Report, Bledsoe,
Brown,
and
Strickland studied the perceptions of high school students
regarding their teachers.
They found that student perception
in relationship to teacher age,
experience, and certification
did not reveal a consistent pattern.
Younger teachers re-
ceived higher ratings, and teachers with five to nineteen
years experience received the highest ratings
(3).
Snow and Cohen (25) use the Scale to Measure Attitude
Toward Any Institution to study attitudes of 192
students.
They found that attitudes changed with continued professional
socialization among students in life sciences, physical
sciences,
social sciences,
and the humanities.
78
Wick and Yager (28) used the Scale to Measure Attitude
Toward Any School Subject to determine attitudes in a science
course.
They concluded that some students showed a decrease
in course attitude, and a comparable group showed a gain in
course attitude.
They reported that the teacher was an im-
portant factor in the formation of attitudes.
The students'
attitudes toward different science courses were found to be
unstable.
A pre- and posttest of the Scale to Measure Attitude
Toward Any School Subject was used in a study of attitudes
toward mathematics.
Wilkinson
(29) found that students who
were taught mathematics with the use of supplementary
materials did not show a significant gain in attitude over
those who were taught by the traditional method.
The validity of the master scales has in many different
cases been determined in terms of their correlations with
comparable specific scales in the Thurstone series.
For
example, when the Kelley-Remmers Scale to Measure Attitude
Toward Any Institution was used to measure attitudes toward
communism, it yielded scores which correlated almost perfectly
with those obtained by the Thurstone Scale for the Measurement of Attitude Toward Communism
(24, p.
394).
79
Peters and Peters obtained outstanding validation of a
master scale, the Remmers-Thomas Scale for Measuri
Toward A
Proposed Social Action,
Attitudes
in their study of the
effect of pupil self government on attitudes toward law enforcement.
Two groups of pupils, one of which participated
in
a thoroughgoing scheme of pupil government of school, while
the other had no self government, were asked to indicate on
the master their attitudes toward the judge's decisions in ten
actual cases of law violation.
The cases were selected to ex-
emplify the desires to gain wealth,
member of the family,
to gain or keep friends,
family's living conditions,
of the law.
to save the life
of a
to improve the
and violation through ignorance
The attitudes of the pupils who were experiencing
self government were significantly more favorable toward law
enforcement than those of pupils without self government
(21).
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Bashook, Philip G. and Stephen F. Foster, "How Many E' s
are there? A Critical Analysis of Problems Concerning
Determination of Evaluative Factors of Semantic DiffeUnpublished paper presented before
rential Scales."
Annual Meeting of American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, February 25, 1973.
2.
Bettis, Marvin Dale, "Experimental Development and Evaluation of a Shop Safety Attitude Scale," unpublished
Ph.D. Dissertation, Iowa State University of Science
and Technology, 1972.
3.
Bledsoe, Joseph D., Iva D. Brown, and Arthur D. Strickland,
"Factors Related to Pupil Observation Reports of
Teachers and Attitudes Toward Their Teacher," Journal
LXV (November, 1971), 119-126.
of Educational Research,
4.
Brinton, James E., "Deriving an Attitude Scale From
Semantic Differential Data," Public Opinion Quarterly,
XXV (Summer, 1961), 289-295.
5.
Effect of Group ReadBurt, Lesta Norris, "Bibliotherapy:
ing and Discussion on Attitudes of Adult Inmates in Two
Correctional Institutes, Final Report." Regional Research Project, National Center for Educational Research
and Development, Washington, D. C., October, 1972.
6.
Cassel, Russel N., "Development of a Semantic Differential
to Assess The Attitude of Secondary School and College
Students," Ph.D. Dissertation, Wisconsin University,
1970.
7.
Cummings, W. D., Review in Mental Measurements Yearbook,
Fifth Edition, Highland Park, New Jersey, Gryphon Press,
1959.
8.
DiVesta, Francis
Reliability of
Differential,"
XXVI (October,
J. and Dick Walter, "The Test-Retest
Children's Ratings on the Semantic
Education and Psychological Measurements
1966), 605-615.
80
81
9.
Eaton,
John Lawrence,
"Environmental Attitude and Health
Knowledge of Tenth Grade High School Students," unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1971.
10.
Griff, Austin E., "A Validity Study of the Semantic
Differential Technique," Journal of Clinical Psychology,
XV (April, 1959), 179-181.
11.
Hecht, Alfred Roland, "A Semantic Differential Evaluation
of Attitudinal Outcomes of Introductory Physical
Dissertation, University of Illinois
Science," Ed.D.
at Urbana-Champaign, 1970.
12.
Hoover, Kenneth H.,, Readings on Learning and Teaching in
The Secondary School, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston,
1971.
13.
Hoover, K.
H.
and R.
E.
Schutz,
"Student Attitude Change
In An Introductory Education Course," Journal of
Educational Research, LXI (March, 1968), 300-303.
14.
Husek, T. R. and M. C. Wittrock, "The Dimensions of Attitudes Toward Teachers as Measured by the Semantic
Differential," The Journal of Educational Psychology
LIII (October, 1962), 209-213.
15.
Kerleriger,
F. N.,
Foundations of Behavioral Research,
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1967.
16.
Komorita, S. S., and Alan R. Bass, "Attitudes Differentiation and Evaluative Scales of the Semantic Differential,"
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, VI (June,
1967) , 241-244.
17.
Lutenbacher,
David August,
"An Investigation of the
Effect of Team Teaching Upon Achievement, Motivation,
and Attitude," Dissertation Abstracts, University of
Southern Mississippi, XXX, 4728A, 1969.
18.
McCroskey, James C., "The Effect of The Basic Speech
Course on Students' Attitudes," Speech Teacher, XVI
(March, 1967), 115-117.
19.
Osgood, Charles E.,, "The Nature and Measurement of
Meaning," Psy chological Bulletin, XLIX (May, 1952),
197-237.
82
20.
Osgood, Charles, George Suci, and Percy Tannenbaum,
Attitude Measurement edited by Gene F. Summers,
Rand McNally and Co., Chicago, 1970.
21.
Peters, F. and Rosanna M. Peters, "Children's Attitude
Toward Law as Influenced by Pupil Self-Government,"
Studies in Attitudes Series II, Studies in Higher
Education XXXI, Bulletin of Purdue University, 1936,
15-26.
22.
Pophan, W. J. and J. M. Sadnavitch, "Filmed Science
An Experimental
Courses in the Public Schools:
Approach," Science Education, XIV, 1961, 327-335.
23.
Remmers, H. H., Manual For the Purdue Master Attitude
Scales, University Book Store, W. Lafayette, Indiana,
1960.
24.
Remmers, H. H. and N. L. Gage, Educational Measurement
and Evaluation, Harper and Brothers, New York, 1955.
25.
Snow, Alexandra and Lois Cohen, "Student Attitudes
Toward The Sciences and the Humanities," Journal of
Educational Research, LXI (July-August, 1968), 456461.
26.
Summers, Gene F., Attitude Measurement, Rand McNally
and Company, Chicago, 1970.
27.
Townsend, Frank C., "An Experiment in Attitude Mofification of Selected Students Enrolled in the One-Year
Vocational and Two-Year Technical Programs at Southeastern Community College," Occupational Education
Research Project Final Report, Whiteville, North
Carolina, August, 1972.
28.
Wick, John W. and Robert E. Yager, "Some Aspects of the
Student's Attitude in Science Courses," School Science
and Mathematics, LXVI (March, 1966), 269-273.
83
29.
Wilkinson, Gerald G., "The Effect of Supplementary
Materials upon Academic Achievement in an Attitude
Toward Mathematics Among Eighth Grade Students,"
unpublished Ed.D. North Texas State University,
Denton, Texas, 1971.
30.
Williams, John E., "Racial Attitudes in Preschool
Modification via Operant Conditioning and
Children:
a Revised Measurement Procedure," Report to American
Psychological Association, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1972.
CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
In order to give the results of the test data as informatively as possible, Chapter Four is divided into three
major sections.
study.
Section one consists of the purpose of the
Section two consists of the hypotheses of the study.
Section three consists of the presentation of the data and a
brief explanation.
The purposes of this study were:
(1) to determine the effect of student teaching on the
attitudes of prospective teachers toward punishment
and the use of punishment in the classroom for
discipline purposes as measured by a semantic differential technique;
(2)
to determine differences in the attitudes when grouped
by sex both on the pre- and posttest;
(3) to determine differences in the attitude changes
when in an inner city school and when in a suburban
school;
(4)
to determine the effect of student teaching on the
attitudes of prospective teachers toward corporal
punishment in the classroom as measured by the
Purdue Attitude Scales Toward Any Practice;
84
85
(5) to report these findings for institutions,
teachers,
and others who are interested and concerned about
the attitudes and changes.
The hypotheses of this study were:
(1) an analysis of the semantic differential technique
results on the pretest and posttest scores will
reveal that no significant change in attitude
toward punishment has taken place.
Sub-hypotheses:
(a) There will be no significant difference between
the attitude scores of student teachers toward
the concept of teacher spanking;
(b) There will be no significant difference between
the attitude scores of student teachers toward
the concept of principal spanking;
(c) There will be no significant difference between
the attitude scores of student teachers toward
the concept,
"Sit down and shut up;"
(d) There will be no significant difference between
the attitude scores of student teachers toward
the concept,
"Stay in thirty minutes after school;"
(e) There will be no significant difference between
the attitude scores of student teachers toward
the concept,
"Stay in after the class period
until everyone leaves the room."
86
(f)
There will be no significant difference between
the attitude scores of student teachers toward
the concept,
"Be quiet, or copy a page out of
the dictionary;"
(g) There will be no significant change in the attitude scores of student teachers toward the concept,
"Stand out in the hall by the class door
for the rest of the period;"
(h) There will be no significant change in the attitude scores of student teachers toward the concept,
"Either be quiet,
or I will go get the
principal."
(2)
An analysis of the semantic differential technique
on the pretest and posttest utilizing the two way
analysis of covariance will reveal that student
teachers in the large inner city schools show no
significantly greater change in attitude toward
punishment and the use of punishment than those in
the suburban schools on each of the eight concepts;
(3)
An analysis of the semantic differential technique
on the pretest and posttest utilizing the two way
analysis of covariance will reveal that there is
no significant difference in the change of attitude of male and female student teachers on each
of the eight concepts;
87
(4) An analysis of the Purdue Attitude Scale Toward
Any Practice on the pretest and posttest utilizing
the two way analysis of covariance will reveal
that student teachers in the large inner city
schools have no significantly great change in attitude toward corporal punishment than those student
teachers in the suburban schools.
In order to test the hypotheses of the study, statistical
designs involving the t-Test for Correlated Means and the Two
Dimensional Analysis of Covariance were used.
The 0.05 level
of significance was selected as the basis for rejecting or
accepting the hypotheses.
The data are presented for each concept as given by the
North Texas State University Center for Research and Evaluation.
Each concept is presented separately.
The control
group refers to the group of student teachers in the suburban
schools, while the experimental group consists of the student
teachers in the inner city schools.
The t-Test for Correlated Means was used in testing the
significance of hypothesis one and the eight sub-hypotheses.
The data results are as follows for the control group:
Concept one concerned the student teachers'
"Johnny, come out in the hall for a spanking."
concerned with sub-hypothesis
1-a.
saying,
This data was
The data in Table I re-
quires acceptance of the sub-hypothesis, because 0.6959 for
P is not significant.
88
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89
Concept two concerned the student teachers' saying,
"Johnny, come to the principal's office for a spanking by
the principal."
This concept relates to sub-hypothesis
An examination of Table I reveals that the .05 level
1-b.
of significance was not obtained.
A value for P of 0.1019
is not sufficiently large to reject the sub-hypothesis.
Sub-
hypothesis 1-b must be accepted.
Concept three concerned the student teachers' saying,
"Johnny, sit down, and shut up'"
sub-hypothesis 1-c.
This concept relates to
The data indicate that the .05 level
of significance was not reached; thus, the sub-hypothesis
must be accepted.
P of
Again, it must be noted that a value for
.0701 is close to the selected level of significance.
Concept four concerned the student teachers'
"Stay after school today for thirty minutes."
the information as recorded in Table I.
refers to sub-hypothesis 1-d.
saying,
The data gave
This specifically
Using the data, one would
have to accept sub-hypothesis 1-d, as the computed value
for P of .1341 did not reach the required level of significance.
Concept five concerned the student teachers' saying,
"Stay after class until everyone leaves the room."
data was concerned with sub-hypothesis 1-e.
level of significance,
This
Using .05 as the
one must reject this sub-hypothesis,
90
based on a vlue for P of .0109.
reached was the .01 level.
The level of significance
A major change in attitude has
taken place concerning this concept of punishment.
Concept Six concerned the student teachers' saying,
"Johnny, be quiet, or copy a page from the dictionary."
particular concept is related to sub-hypothesis 1-f.
This
The
data in Table I require acceptance of the sub-hypothesis.
Concept seven concerned the student teachers'
saying,
"Johnny, stand out in the hall by the class door for the
rest of the period."
hypothesis 1-g.
This specifically relates to sub-
Using .05 as the level of significance,
one must accept the sub-hypothesis, but it must be noted
that a value for P of 0.0706 was obtained, and while not
significant,
this is an indication that a change approaching
significance has occurred.
Concept eight concerned the student teachers'
saying,
"Johnny, either be quiet, or I will go get the principal."
This relates to sub-hypothesis 1-h, and the data in Table I
leaves no interpretation but to accept the sub-hypothesis.
The level of significance was not even approached.
Summarizing the results of the data gathered concerning
hypothesis one and the eight concepts, one must accept subhypothesis 1-e and reject all other hypotheses with the
notation that 1-g and 1-c approached the
.05 level of
91
significance.
It should also be noted that 1-g was sig-
nificant at the
.01 level of significance
(0.0109).
Sub-
hypotheses 1-g and 1-c both had a value for P of 0.07.
A further analysis of the data concerning hypothesis
one and the eight concepts was conducted.
Because the data
gave some interesting results which are directly related to
this part of the study, the results are included in this
section.
A t-Test for Correlated Means was computed for control
group males and females and experimental group males and
females.
The results are recorded for control group males
in Table II.
Measure one represents the posttest scores,
and measure two represents the pretest scores.
The level of
significance was selected to be 0.05.
The results of the data indicate that the male student
teachers in the control group did not have a significant
change on any of the eight concepts of punishment as related
to Hypothesis One.
One must note that concept five, which
related to sub-hypothesis 1-e,
concerning the control group
male student teachers' saying, "Stay after class until everyone leaves the room," had a value for P of 0.0883, which
almost reached the selected level of significance.
This may
warrant further consideration.
The females in the control group did not have one significant change concerning the eight concepts and hypothesis one.
92
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93
Concepts two, three, four,
five, six, seven, and eight were
not significant, and therefore, sub-hypotheses 1-b, 1-c,
as related to
1-d, 1-e, 1-f, 1-g, and 1-h must be accepted
the females in the control group.
Sub-hypothesis 1-e, which concerned the control group
female student teachers' saying,
"Stay after class until
using 0.05 as
everyone leaves the room," must be accepted
the level of significance, but a value for P of 0.0697
proaches the required level of significance.
ap-
Further con-
sideration may be warranted concerning this concept.
Sub-hypothesis 1-a, which concerned the control group
the
female student teachers' saying, "Johnny, come out in
is
hall for a spanking," had a value for P of 0.0041, which
significant even beyone the 0.01 level of significance.
A
of punishment
major change in attitude toward this concept
seems to have taken place among the females of the control
groups.
Sub-hypothesis 1-g, which concerned the control group
the
female student teachers' saying, "Johnny, stand out in
hall by the class door for the rest of the period," has to
be accepted, but a P of 0.0925 is not far from the 0.05
level of significance.
Again further consideration may be
warranted, even though for this study the sub-hypothesis
must be accepted.
III.
The complete results are given in Table
94
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95
The t-Test for Correlated Means was also used in
testing the significance of hypothesis one and the eight
sub-hypotheses for the experimental group.
The data results
are as follows for the experimental group.
saying,
Concept one concerned the student teachers'
This data
"Johnny, come out in the hall for a spanking."
was concerned with sub-hypothesis 1-a.
The data in Table
IV requires acceptance of the sub-hypothesis, because 0.6071
for P is not significant.
Concept two concerned the student teachers'
saying,
"Johnny, come to the principal's office for a spanking by
the principal."
This data relates to sub-hypothesis 1-b.
The data in Table IV indicates that the hypothesis must be
rejected because of a level for P of 0.0113.
Concept three concerned the student teachers'
"Johnny, sit down, and shut up!"
sub-hypothesis 1-c.
saying,
This concept relates to
An examination of Table IV indicates
that this hypothesis must be rejected with no hesitation.
This change of attitude was significant below the 0.01 level
as a value for P of 0.0025 was obtained.
Concept four concerned the student teachers'
"Stay after school today for thirty minutes."
refers to sub-hypothesis 1-d.
saying,
This concept
The data in Table IV re-
quires acceptance of this hypothesis 1-d.
96
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97
Concept five concerned the student teachers' saying,
This
"Stay after class until everyone leaves the room."
concept refers to sub-hypothesis 1-e.
Still using 0.05
as the level of significance, one must reject this hypothesis 1-e as a value for P of 0.0073 was obtained
which is significant below the 0.01 level.
A very signifi-
cant change has taken place in terms of attitude on this
concept.
Concept six concerned the student teachers'
saying,
"Johnny be quiet, or copy a page from the dictionary."
concept is concerned with hypothesis 1-f.
This
This hypothesis
must be accepted with no reservation.
Concept seven concerned the student teachers' saying,
"Johnny, stand out in the hall by the class door for the
rest of the period.
1-g.
This concept is related to sub-hypothesis
Using 0.05 as the level of significance, one must
accept the sub-hypothesis, but it must be noted that a value
for P of 0.0634 was obtained, and while not significant, this
is an indication that a change approaching significance has
occurred.
Concept eight concerned the student teachers'
saying,
"Johnny, either be quiet, or I will go get the principal."
This relates to sub-hypothesis 1-h.
The data in Table IV
requires that this hypothesis must be rejected.
A value
98
for P of 0.0212 is significant almost to the 0.01 level of
significance.
Summarizing the results of the data gathered for the
experimental group concerning hypothesis one and the eight
concepts, one must accept sub-hypotheses 1-b, 1-c, 1-e, and
1-h and accept all other hypotheses with the notation
that 1-g approached the 0.05 level of significance.
Hy-
potheses 1-c and 1-e were significant at the 0.01 level of
significance with a value for P respectively of 0.0025 and
0.0073.
Sub-hypothesis 1-g had a value for P of 0.06.
A further analysis of the data concerning hypothesis one
and the eight concepts was conducted for the experimental
group.
This analysis gave results which are directly related
to this part of the study and are included in this section.
The results of the t-Test for Correlated Means of VariSub-
ables for experimental males are recorded in Table V.
hypotheses 1-a, 1-b, 1-c, 1-d, 1-e, 1-f, and 1-h must be
accepted as the level of significance was not even approached
on any of these sub-hypotheses.
Sub-hypothesis 1-g concerned the experiment group of
male student teachers'
saying,
"Johnny, stand out in the
hall by the class door for the rest of the period."
This
sub-hypothesis for the experimental group males made a
change almost significant at the 0.01 level of significance.
With a value of 0.0173 for P,
one must reject the
sub-
hypothesis as it relates to the experimental group males.
99
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H
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100
The results of the t-Test for Correlated Means of
Variables for experimental females indicate four significant changes as indicated in Table VI.
Sub-hypothesis 1-a,
1-d, 1-f, and 1-g must be accepted, as the level of significance is not approached,
since the values for P for these
concepts are 0.5033 and higher for the experimental female
group.
Sub-hypothesis 1-e, which is concerned with the experimental group female student teachers'
saying,
"Stay after
class until everyone leaves the room," must be rejected.
The
value of P being 0.0128 is beyond the selected level of
significance of 0.05 and is almost to the 0.01 level of significance.
The experimental group females had a significant
change of attitude on this particular concept.
Sub-hypothesis 1-b, which is related to the experimental group female student teachers'
saying,
"Johnny, come
to the principal's office for a spanking by the principal,"
must be rejected as related to the females.
The value of
P for this concept was 0.0307, which is below 0.05, the
accepted level of significance.
The experimental females
made a significant change on this concept also.
Sub-hypothesis 1-c concerned the female experimental
group student teachers' saying,
"Sit down, and shut up!"
This sub-hypothesis must definitely be rejected.
The level
of significance obtained was 0.0063, which is significant
101
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102
even beyond 0.01.
There could be no question that a change
in attitude was made by the experimental group females on
this particular concept.
Sub-hypothesis 1-h, which was concerned with the experimental group female student teachers' saying,
"Johnny, either
be quiet, or I will go get the principal," must be rejected
as related to the experimental group females.
The level of
significance reported was 0.0119, which again is beyond the
accepted level of 0.05 and is close to the 0.01 level.
These
experimental group female student teachers also had a change
of attitude concerning this concept of punishment.
Contrasting the data concerning the experimental group
males and control group males with the experimental group
females and control group females tends to lead one to
believe that the females actually had more attitude changes
than the males.
The females made significant changes on a
combined total of five concepts, while the males made a
significant change on a combined total of only one concept.
The males nearly reached the accepted level of significance
on one other concept, but the level was not obtained.
Summarizing this section of the data shows that the
control group males did not obtain the accepted level of
significance on any of the eight concepts.
A value of
0.0883 was obtained on concept five, which indicates that
some change may have been present.
103
The control group females obtained a significant degree
of change on one concept.
level of significance,
The value 0.0041 is below the 0.01
and this was obtained on concept one.
Concept five and seven should be noted as approaching the
accepted level of significance but not actually obtaining
the level.
The experimental group males had a significant change
on concept seven.
The level of significance obtained was
0.0173, which is almost significant at the 0.01 level of
Not any of the other concepts for this group
significance.
were even close to the accepted level of significance.
The experimental group females showed a significant
level of change on four of the eight concepts.
Concept three
obtained a level of 0.0063, which indicates an obvious change,
while concept five and eight both were approaching the 0.01
level of significance with respective values for P of 0.0128
and 0.0119.
Concept two also had a significant value for P
of 0.0307, which was below the accepted level of significance.
In order to test the hypotheses two, three, and four of
the study, a statistical design involving a two dimensional
analysis of covariance was used.
The .05 level of signifi-
cance was selected as the basis for rejecting or accepting
the hypotheses.
This design employs the adjusted mean scores
in making the comparisons.
given in the Appendix.
These adjusted mean scores are
The Two Way Analysis of Covariance
computer program did not give a computer print of these
104
scores.
Therefore, a one way Analysis of Covariance was
computed in order to obtain these adjusted means.
The data are presented for each concept as given by
the North Texas State University Center for Research and
Evaluation.
The
Each concept is presented separately.
control group refers to the group of student teachers in the
suburban schools, while the experimental group consists of
the student teachers in the inner city schools.
Concept four concerned the student teachers' saying,
"Stay after school today for thirty minutes."
The data gave
the information as follows:
Sum Squares
Source
DF
Mean Squares
P
F
Sex
262.5362
1
262.5362
1.1413
0.2895
Groups
692.2483
1
692.2483
3.0093
0.0878
Interaction
244.3813
1
244.3813
1.0624
0.3066
14262.2527
62
230.0363
Within
Rows represent sex of the student teachers,
and columns
represent control and experimental groups of the student
teachers.
Using the above data, one would have to accept
hypotheses two and three, but consideration would have to be
given hypothesis number two concerning this concept.
The .05
level of significance was selected as the basis for rejecting
or accepting an hypothesis, but 0.08 approaches significance.
Concept five concerned the student teachers'
"Stay after class until everyone leaves the room."
gave the
information as follows:
saying,
The data
105
F
Mean Squares
p
Sum Squares
DF
2.5371
1
2.5371
0.0139
0.0964
Groups
197.0075
1
197.0075
1.0816
0.3023
Interaction
129.4402
1
129.4402
0.7107
0.4025
11292.7093
62
182.1405
Source
Sex
Within
Rows represent sex of the student teachers, and columns
represent control and experimental groups of the student
teachers.
Using .05 as the level of significance, one would
have to accept hypothesis two and three concerning this concept.
Concept one concerned the teachers'
saying,
"Johnny,
The data gave the
come out in the hall for a spanking."
information as follows:
F
p
19.4938
0.1457
0.7039
1
28.2027
0.2108
0.6477
477.5673
1
477.5673
3.5703
0.0635
8293.0965
62
133.7596
Sum Squares
DF
Mean Squares
Sex
19.4938
1
Groups
28.2027
Source
Interaction
Within
Using .05 as the level of significance, one would have
to accept hypothesis two and three as it relates to this
concept.
approaches
Looking at the interaction and the fact that .0635
.05, some consideration should be given to a change
in attitude between males in the experimental group and
ob"i
Mn
106
females in the control group, or females in the experimental
group and males in the control group.
By looking at the ad-
justed means and in light of the other data, it becomes evident that this interaction is probably going to take place
between the experimental females and the control males.
Concept seven concerned the student teachers'
saying,
"Johnny, stand out in the hall by the class door for the rest
of the period."
The analysis of covariance gave the following
results from the data:
Source
Sex
Groups
Interaction
Within
Mean Squares
F
P
Sum Squares
DF
142.2477
1
142.2477
0.8616
0.3569
25.5879
1
25.5879
0.1550
0.6952
900.4533
1
900.4533
5.4542
0.0228
10235.7585
62
165.0929
Using .05 as the level of significance, one would have
to accept both hypothesis two and three.
for P concerning the interaction,
Because of the 0.02
there appears to be a sig-
nificant change concerning possibly the experimental males
and the control females.
By again looking at the adjusted
means and the other data, it becomes evident that this significant interaction is definitely between the experimental males
and the control females.
Concept two concerned the student teachers'
saying,
"Johnny, come to the principal's office for a spanking by the
principal."
as follows:
The results of the data gathered are illustrated
107
Sum Squares
Source
152.3630
Sex
Groups
Interaction
Within
P
F
Mean Squares
DF
152.3630
0.9071
0.3446
65.8030
1
65.8030
0.3918
0.5337
3.2197
1
3.2197
0.0192
0.8903
10413.4490
62
169.9589
two
Using 0.05 as the level of significance, hypotheses
and three must be accepted.
saying,
Concept three concerned the student teachers'
"Johnny, sit down, and shut up!"
The data gathered gave the
following results:
P
F
Mean Squares
Sum Squares
DF
Sex
0,0157
1
0.0157
0.0001
0.9928
Groups
0,5213
1
0.5213
0.0027
0.9585
Interaction
0.4048
1
0.4048
0.0021
0. 9634
11834.8247
62
190.8843
Source
Within
Again, using .05 as the level of significance, hypotheses
two and three must be accepted as related to this particular
concept.
Concept six concerned the student teachers' saying,
"Johnny, be quiet, or copy a page from the dictionary."
Re-
sults of the data gathered are illustrated below:
Source
Sex
Groups
Interaction
Within
Sum Squares
DF
Mean Squares
F
P
1
242.3330
1.7033
0.1967
3.1003
1
3.1003
0.0218
0.8831
311.4931
1
311.4931
2.1894
0.1440
8820.9809
62
142.2739
242.330
108
With .05 as the level of significance, one must accept
hypotheses two and three as they are related to this particular concept.
Concept eight concerned the student teachers' saying,
"Johnny, either be quiet, or I will go get the principal."
The results of the data gathered for this concept are illustrated below:
Source
Sex
Groups
Interaction
Within
P
F
Sum Squares
DF
Mean Squares
3.7526
1
3.7526
0.0204
0.8869
242.3277
1
242.3277
1.3166
0.2556
14.8093
1
14.8093
0.0805
0.7776
11411.4089
62
184.0550
With the establishment of .05 as the level of significance,
one must accept two and three as they relate to this concept.
Hypothesis number two was concerned with the change in
attitude in the large inner city school as compared to the
change of attitude of the student teachers in the suburban
schools toward punishment and the use of punishment as related to each of the eight concepts.
Summarizing the results
of the data gathered, one must accept the hypothesis that
student teachers in the large inner city schools have no
significantly great change in attitude toward punishment and
the use of punishment than those student teachers in the
suburban schools on each of the eight concepts.
as the level significance,
Using 0.05
only one concept even came close
109
to this level of significance.
This was concept number
four with a value for P of 0.0878.
Even though close, this
was not the level of significance as selected, and the hypothesis must be accepted as stated in this study.
with the signifiHypothesis number three was concerned
and female
cant difference in the change of attitude of male
student teachers on each of the eight concepts.
This hyA
eight concepts.
pothesis must be accepted concerning all
experimental males
significant difference was noticed between
and control group females when concept seven was being considered.
An analysis of the Purdue Attitude Scale Toward Any
had to be
Practice revealed that the hypothesis number four
accepted.
The data gathered gave the following results:
Source
Sex
Groups
Interaction
Within
F
P
Sum Squares
DF
Mean Squares
152.3630
1
152.3630
0.9071
0.3446
65.8030
1
65.8030
0.3918
0.5337
3.2197
1
3.2197
0.0192
0.8903
10413.4490
62
167.9589
Rows represent sex of the student teachers, and colums
represent the control and experimental group.
significance used was
The level of
.05.
mqwAmnmmo
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY,
CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study was an effort to determine the effect of
the student teaching experience on student teachers'
atti-
tudes toward punishment and the use of punishment in the
Two groups of student teachers were used in
classroom.
this study.
One group was placed in three large inner
city secondary schools, and the other group was placed in
large suburban secondary schools.
The purposes of this study were:
(1)
to determine the effect of student teaching on
the attitudes of prospective teachers toward
punishment and the use of punishment in the
classroom for discipline purposes as measured
by a semantic differential technique;
(2)
to determine differences in the attitudes when
grouped according to sex both on the pre- and
posttest;
(3)
to determine differences in the attitude changes
when in an inner city school and when in a
suburban school;
110
111
(4)
to determine the effect of student teaching on
the attitudes of prospective teachers toward
corporal punishment in the classroom as
measured by the Purdue Attitude Scale Toward
Any Practice;
(5)
to report these findings for institutions,
teachers,
and others who are interested and
concerned about attitude changes of student
teachers.
Subjects used in this study were students attending North
Texas State University who were scheduled to do their student
teaching at the secondary level.
The control group of
student teachers was composed of fourteen males and twentyone females.
The experimental group of student teachers was
composed of twelve males and twenty females.
Both groups had
white, black, and Mexican-American ethnic representation.
Forty-three of the student teachers were candidates for the
Bachelor of Arts degree.
The student teachers taught in
practically every academic area offered in the secondary
school.
Chapter One was basically concerned with giving a brief
description of the study.
The problems, purpose,
and hypothe-
ses were discussed and outlined with relevant information
112
being given.
A basic overview of background and significance
A survey of the more relevant
of the study was presented.
literature was presented with the ideas and recommendations
that
this
survey
suggested.
Chapter One discussed the instruments for the proposed
study along with some background for each instrument,
cluding important terms used in the study.
in-
The last sections
of Chapter One considered procedures used for collection and
treatment of the data.
A brief explanation was given,
and
methods that would be utilized were explained or discussed.
Finally,
it was pointed out that a search of the literature
revealed that there were no studies dealing with the specific
intent and purpose of this study.
There were many studies
which were related in some way to this study,
and they were
utilized as much as possible.
Chapter Two consisted of a review of relevant literature.
This chapter was divided into three sections.
The first
section gave some background and insight into the problems of
discipline and control the classroom teacher must face in
general classroom duties.
Some of the background on punish-
ment in schools and changes that have been made over the past
years were discussed.
Concepts of good discipline and differ-
ent views of what is considered good discipline were
113
presented.
A brief discussion of the problems of the inner
city schools and the first year teacher were also included.
Section Two,
Chapter Two discussed attitudes and gave
some studies concerning attitudes of student teachers and
some changes in attitudes of student teachers during their
student teaching experience.
This section also brought out
the importance of attitudes and their influence on the
student teacher and the professional teacher.
Section Three of Chapter Two deals exclusively with
corporal punishment.
This is one area of punishment which
continually makes the newspapers and magazines.
Cases
against the use of corporal punishment have been carried -all
the way to the Supreme Court of the United States.
Several
committees have been organized to fight the use of corporal
punishment including a national group called the National
Committee to Abolish Corporal Punishment in the Schools.
Corporal punishment is a major source of conflict now and is
one of the many questions on which student teachers must take
an attitudinal position.
In this section of Chapter Two,
some of the legal principles of corporal punishment were discussed, and some of the studies concerning corporal punishment
were reviewed.
A brief history of the use of corporal
punishment was presented.
114
Chapter Three described the instruments used to gather
the data and the subjects used in the study.
A brief des-
cription of the subjects used in the study was given as well
as the schools where the subjects were placed to do their
student teaching.
Also, a brief background concerning the
semantic differential technique and the Purdue Master AttiThis
tude Scale was presented with some relevant studies.
chapter also described the procedures as recommended by the
Research and Evaluation Center of North Texas State University that were used to treat the data.
The Two Way
Analysis of Covariance and the t-Test for Correlated Means
were used with the semantic differential technique,
and the
Two Way Analysis of Covariance was used with the Purdue
Master Attitude Scale.
The level of significance
for rejecting or accepting the hypotheses was
.05.
selected
One note
of caution must be noted in interrupting the findings of this
study.
The experimental group consisted of volunteers who
knew they would be going to the inner city school situation.
The fact implies that strict random sample techniques were
not completely employed.
Looking at the results of this study, one is led to
believe that the attitudes on punishment and the use of
punishment that student teachers have when they begin student
teaching change during the student teaching experience.
control group of student teachers in the suburban schools
The
115
a value for
made a significant change on one concept and had
P of 0.07 for two other concepts.
The experimental group of
significant
student teachers in the inner city schools made a
showed a value for
change on four of the eight concepts and
P of 0.06 on one other concept.
This belief is reinforced
by the fact that two of the concepts were significant beyond
the 0.01 level of significance with values for P of 0.0073
and 0.002 respectively.
Three other concepts had values for
All
P close to 0.01 with values of 0.0109, 0.011 and 0.02.
of this implies that the attitudes on these concepts did
change.
Hypothesis one stated that an analysis of the semantic
differential technique results on the posttest and pretest
would reveal that no significant change in attitude toward
punishment and the use of punishment had taken place.
This
are
hypothesis must be rejected when some of the concepts
considered.
In order to give results of the study,
each of
the eight sub-hypotheses must be discussed and then related
conto hypotheses one, two, and three, since they are also
cerned with the same eight concepts.
Hypothesis two stated that an analysis of the Semantic
Differential Technique on the pretest and posttest utilizing
the Two Way Analysis of Covariance would reveal that student
teachers in the large inner city schools have no significantly greater change in attitude toward punishment and the
116
use of punishment than those in the suburban schools on
each of the eight concepts.
Hypothesis three stated that an analysis of the Semantic
Differential Technique results on the pretest and posttest
utilizing the Two Way Analysis of Covariance would reveal
that there was no significant difference in the change of
attitude of male and female students on each of the eight
concepts.
Sub-hypothesis 1-a stated there would be no significant
difference between the attitude scores of student teachers
toward the concept of teacher spanking.
The results show
that the control group had no significant change
(P=0.6959),
the experimental group had no significant change
(P=0.6071),
the experimental group did not have a more significant change
than the control group
(P=0.6477), and the males in both
groups did not have a significant change
P=0.3570).
(P=0.1626 and
The only significant change that did occur was
the control group females
(P=0.0041).
below the accepted level of 0.05.
This was significantly
Sub-hypothesis 1-a would
have to be accepted, hypothesis two would have to be accepted,
and hypothesis three would have to be accepted.
Sub-hypothesis 1-b stated that there would be no significant difference between the attitude scores of student
teachers toward the concept of principal
spanking.
The
results show that the control group of student teachers had
117
no significant change.
a significant change
The experimental group did experience
(P=0.ll).
The experimental group did
not have a more significant change than the control group.
The males and control group females did not have a significant change, but the experimental group females did reach a
significant level
(P=0.030).
Sub-hypothesis 1-b would have
to be accepted, hypothesis two accepted, and hypothesis
three accepted.
Sub-hypothesis 1-c stated that there would be no significant difference between the attitude scores of student
"Sit down and shut up!"
teachers' using the phrase,
The
control group did not reach the accepted level of significance, but it must be noted that a value for P of 0.07 was
reached.
change
The experimental group did make a significant
(P=0.Oll).
The experimental group did not change
significantly more than the control group.
The males did
not change significantly and the control group females did
not change significantly.
The experimental group females
did change significantly with a P value obtained of 0.030.
Hypothesis 1-c would have to be accepted.
Hypothesis two
would have to be accepted, and hypothesis three accepted.
Sub hypothesis 1-d stated that there would be no significant difference between the attitude scores of student
teachers toward the concept,
school."
"Stay in thirty minutes after
Analysis of the data indicates one would have to
118
accept hypothesis 1-d, two and three, but it must be noted
that a P of 0.087 was obtained concerning the difference between the two groups of student teachers.
Sub-hypothesis 1-e stated that there would be no significant difference between the attitude scores of student
teachers toward the concept of the student teachers'
saying,
"Stay in after the class period until everyone leaves the
room."
The control group had a significant change.
experimental group had a very significant change
The
(P=0.0073),
though it did not change significantly more than the control
group.
The males in both groups did not make a significant
change, whereas the females in the experimental group did
and in the control group did not.
Analysis of the data indi-
cates one must accept hypotheses 1-e, two, and three.
Sub-hypothesis 1-f stated that there would be no significant difference between the attitude scores of the
student teachers toward the concept of the student teachers'
saying,
"Be quiet, or copy a page out of the dictionary."
Analysis of the data indicates that all three of the hypotheses must be accepted.
Sub-hypothesis 1-g stated that there would
be no sig-
nificant difference between the attitude scores of student
teachers toward the concept,
"Stand out in the hall by the
119
class door for the rest of the period."
Strictly speaking,
the control group and the experimental group did not have a
significant change, but it must be noted that the value of
P for the control group was 0.07 and for the experimental
group 0.06.
The experimental group did not change sig-
nificantly more than the control group.
The value for P of
0.0228 indicates that either the males in the control group
changed significantly more than the females in the experimental group, or the males in the experimental group changed
more than the females in the control group.
Using all the
data and the adjusted means indicates the interaction is
between the experimental males and the control females.
An interaction between sexes is significant.
The control
males did not experience a significant change in attitude
concerning this concept.
The control females did not have
The experimental
a significant change on this concept.
females did not experience a significant change of attitude
on this concept.
Analysis of the data indicates that hy-
pothesis 1-g must be accepted, hypothesis two accepted,
and hypothesis three accepted.
Sub-hypothesis 1-h stated that there would be no significant change in the attitude scores
toward the concept,
principal."
of student teachers
"Either be quiet, or I will go get the
The control group did not show a significant
change of attitude on this concept.
The experimental group
120
did have a significant change of attitude on this concept,
though it did not have a more significant change than the
control group.
The control males did not experience a sig-
nificant change nor did the control females.
The experi-
mental group males did not experience a significant change,
but the experimental group females did experience a change
almost significant at the 0.01 level of significance
(P=0.0ll).
Based on the gathered data, hypothesis 1-h
must be accepted, hypothesis two accepted,
and hypothesis
three accepted.
Hypothesis four stated that an analysis of the Purdue
Attitude Scale Toward Any Practice on the pretest and posttest utilizing the Two Way Analysis of Covariance would
reveal that student teachers in the large inner city schools
had no significantly greater change in attitude toward
corporal punishment in the classroom than those student
teachers in the suburban schools.
Results of the data indi-
cate that this hypothesis must be accepted, as this did not
even approach the level of significance.
Findings
(1)
Student teachers in the large inner city schools
did not have a significantly greater change in attitude
toward punishment and the use of punishment than student
teachers in the suburban schools.
121
(2) The Two-Way Analysis of Covariance revealed no
significant difference in the change of attitude toward
punishment and the use of punishment of male and female
student teachers.
(3)
Utilizing the Two-Way Analysis of Covariance for
an analysis of the Purdue Attitude Scale revealed that student
teachers in the large inner city schools had no significantly
greater change in attitude toward corporal punishment than
the student teachers in the suburban schools.
(4) A number of significant differences were found concerning the eight concepts of punishment and their relation
to hypothesis one and its sub-hypotheses.
These differences
were discussed in Chapter Four and in the preceeding section
of this chapter.
Conclusions
In examining the results of this study and keeping in
mind the limitations of this study, an obvious conclusion is
that the experimental group of student teachers' attitudes
concerning punishment and the use of punishment in the classroom did change significantly during the student teaching
experience.
Some items which will be pointed out later in
this section lead one to conclude that the specific rules of
the school, or perhaps even the specific supervising teacher's
rules and general attitudes toward punishment and the use of
122
punishment are a major influence on the student teachers'
attitudes.
Both groups of student teachers changed significantly
on one or more of the concepts listed.
The control group
changed significantly on only one concept, but the experimental
group changed significantly on four concepts and had a value
for P of .06 on one other concept.
Therefore,
the major con-
clusion made here is that the inner city schools do cause
significant change of more attitudes than the suburban
schools.
The Two-Way Analysis of Covariance results showed a
significant change on the interaction section of one of the
concepts.
Looking at the complete study, one would conclude
that this interaction was probably the control females and
the experimental males, or the experimental females and the
control males, the probable reason for this significant
change being that the females in both groups changed on more
concepts than the males in the groups.
Looking further at
the data leads one to conclude that this significant change
was between the control females and the experimental males.
This conclusion is based on the information gained by using
the adjusted means and the t-Test for Correlated Means.
Both groups experienced a significant change on the
concept of keeping the student after class until everyone
leaves the room.
A conclusion made from this fact is that
the student teachers may want an opportunity to talk to the
123
student and solve the problems on a one to one basis.
Also,
in
this seems to be an accepted practice by many teachers
the classroom and accepted by many principals as a way to
solve discipline problems.
This tends to support the con-
has a
clusion that the atmosphere of the particular school
strong influence on the student teachers' attitudes.
Both groups had attitude changes on the concept of
experimental
placing the student out in the hall with the
group coming closer to significance than the control group.
This tended to be more accepted in the inner city school than
the suburban schools by the administration, but both groups
of schools discouraged this.
Therefore, again the specific
rules of the schools tend to have an influence on the attitudes.
Attitudes toward corporal punishment seem to change
more for the female student teacher than for the male.
Both
the control group females and the experimental group females
had significant changes of attitude concerning corporal
punishment.
The experimental females showed a very signifi-
cant change concerning principal spanking, while the control
females showed a very significant change concerning teacher
spanking.
Again specific school rules seem to come into the
picture.
In the inner city school only a principal or vice-
some
principal can administer corporal punishment, whereas in
suburban schools the teacher may administer the punishment.
Based on the discussion, a conclusion drawn is that females
124
are unsure of the use of corporal punishment, while males
have no trouble with corporal punishment.
The student teachers'
general attitude concerning
corporal punishment did not change significantly as measured
by the Purdue Master Attitude Scale, perhaps because a majority of the student teachers were familiar with the local
school and the local attitudes toward corporal punishment.
Teachers in this particular area usually accept the idea of
corporal punishment as a last resort type of discipline.
As
one study pointed out in the survey of literature, teachers
tend to use corporal punishment in the same manner as they
observed it being used when they were in school.
Thus, if
an observation is made that the principal does the spanking,
or the teacher is expected to do the spanking, the student
teacher may adopt to this as observed or tend to go along
with this type of punishment.
Corporal punishment tends to be accepted without reservation by most people including teachers and administrators;
thus,
an issue is not evident, and student teachers do not
change their general attitude concerning corporal punishment.
The student teachers know fairly well what to expect, and
little or no pressure is placed on the student teacher to
make any changes.
Therefore, a conclusion reached is that
student teachers have set general attitudes concerning
corporal punishment and may vary these attitudes only to the
extent that the attitudes conform to what they have observed
125
in their previous experiences and what they do observe in
the specific school where they are doing their student
teaching.
From an analysis of the data and within the limitations
of this study, the following conclusions can be reached that
are relative to the Teacher Education Program at North Texas
State University, and in particular the student teaching
phase:
(1) The attitudes a student teacher has concerning
punishment and the use of punishment in the classroom when he begins student teaching, do significantly change during student teaching;
(2) The attitudes of student teachers in inner city
schools do not change significantly more than
student teachers in suburban schools as measured
by this study;
(3) When the sex and location of the student teachers
is taken into consideration, no significant difference is noticed except on one concept, which had
one sex in one group differing with the opposite
sex in the other group;
(4) Female student teachers have more changes, and the
changes are more significant than those of the male
student teachers in both groups;
(5) While student teachers do not change significantly
more in the inner city schools
than in the suburban
126
schools, the student teachers in inner city schools
do change significantly on more concepts than
student teachers in suburban schools.
(6)
Student teachers, in their punitive action, are
trying to reach the individual student and discuss actions as well as punish, as evidenced by
both groups having very significant change
(control
group, P=0.0109, experimental group, P=0.0073) on
the concept of keeping the student after class until
everyone has left;
(7) Corporal punishment tends to be more of a problem
for female student teachers than male student
teachers;
(8) The inner city student teachers are more dependent
on the administration, especially the principal,
than the suburban student teachers tend to be;
(9) The student teachers' general attitude toward
corporal punishment does not change during student
teaching, probably because this attitude is strongly
set by the established attitude of this locale, and
the majority of the two groups were from this
general area;
(10) Specific rules in the particular school in which
the student teacher does his teaching have a strong
influence on the student teacher.
127
Recommendations
The following recommendations for research and practices
are presented for consideration:
specific
(1) A study should be made to determine if the
rules and attitudes of the specific schools in which
the student teacher is placed have the strongest
effect on the attitudes of the student teacher.
(2) A study of student teachers and their attitudes
toward corporal punishment should be made using two
groups.
One group should be from a background in
which no corporal punishment in the school has been
practiced, and the other group from a background
where corporal punishment has been accepted.
The
results of the change or no change of attitude
toward corporal punishment should be of interest.
(3) Continued studies should be made to determine if
female student teachers'
attitude toward punishment
and the use of punishment needs more attention before
they go into the classroom.
(4) More studies should be made in order to gain knowledge
to prepare the student teachers for the problems of
the inner city school.
(5)
Continued studies should be made to determine what
factors affect the student teachers'
attitude toward
punishment and the use of punishment in the classroom.
APPENDIX
ADJUSTED MEANS OF VARIABLES
1-8 FOR MALE
AND FEMALE STUDENT TEACHERS
Variable Number
Male
Female
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
26.2326
36.8241
35.7412
37.7872
42.8082
26.2640
31.4089
34.4051
25.1012
33.5506
35.7251
33.8179
42.1460
22.5399
28.9358
35.0114
ADJUSTED MEANS OF VARIABLES 1-8 FOR CONTROL
GROUP AND EXPERIMENTAL
GROUP
OF STUDENT TEACHERS
Variable Number
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
128
Male
Female
24.2059
35.7109
35.8116
31.4153
40.8805
23.1864
29.6569
36.7164
26.9831
33.8474
35. 6580
38.9632
43.7949
24.7153
30.1136
33.0021
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